PLANTATIONLABORERBEFORETHE CIVILWAR
PAUL S. TAYLOR*
Unisersityof Catifornia
The Virginia Company of London laid the
foundationfor the plantationsystem in British
North Americain 1618. In that year it began
turningover to privateorganizersand investorswhetherstockholdersin the parent companyor
not the tasks of gettinglaborersto Virglniaand
of putting them at workon the land. It held out
the incentiveof privateprofitby offeringland in
amountsproportionalto the numberof laborers
they wouldtransportandput to work.2
The plan found wide acceptance. Private
adventurersgraspedat the offerof land, some as
individuals,othersjoinedin associations.Administrators,firstin Virginiaand laterin othercolonies,
foundit easy and naturalto deal with a few men
of energy and means, willing to undertakethe
transplantationof many. In this way they could
* Agthor'sNote: Originallythe word "plantation" turn over to others a large share of the responmeant any transplantationof people from the Old sibilityfor gettingout a marketablesurplusabove
World to the New. Soon it came to distinguishone the cost of maintainingthe laborers,for mainform of agriculturalenterprise from another; viz., taining order in the colony, and for promoting
plantationfromfarm.The moderndefinitionof a plan- colonization.
tation by C. O. Brannen as a "unifiedagricultural Thus in order to exploit the resourcesof the
organizationof considerablesize under one manageNew Worldrapidly,one set of menwas established
ment, of practicallya continuoustract of land, operand anotherset
ated as a singleunit with respectto the controlof labor as ownersand managersof land,
the manual
perform
to
transported
was
men
of
and products"is serviceablefor any period from the
arrived
masters
private
of
servants
Erst
The
labor.
emancito
Prior
twentieth.
the
to
century
seventeenth
pation most slave propertyin the South was engaged at Jamestownin 1619;somewerewhiteEuropeans
as part of large-scalecapitalisticenterprisesin produc- under indenture, others were black Africans
ing one or another of the three or four staple crops. purchasedfrom a Dutch privateer.Before long,
Althoughsome free laborersand someindenturedserv- servants bound by indenture or custom, and
ants worked on plantations,and some slaves worked ultimately slaves, became the main reliancefor
elsewherethan on plantations, e.g., on medium-size
laboron colonialplantations.
farms or as mechanics,domesticservants,etc., "planFor two centuriesand a half laborersto serve
tation laborer"and "slave"came to be virtually synon plantationswere furnishedwithin the twin
onymous.
This articleemphasizeslaborin the nineteenthcen- legal frameworksof servitude and of slavery.
tury, when the plantationsystem was most fully de- Of these two, indenturedservicecame to an end
velopedunderslaveryand for which documentationis first. It declinedlate in the eighteenthcentury
most ample.Main relianceis on journalsof the period
disappearedcompletely in the early ninethat were directedlargely to planters,concernedwith and
Aroundthe closeof the eighteenthcentury
teenth.
I
view.
of
point
their
reflecting
and
their problems
acknowledgegratefullythe financialaid of the Bureau it seemed for a time that legalizedslavery too
This is the theory of free labor. There is nothing
patriarchal,nothing paternal, nothing filial in it. It
is a relationof equals.It presumesa capacityof intelligence on the part of the servant equal to that of the
master. This capacity, innate, though perhaps not
educatedand developed,really exists, for both belong
to the same race. And in proportionas it is educated
and developed,the dissensionsand alienationsbetween
masterand servantare increased.This is the inherent
defect of free labor. There is no cure for it. It is seen
in its most offensiveform in the free States of this
Continent. Of all the annoyancesof life, a Yankee
"help" is, perhaps, the most annoying industrious
it may be, but insolent,capricious,uncertain,levelling
and unthankful.... It is impossiblethat there shall
be any other agreeableand effective system of labor
than the patriarchal,whetherit be among similaror
diSerentraces.1
of Businessand EconomicResearchof the University
to GeorgeYeardley,"in SusanKings2 "Instructions
of California,the RockefellerFoundation,and the John
of the VirginiaCompanyof LonRecords
The
ed.,
bury,
Foundation.
Haynes
Dora
and
R. Haynes
don (4 vols., Washington,1933), 3: 98-109.
19:169 (1861).
1So?thernC?xltivator,
2
AGRICULTURAL
EIISTORY
might expire. Discerningsouthernplanters and est is really going over to the side of morality.
statesmenrecognizedelements of economicand The value of the slave is every day lessening;
political conflict inherentin slavery. The sheer his burdenon his masterdaily increasing.Interest
weight of increasingeconomic losses indicated is, therefore,prepariIlgthe dispositionto be just;
that many masters would not offer serious re- and this will be goadedfromtime to time by the
spirit of the slaves. This is easily
sistance to emancipation.Some even joined the insurrectionary
attacks of moralistsupon the institution.Henry quelledin its first efforts;but frombeinglocal it
Laurens, the South Carolinaslave factor and will becomegeneral,and wheneverit does, it will
planter,was amongthe earliestof these to record rise more formidableafter every defeat, until we
moral oppositionto slavery. In 1176 he wrote shallbe forced,afterdreadfulscenesandsufferings,
his son, "I am devisingmeans for manumitting to releasethem in theirown way, which,without
many of them, and for cutting off the entail of such sufferingswe might now model after our
slavery. Great powersoppose me-the laws and own convenience.'6
customsof my country,my own and the avarice WhenJeffersonwrote that interestwas "going
of my countrymen.What will my childrensay if over to the side of morality,"he did not realize
I deprive them of so much estate? These are that already,for a full decade,strongforceshad
begun to push in the opposite direction.Sugar
difficulties,but not insuperable."3
GeorgeWashingtonfound that he had to sup- productionadmirablyadaptedby the high overport too manyslavesat MountVernonwhenonly head costs of processingto concentrationin large
one third of them were any longer capable of plantations, was expandingrapidly where soil
performingfield work. As a result of declining and climate were favorable.Cotton production
importationsof young slaves from Africaand of was expandingeven more, stimulatedby the inthe exportof primeslaves to work new fields in ventionof the cottongin. By 1804,a decadeafter
the Lower South, the average age of Virginia Eli Whitney'sgin was patented,cottonproduction
and still more
slaves increasedrapidly.Besides,a decadeof low had increasedmorethan eightfoldX
prices was making specializedtobacco planting cotton was demanded.A series of inventionsin
manufacture
of cotton
so unattractivethat Washingtonwas unwilling Englandwasrevolutionizing
to abandonmixed or generalfarmingto resume textilesand the worldwas about to be clothedin
it. In 1794 he wrote, "Wereit not then, that I cheap cotton cloth.
Somesouthernplantersweretornby the conflict
am principledagt. selling negros,as you would
do cattle in the market,I would not, in twelve between economic interest and moraIs.Among
monthsfrom this date, be possessedof one, as a these was John Randolph of Virginia. In his
slave. I shall be happilymistaken,if they are not youngerdays he deprecatedthe institution,but
foundto be a very troublesomespeciesof property by 1826he was sayingthat he had workedhimself
ere many yearspass over our heads...."4 Three out of his early oppositionto "the subjugation
years later he wrote to his nephew saying, 'sI of one man'swill to that of another."7Two years
wish from my soul that the legislatureof this earlier,fearing abolition,he told the House of
State, couldsee the policy of gradualabolitionof Representativesthat the cry of Patrick Henry
slavery.It mightpreventmuchfuturemischief."5 in the Conventionof Virginia"still rung in his
ThomasJeffersonwrotein 1805that '. . . inter- ears:'They may liberateeveryone of your slaves.
The Congresspossessthe powerand will exercise
3 A SouthCarol«na
ProtestAgainstSlavary:Being A
LetterfromHenryIzurens, SecondPresidentof theCon- it."' Whennortherninterestsproposedin Congress
tinental Congress,to his Son, ColonClJohn Laurans; to raise the tariffon WOO1J Randolphattackedit
DatedChorleston,
S. C., August14th,1776 (New York, as a blow against the profitabilityof slavery?
1861), 20. See also Henry W. Farnam,Chaptersin the formasterswouldhaveto pay moreforthe clothing
SIistoryof SocialLegislatoon
in the UnitedStatesto *860 of their slaves. He chargedthat the northerners'
(Washington,1938), Chapter 13, "Slavery Down to proposal was} in fact, taking 'the first step
the Civil War."
towards" emancipation,preparing"to produce
4 "Letterto AlexanderSpotswood,"
in John C. Fitz- such a state of things as will insure,in case the
patrick, ed., The Writingsof GeorgeWashington(39
vols.>Washington,1931 44), 34: 47-48.
6 WashingtonIrving, Life of Washington,
quoted in
WalterH. Mazyck, GeorgeWashingtonand the Negro
(Washington,1932), 133.
6 John P. Foley, ed., The JeffersonianCydopedia
(New Yorkand London,1900),Item 7932,p. 811.
7 Registerof DebGesin Congress,19 Cong., 1 sess.,
1825-1826(2 vols., Washington,1826), 2:118.
PLANTATION
LABORERBEFORETHE CIVQL
WAR
3
slave shall not elope fromhis master-his master distanceof processingplants and to work larger
will runawayfromhim.'?
gangs under the watchful eye of overseers.So,
Randolphminimizedthe profitabilityof slavery in order to attain the lowest costs per unit of
to masters.He arguedthat "Ot1a fair average" productfor labor, for land, for supervision,and
the "profitsof slave labor had been, for a long for processing,financing,and marketing,planters
time on the decrease,"until they "scarcelyre- wereaggressivein occupyingthe best landsof the
imbursedthe expenseof the slave, includingthe South.
helpless ones, whether from infancy or age."8
The spur of these incentives producedrapid
But even as Randolphspoke,planterswerecarry- response.By 1790plantersalreadyhad achieved
ing the institutionwestwardto new cotton lands a high concentrationof slaveholdings.In North
and the slave population was growing rapidly Carolina59 per cent of all slaveswereheld in lots
as a resultof naturalincreaseand illicit importa- of ten or more,in Maryland65 percent,in Virginia
tions. The "average"profit may have been low, 72 per cent, and in South Carolina80 per cent.
as claimedby Randolph,but the vigorwith which The processof concentrationcontinuedright up
planterspursuedprofitsindicatesthat for many to the eve of emancipation.l°
they must have been high. A quarter-century Tobacco plantations generally operated with
later a leading proslavery journal, De Bow's smallernumbersof slaves than any of the others.
Rewew,declaredit was doubtlessthe fact "that, Grayshowsfrom the censusof 1860that median
at the era of the revolution,many of the Southern slaveholdingsin selected tobacco areas ranged
states began to feel the burthenof unproductive from 14 in portionsof Kentuckyto 28 in south
slaves, and that a growingdispositionto be clear central Virginia.In areas of poorersoils cotton
of them manifesteditself simultaneouslywith the plantationsused smallergangsof slavesthan were
mammon-prompted
philanthropyof England. A common in most tobacco areas. The median
great danger was thus springingup, when the number of slaves per owner in northwestern
inventionsof the cotton-gin,the cardingmachine, Alabamawas only 10. But wheresoilswerebetter,
the spinning-jenrly,and the steam-engine,com- the average slaveholding rose far abourethe
bined to weave that net-workof cotton which numbersusedby tobaccoplanters.On the alluvial
formed an indissolublecord, binding the black, lands of the TennesseeRiver Valley the median
who was threatenedto be cast off, to human holdingwas 32 slaves, in the fertile black prairie
progress."9
of Alabamait was49, andin the Yazoo-Mississippi
Plantationagriculturehad someof the economic Delta it was 55. In the sea-islandcotton and rice
characteristicswhich concentrate industry in regionof South Carolinathe medianholdingrose
factories.The high overheadcosts of sugarmills, to 70 slaves; in the sugar country of Louisiana
cotton gins,rice irrigationsystems,and to a lesser it was 81 In particularcountiesproducingcotton
extent tobaccobarns,exertedan upwardinfluence or sugar, concentrationreached extremes. In
upon the size of slaveholdingsper plantation,for Issaquena County on the Mississippi Delta,
the greaterthe total production,the less the pro- where cotton was the staple, the median slaveportion of the cost of mills, gins, ditches, and holdingwas 118,andin RapidesParish,Louisiana,
barns that had to be borne by each unit of the where cotton and some sugar were produced,
crop. Concelltrationof financing,marketing,and the median stood at 125. In AscensionParish,
supervisionof labor offered similar advantages. which specializedin sugar, the median number
Once there were enoughslaves to requirespecial reacheda peakof 175slaves.ll
arrangements
for supervision,suchas employment Virtuallythree quartersof the free population
of drivers and overseers,it became economical of the South were membersof familieswith no
to work the maximumnumberof laborersthese directownershipinterestin slavery.Nevertheless,
men could supervise.Fertile soil was much more most of them, except in special areas like east
favorable to plantation organizationthan poor Tennessee,supporteda war defendingthe plantasoil because fertility made it possible both to tion labor institution which dominated their
concentrate heavy production within a short agriculture.Even among the one fourth of the
8 AnnaZsof the Congressof the United Stotes, 18 Cong.,
10Lewis C. Gray,Historyof Agriculture
in theSouth1 sess.,1823-1824(2 volsW,
Washington,
1856),2: 2256. ern UnitedStatesto 1860 (2 vols., Washington,1933),
9De Bow's Reuiew, 10:132 (1851);15:8-9 (1853); 1:531.
Southern Cultivator, 14: 203(1856).
11Ibid.. 531-537-
4
AGRICULTURALHISTORY
freepopulationwith directinterestin slaveholding He "was patronizedby the benignplantersand
ownershipwas concentratedin a few hands. As contemned by the heedless,X'writes Spencer
few as 10,993slaveholders,or threeper cent of all Bassett. "He might belong to the same church
owners in 1860, held around one fourth of all with the planter,but he usually preferredsome
plantation slaves. These owned an average of plain form of worship, as in the churchesof
around90 slaves each. A single ownerin South Methodistsor Baptists. If the two found themCarolina held more than a thousand sIaves. selves worshippingin the same place they sat
Twenty-fiveper cent of the owners,with 10 to apartquite distinctly.Theirchildrendid not visit
50 slaves each, ownedone half of all slaves. The one anothernor intermarry.Each was a class in
remaining72 per cent of the slaveholders,who society and betweenthem in social matterswas
held the remainingone fourth of all slaves in a frozenoceaIl. . . If he did not like this prospect,
groupsof 9 or less, weremostlyoutsidethe planta- and sometimeshe was in revolt against it, he
might turn to the frontierwhich always had a
tion system.l2
Supervisionof laborerson plantationsgenerally welcomefor a man with courageand industry.>'14
was in the handsof overseers.In 1850the census
Of the overseersrelationswith the slaves who
reported 18,859 overseers,of whom 16,908, or laboredunderhimXBassettwrites:
nine tenthsof all the overseersin the nation,were
in thirteen southernstates and the District of Slight as was the respect the overseerhad from the
Columbia.The largest numberof overseerswas planter it was greaterthan the respect he had from
the slaves. To them he was the master'sleft hand, the
in Virginia, 3,747. Next came Mississippiwith burdenlayer and the symbol of the hardest features
2,3242Georgiawith 2,166, Alabamawith 1,849, of bondage.From his decisionsan appeal was to the
South Carolinawith 1,823, and Louisianawith owner who as a dispenserof mercy and forgiveness
1}808.These sis states reported13,717overseers had some d,egreeof affectionfrom the slaves. . . the
or 73 per cent of the nationaltotal. Seven other slave was not proudof his overseernor boastedof his
southern states and the District of Columbia overseer'svirtues.It was the fate of this man,standing
reported3,191 overseers,or less than the number in the placeof the owner,to absorbthe shockof bitterness felt by the slaves for their enslaversand in so
in Virginiaalone.l3
The larger the plantationthe more likely the doingkeep it away from those who werein reality the
ownerwas to need an overseer.Absenteeowner- responsibleparties.16
ship was frequent and even resident planters
Overseerssprangfrom the small farmerclass
often had overseers.The overseerusuallyresided or from the landless 7hites, and many were
on the plantationhe managed,but sometimeshe indenturedservants or their descendants.16A
managed several, riding from one to another. few amongthem saved moneyand boughtslaves,
Abovehimmightbe a manageror agent,especially perhapsrentedthem out for hire until eventually
if the ownerwasan absentee.Onlargerplantations they could becomeplanters
the overseerwas like a factory superintendent; The lack of good overseerswas a matter for
on smallerplantations,particularlyon those on frequentcomplaint."But where are such overwhich the masterwas resident,he was morelike seersto be found?"asked the SovtherBCxltivator
a boss. If the plantationwas very large, there in 1846.
werefield bossesor ;'drivers"underthe overseer.
Often these field bosses themselveswere slaves, Can they be picked up at grog shops, muster fields,
and moreseveretaskmastersthan the overseers. and politicalbarbecues,wherethe youngmen destined
The overseerwas a man of great importanceto to be the planter'sagents are trained to a sufficient
both masterand slaves. He was in a dass of his opiniorlof their abilities}and especiallyto their vast
own above the slave and beneath the master. privilegesas "free, independent,and equal citizens"
l2Ibid., 481483, 531. See also SouJkernCuStivator, 14 John Bassett, The SoutherrPlarVationOserseer
(Northampton,Mass., 1925), 2-3. See also De Bow's
Appendis,17:84 (1859).
Reoifnv,
8: 50 (1850).
13 U. S. CensllsOffice,7th Cens4s1850,p. lxxiv. Pos16Bassett, PlantotionOverseer,
3-5.
sibly the concentrationof overseersin the South was
16 For an examplefrom the eighteenthcentury, see
even greaterthan the censusfiguressuggest.The term
"overseer"may well have included persons bearing Allen D. Candler,comp., The ColonsslRecordsof the
that designationin factories,and these were largelyin State of Georgia(26 vols., Atlanta, 1904-16), 5.475476.
the North.
PLANTATIONLABORER BEFORE THE CIVIL WAR
5
of this republic,who are not to stoop to be any "man's
man,"or to do any man'sbusinesseven when paid for
it, unless allowed to do it after their own fashion.
The melancholyfact is that our region is nearly
entirely destitute of even tolerably good overseers.
And what is worse, they seem to be growingscarcer
every year.... Young men are trainedfor clerkships,
for superintendentsin factones, as master workmen
in all trades, to be junior partnersin all professions.
But no one is broughtup to be an overseer.Very few
will take that employmentwho can get any other.17
heretoforemade to the hand, and generallythe employer unfortunatelyrecognizesthe justice of such
claims.
No wonder,then, that the overseerdesiresto have
entirecontrolof the plantation.No wonderhe opposes
all experimentsX
or, if they are persistedin, neglects
them; presseseverythingat the end of the lash; pays
no attention to the sick, except to keep them in the
field as long as possible,and drivesthem out again at
the first moment,and forces sucklersand breedersto
the utmost. He has no other interest than to make a
big cotton crop. And if this does not please you and
It was common, especially among absentee induceyou to increasehis wages,he knowsmen it will
planters,to estimate the worth of overseersand please, and secure him a situation with.'9
to rewardthem mainly accordingto the amount
of cottonproducedundertheirsupervision.In time
this devotion to a single crop broughta train of
evils to planter,plantation,and slave alike.Thus
in 1844 the ColgmbiaSouthCaroliniancriticized
both planters and overseers:
It seems scarcely credible that any man owIiing a
plantation will so abandon it and his people on it,
entirelyto a hireling,no matterwhat his confidencein
him is. Yet there are a numberwho do it habitually;
and I have even knownoverseersto stipulatethat their
employersshould not give any order,nor interferein
any way with their managementof the plantation.
There are also some proprietorsof considerableproperty and pretensionto being planters,who give their
overseera proportionof the crop for his wages; thus
bnbing him by the strongest iIlducementsof selfinterest,to overstrainand workdowneverythingcommitted to his charge.l8
Another writer from South Carolina took a similar
view:
My idea of a "finecrop"is, first,an increaseof negroes;
second,enoughmade on the plantation,of meat, corn,
etc., to feed everythingabundantly;third,an improvement, rather than a deterioration,in the productive
quality of the lands;fourth,the mules,horses,farming
utensilsand fencesall in first rate orderby Christmas;
and then, as muchcottonas can be madeand gathered,
underthesecircumstances.AndI will ventureto assert,
that no planterwill thrive, in the long run, who does
not make fine cropsof this sort.... In the vocabulary
of overseers,a "finecrop"referswhollyto a finecotton
crop.They boast of nothingelse at the muster-ground,
and road-working,where they carry with perhaps
commendablevanity, the first form, first bloom, and
first grown boll. When they seek a place, they rest
their claimsentirelyon the numberof bags they have
7SouthernCultivator4: 1(K (1846), 18: 287 (1860).
ColumbiaSouth Carolinian,quoted in ibid., 2:
107 (1844);4: 125 (1846).
18
These attacks on overseers, which were frequentX
evoked some defenses. James Barbour, the
president of the AgriculturalSociety of Albemarle,
Virginia, undertook to discuss overseers in his
annual address in 1825. He said the
treatmentof our managers,or overseers... is one of the
most difficultas well as perplexingobjects, on which
we have to act. From the almost universalcomplaints
on this subject, and the continual changes that are
taking place among them there must be something
radicallywrong in this part of our administration.I
have endeavouredto explore the causes, and I will
proceedto give you the resultof my reflections.Undue
prejudicesare indulged against this class of people.
That such a class is necessaryto the state of society,
their encistence
and employmentunquestionablyprove.
A prejudiceagainstthat whichis indispensable,cannot
be defendedon rationalgrounds.That thereare vicious
men in this class is unquestionable.But are there not
vicious employerstoo? And it is very well worth thc
inquiry,whetherthis veryprejudice,andits consequent
ill treatment,is not calculatedto producethe causes
of complainton whoseexistencethis prejudiceseeks to
justify itself. Penurious salariesuspicion-harsh
treatment,tend to degradation,and debasement.Add
to this, a continualrestlessness,and a dispositionto
an annual change and you have summed up the
general treatment to which they are exposed. Thus
you move on in one continuedcircle, and not unfrequently from bad to worse. We are all aware of the
dilapidationof a tenementwhich changeshandsevery
year. It cannot he expected,either from an overseer,
or a tenant, that he will take muchheed to the future,
in which he does not feel himselfat all interested.Indeed, it is impossiblethat he can succeedso well the
first year. He has to learn the wishes of his employer,
and the dispositionof the handsunderhim;the capacity
of the latter for labour,the differentkinds of soil he
has to cultivate,and a long list of detailswhichcannot
be acquiredin a year. Why not try a differentcourse?
In my own case, and I draw frequentlyon my own
19
SoxthernCultivator,
2: 123 (1844).
AGRICETURE ESTORY
6
experience,for one fact is worth a hundredtheoriesI give liberalwages, abundantfinding,and many indulgences.I treat them kindly, and make them feel a
respect for themselves. I avoid frequent change. In
returnI have receivedhonesty and zeal. My principal
managerhas lived with me betweentwenty and thirty
years. I cannot ascribemy successaltogetherto accident; fortunemay, for a short time, exercisean influence; but uninterruptedsuccess, for a long series of
years, must be rootedin a deeperand morepermanent
cause-and instead of grudgingthem their wages, I
rejoice to see that while they are securingmy independenceX
they are acquiringone for themselvesX
due
to their honesty, industry and zeal.20
The Sovthern Cullivator,which often criticized
overseers,and planters for not supervisingthe
overseers,uponrareoccasionundertooka practical
defenseof the latter. In the "greatdeal written"
about overseers,it acknowledged"a great injustice"had been done them.
Thus is it from No. 1 to No. 144, all throughthe
multiplicationtable. I care not in what way you examine it, it is all the same. Complaining,complaining
frombeginningto end. Can'tyou give a wordof advice
to planters,not to listen to negro news; and particularly not to ask for news. I admit the master is the
negro'sprotector,and he ought to do it at all hazards.
But, we are on questionableground,and had well move
circumspectly.An overseerwortha fip, will governthe
negroesplacedunderhim and if the masteror mistress,
picks up news or inquiresfor it, whetherthroughfirst
or second-hand,they will as certainlyhear things unpleasantand cause the overseerdouble troubleto get
negroes in a bee-line of duty. Every one conversant
with negro character,knows well their proclivity for
lying and stealing.
Make inquiry of them, and the ownercan soon get
a budget of news, sufficientto hand any overseer.A
man's character is precious, even if he is an
OVERSEER.2a
As the end of the Confederacycame in sight
early in 1865, a letter writer to the SoZherrs
Cultivatorblamed the overseer along with the
planterfor the intensityof northernfeelingagainst
slavelabor.
They are sometimeshonest and sometimesnot, like
every otherclass of people.Any one who will acknowledge that slaveryis right, is boundto acknowledgethe
professionof the overseer,honorable,and those who
follow it for a livelihoodas much entitled to respect
Our planters,as a class, need more mental disupline
as membersof any other profession.2l
and self-control.It i5 easy to obey, but it requiresa
The viewsof the overseersseldomwererecorded. great mind to command.Those who becometoo soon
Apparentlytheirdesirefor,or accessto publication their own mastersand vested with the absolutecontrol
was not much greaterthan that of the laborers of a large force of servaxlts,are in dangerof having
beneaththem. Occasionally,however,an overseer their otherwisegood minds and dispositioncorrupted
protested in print. Thus in 1862 the SouGhern by abuse of power.I am firmlyconvincedthat if the
system of slaveryhad been conductedrationally,with
CuZtivaborpublished the following letter which
due regardto justice and fairness,the outcry of the
began,sarcasticallyX
North against the institution,could never have found
an element to live in. We are sufferingfrom our own
If there be good seasons, a favorablecrop year, he
fault-our own miserablecarelessnessin the choice of
mastermakesa splendidcrop;if any circumstancesbe
suitable overseers,and our too great neglect of the
unpropitiousand an inferiorcrop be made, it is the
moral interest and proper supervisionof our slaves.
overseer.If the handsare runabouts,it is the overseer's
. . . A plantation is a small kingdom,as absolute as
fault; and if he flogs them to keep them at home, or
Prussia,and as complicatedin its details; and a just
locks up, or puts them in stocks, he is a brute and a
and wise administrationthereof,is just as important
tyrant. If no meat is made the overseerwouldplant
in moraltendencyand socialresults,thoughon a more
too much cotton, and of course 'tis his fault. If hogs
limitedscale.. .a3
are taken good care of, the overseeris wasting corn,
and "the most carelessand thriftlesscreaturealive."
Organizingnumerouslaborersfor a common
If he does not "turnout" hands in time, he is lazy; if productiveeffort,whetherin factoriesor on plantahe "rousts"them out as your dad and mine had to
tions, raises many similar problems.In either
do, and to make us do, why he is a brute.
"Addressof James Barbour,"AmericanFarmer,
7: 290 291 (Dec. 2, 1825).
f SouthernCwZtivator,
18:240 (1860); 7:140 (1849);
12:270 (1854); 14:338 (1856). For criticismof overseers see ibid., 6: 134 (1848); 7: 41 (1849); 18:207
(1860). For criticismof planters see ibid., Appendis,
7: 23 (1849); 12: 146 (1854). See also De Bow'sRetiew,
7: 383 (1849).
20
situationmanagementmust arriveat some solution of problemsof incentives,discipline,assignment of tasks, hoursof labor,health and morale,
extent of authority of foremen and overseers,
22Southern
Cultivator,
20:136 (1862); Appendis, 7:
75 (1849). Unless otherwisenoted, italics in this and
subsequentquotationsare in the original.
23 Ibid.,13: 84 (1865).
PLANtrATION
LABORERBEFORETE C
WAR
7
true, that their good treatment is recommendedno
less by interest than humanity, and that their being
subjectedto a properdiscipline,and made to perform
a reasonableshare of labour, is equally beneficialto
themselvesand their owners. When well treated ---by
which I mean abundantlyfed well clothed, and in
sicknessdue attention and every comforttheir condition requires,and in the power of their owner to adminster,they are enabledto perform,and do perform,
in most instanceswith alacrity, so much more labour
than when otherwiseused, as most completelyto indemnify their employer.And every day's observation
ascertainsto us, whenproperauthontyis not esercised,
that their owners are unable to provide for them
comfortably-that such slaves becomeentirely insubordinate,arldaregenerallya pest to the neighbourhood.
And hence, permittingthem to do nothing, which by
some is termed humatlity,is attended alike with the
injury of the slave, and the speedy min of the owner,
who surrendershimself to this misgliidedindulgence.
1st. The care of negroesis the first thing to be recomTheir diet should be bread without limit-a daily (if
mendedthat you give me timely notice of their wants
it be a small one) allowanceof meat, (bacon,if practithat they may be providedwith all Necessarys:The
cable) milk irs the summer and autumn, and cider,
Breedingwenchesmoreparticularlyyou must Instruct
with thosewho have orchards,in the winterand spring,
the Overseersto be Kindand Indulgentto.... Observe
to supply the absenceof milk. Add to this on proper
a prudent amd watchful conduct over the overseers
occasionsa small quantity of whiskeyis or seven
that they attend theirbusinesswith diligence,keep the
gallonsto a labounnghandduringthe year.The advannegroesin good order, and enforceobedienceby the
tage is believedto be farbeyondthe cost. Theirclothing
exampleof theirownindustry,whichis a moreeffectuaI
should
be three suits -a good warm one for winter,
method in every respect of succeedingand making
and two linen for summer,and there shouldbe on an
good crops than Hurry & Severity...*
estate of any extent a hand to cook and wash for the
2nd.... As complaintshave been madeby the negroes
labourers.The humane attention of the master is
in respectto theirprovisionof Corn,r must desireyou
particularlyappealedto in sickness,or when they beto put that matter under such a Regulationas your
come old and infirm.In the formersituation,they are
own Pmdence will dictate to you; The allowanceto
entitIednot only to medicalaid, but to the immediate
be Sureis Plentifuland they ought to have their Belly
attention of the master. (I think it well worthy of
full but care must be taken with this Plenty that no
commuxiicationthat my principalmanagerkeeps by
nvasteis Committed....24
him the Virginia Epicac.- vulgarly called Indian
A couple of generationslater, in 1825, James physic, which he has administeredwith the greatest
Barbourlaid down his rules for managingslaves. successfor upwardsof twenty years, as in that time
he has neverlost a singleadult by sickness.)He should
They forma large,if not the pnncipalpart of our give of his stores at that time with no sparinghand.
labouringclass. Such a class, whetherbond or free, In raisingchildrenone place of rendezvousunderthe
whiteorblack,mustexist in every community,as they supenntendanceof some elderly woman, who unites
are the indispensablefoundationof the social fabric; kindness with authority, and who is responsiblefor
every mitigationof their condition,consistentwith the their comfort and safety, is productive of the best
end of their existence,is thereforea solemnobligation results.(As an evidenceof whichmy slaveshave duplion thme to whose comfort they contribute. It has cated in less than twenty-fiveyears.) To this kind of
pleasedProvidenceto permitwith us a large share of treatmentI have addedrewardsto the most deserving.
this useful class to be slaves. I esteem it fortunateas The cost is triSing,and the effectmanifestlybeneficial.
It inspires gratitude to the master, and becomes a
24 "Instmctionspven by R;chardCorbin, Esq., to
stimulus to good conduct.
his agent for the managementof his plantation;VirThe relationof masterand slave thus maintained,is
ginia, 1759," quoted in Ulrich B. Phillips, Plontation deprivedof its otheruriseharsh and unfriendlycharand Fro£, 1649-1863,vols. 1 and 2 of A Docf4?nen- acter,producesthe consolingrefiection,that everything
tary HxstoryoJ AmericanIni1r4strial
Soctety,John R. has been accomplishedwhichthe actualpostllreof our
Commons,ed. (10 YO1S. Cleveland,191F11), 1:1@- situationadmits-leaves no regret,exceptwhat results
111. See also "GeorgeWashington'sletter to his over- fromuncontrollablecircumstances,and in its practical
seers,"quoted in Ssthern Cultivator,1: 2 (1843).
operationon the slaves themselves,is attended with
recruitmentand labor turnover.Attentionto the
managementof laborersis not a recentinvention
of industry.Plantersgave it carefulthought.
The views that most readilyfound a place in
permanentrecordsprobably were those of the
moreenlightenedplanters.These show a remarkabIe similarityand persistenceof attitude during
the eighteenthand nineteenthcenturies.The usual
formin whichplanterslaid down rulesof government for their propertyand peoplewas in advice
and instructionsto their agents or overseers.
These rules coverednot only workinghours but
the entirelife and conductof the slaves so far as
the planterfelt he had an interest.
An exampleof these instructionscomes frorn
an absenteeplanterto his Virginiaagent in 1759.
It readsin portionsas follows:
8
AGRICULTURALHISTORY
2. The driver should never leave the plantation,
content, with comfort,and a degree of happinessfar
beyond what their countrymenenjoy in their native unless on very urgentbusinessof the plantation.
3. No negro shall be allowed to marry out of the
land, and challengingwithout fear, a comparisonwith
the labouringclassesin some of the civilizedcountries plantation.
4. No negro shall be allowedto sell anythingwithof Europe.26
out my expresspermission.
I have ever maintainedthe doctrinethat my negroes
In 1832 a Georgia planter established these 'frules
no time whatever;that they are always liable to
have
and directions":
my call without questioningfor a moment the pro2. No Negro to have more than Fifty lashes inflicted pnety of it; and I adhere to this on the groundsof
for any offence,no matterhow great the crime.3. The expediencyarldright. The very securityof the plantasuckingchildren,and all other small ones who do not tion requiresthat a generaland uniformcontrolover
work in the field, draw a half allowanceof corn and the peopleof it shouldbe exercised.Whoare to protect
salt.... 5. The negroes to be tasked when the work the plantationfrom the intrusionof ill-designingpersons when everybody is abroad? Who can tell the
allowsit. I requirea reasonabledays work,well donethe task to be regulatedby the state of the ground momentwhen a plantationmight be threatenedwith
and the strength of the negro.... 27. A Beef to be destructionby fire?Couldthe flamesbe arrestedif the
killed for the negroesin July, August and September. slaves are scattered throughout the neighborhood,
The hides to be tannedat home if you understandit, seekingtheiramusement?Are these not dutiesof great
or put out to be tanned on shares.... 30. Give the importance,and in whichevery negrohimselfis deeply
negroesnails when buildingor repairingtheir houses interested?To renderthis part of the rulejtlstly applisvhenyou think they need them. 31. My Negroesare cable, however, it would be necessary that such a
not allowed to plant Cotton for themselves. Every settled arrangementshould exist on the plantationas
thing else they may plant, and you will give them to make it unnecessaryfor a negro to leave it, or to
tickets to sell what they make. 32. I have no Driver. have a good plea for so doing. You must, thereforey
You are to task the negroesyourself,and each negro makehim as comfortableat homeas possible,affording
is responsibleto you for his own work and nobodys him what is essentiallynecessaryfor his happinessyou must proridefor him yourself,and by that mearls
else.2fi
create in him a habit of perfect dependenceon you.
Allowit once to be understoodby a negro,that he is to
During the 1840's and 1850's southern periodi- providefor himself,and you that momentgive him an
cals contained frequent discussions of methods for undeniableclaim on you for a portion of his time to
the management of plantation laborers. Thus the make this provision;and should you from necessity,
SoSher?sCxltivator,reprinting from the Southerx or any othercause,encroachuponhis time, disappointin 1846,gave wide circulation to the ment and discontentare seriouslyfelt.
Agricult2zrist
If I employa laborerto perfortna certainquantum
following commentary by a planter:
of work per day, and I agree to pay him a certain
WhenI commencedplanting,I was inducedto believe, amountfor the performanceof said work,when he has
fromthe adviceI received,that successdependedmore accomplishedit, I of course,have no furtherclaim on
upon the judiciousmanagementof negroesthan any- him for his time or services. But how differentit is
thing else; and that in orderto arnve at any good sys- with a slave! Who can calculate the exact profit or
tem of managementit was necessary,First, That there expenseof a slave one year with another?If I furnish
shouldbe a perfectunderstandingbetweenmasterand my negrowith every necessityof life, withoutthe least
slave.... WhatI wouldmeanby a perfectunderstand- care on his part if I supporthim in sickness,however
ing between a master and a slave is, that the slave longit may be, andpay all his expenses,thoughhe does
should know that his master is to govern absolutely, nothing if I maintainhim in his old age, when he is
andhe to obeyimplicitly.That he is neverfora moment incapable of renderingeither himself or myself any
to eserciseeitherhis will or judgmentin oppositionto service,am I not entitled to an exdusive nght to his
time? Good feeIings,and a sense of propnety would
a positiveorder.
The rulesI have laid down,andwhichare considered always prevent unnecessaryemploymenton the Sabby all on the plantation, as fundamentalrules, are: bath, and policywouldcheckany exactionof excessive
1. No negroshall leave the plantationat any timey laborin common.
Whateverother pnvileges I allow the driver, he is
without my permission,or in my absence,that of the
driver; the dnver in that case, being responsiblefor not sufferedto sendany negroofEthe plantation,unless
circumstance
the cause of such absence,which ought never to be he sendshim to me, or someextraordinary
anses that couldmakeit properthat a messageshould
omitted to be inquiredinto.
be sent to a neighbor;for as his transactionsare conGa., to his overseer,June 11, 1832,"quotedin Phillips,
2 "Addressof JamesBarbour,"290 291.
26"Instructionsby AlexanderTelfair, of Savannah, Ptanta{sonand Frontier,1: 12SX129.
PLANTATION
LABORERBEFORETHE CIEL WAR
finedsolely to the plantation,thererarelycouldexist a
necessity to communicateelsewhere than with me.
If he sendshim forhis own purposehe is answerablefor
his absence, as the negro would be, did he go away
withoutany permissionat all.
I nevergive a negroa ticket to go fromhomewithout
he first states particularlywherehe wishes to go, and
assignsa causefor his desiringto be absent.If he offers
a good reason,I never refuse,but otherwise,I never
grant him a ticket, and feel satisfiedthat no practice
is moreprejudicialto the community,and to the negroes
themselves,than that of giving them generaltickets to
go where they please. I am so opposedto this plan,
that I neverpermitany negroto remainon my plantation whose ticket does not authorizehim expresslyto
come to it. I believe there are some who think that
after a negrohas done his work,it is an act of oppression to confinehim to the plantation,when he might
be strollingabout the neighborhoodfor his amusement
and recreation.This is certainlya mistakenhumanity.
Habit is everything.The negro who is accustomedto
remainconstantlyat home,is just as satisfiedwith the
society on the plantation,as that which he could find
elsewhere;and the very same restrictionslaid upon
him, being equallyimposedon others,he does not feel
them, for society is kept at home for him.
As the driveris answerablefor the good conductof
the negroes,and the properapplicationof their time,
he ought always to be presentto attend; otherwisehe
could never with propnety be chargedwith neglect,
in which case all responsibilitywould be at an end.
No rule that I have stated is of more importance
than that relatingto negroesmarryingout of the plantation. It seems to me, fromwhat observationsI have
made, it is utterly impossibleto have any method,or
regularitywhere the men and womenare permittedto
take wives and husbands indiscriminatelyoff the
pIantation.Negroesare very much disposedto pursue
a courseof this kind, and withoutbeingable to assign
any good reason, though the motive can be readily
perceived,and is a strongone with them; but one that
teads not in the least to benefit the master, or their
ultimategood. The inconveniencesthat at once strikes
one as arisingout of such a practiceare these:
First in allowing the men to marry out of the
plantationyou give them an uncontrollableright to be
frequentlyabsent.
Secondly-Wherever their wives live, there they
considertheirhomes,consequentlythey are indiflerent
to the interestof the plantationto whichthey actually
belong.
Thirdly it createsa feeling of independence,from
being, of right, out of the controlof their master for
a time.
Fourthly They are repeatedlyexposedto temptations from meetingand assoeiatingwith negroesfrom
differentdirections,and with varioushabits and views.
Fifthly -Wherethereareseveralwomenon a plantation, they may have husbandsfrom differerltplanta-
9
tions belongingto differentpersons.These men possess
differenthabits-are accustomedto diSerenttreatment,
and have differentpnvileges;so your plantationevery
day becomesthe rendezvousof a medleyof characters.
Negroeswho have the privilegeof a month ticket to
go where they please, and at any hour that they say
they have finishedtheir work, to leave the masters'
plantations?comeinto yoursabout niidday,when your
negroes are at work, and the driver engaged; they
either take possessionof the houses in which their
wives live, and go to sleep, or stroll about in perfect
idleness, feeling themselves accessible to everything.
What an eanample
to those at work at the time! Can
any circumstancebe more subversiveof good order
and contentment!
Sisthly-When a manandhis wifebelongto different
persons, they are liable to be separated from each
other,as well as their children,eitherby the capnce of
eitherof the parties,or wherethereis a sale of property.
This keeps up an unsettledstate of things, and gives
rise to repeatednew connexions.It might be asked
how does this rule answerwhen there are severalmen
on a plantation,and few women, or sice sersa, where
there are several women, and few men. I would observe, it wouldbe best to equalizethe numberof both
seses as nearlyas possible.This can be done eitherby
purchaseor sale. For to adopt rules merely because
they are good in themselves,and not to pursuea plan
whichwouldmakethemapplicable,wouldbe fallacious.
I never allow my negroesto sell anythingwithout
my expresspermission.I never restrict them in any
acts of industry,but rewardthem for their esertions,
by taking from them at a fair price whatever they
justly have to offer.... I furnishmy negroesregularly
with their full shareof allowanceweekly. I give them
annuallytheir cIothesand shoes, and every third year
a blanket.I supply them with salt, and from time to
time throughoutthe year salt fish and tobacco. If a
negro is sufferedto sell anything he chooseswithout
any inquirybeingmade,a spiritof trafficingis at once
created . . .
When a master is uniformin his own habits and
conducthis slaves know his wishes,and what they are
to expectif they act in oppositionto, or in conformity
with them. Therefore,the moreorderand contentment
exist. A plantationmight be consideredas a piece of
machinery;to operate successfully,all of the parts
should be uniformand exact, and the impellingforce
regularand steady, and the master,if he pretendat all
to attend to his businesstshould be their impelling
force....
Wheneverthe season for hoeing begins, whatever
tasks a negro commenceswith, are consideredhis
throughoutthe workingof the crop.Sicknesssometimes
producesa little vanation in this plan, but to no great
extent. Wherea negroknowsthat the task he is working on is to be workedby him the next time he goes
over the field,he is inducedin orderto renderthe next
workingas light as possible,to work it well at first.
10
AGRICULTURALHISTORY
But where he is allowed to take his task indiscriminately as he comesinto the field,thereis alwaysa great
contentionfor tasks, each endeavoringto obtain the
easiest to work. By that means great injustice and
imposition anse. The fastest worker would always
have the choiceof tasks,and it is not alwaysthe fastest
workerwho is the best worker....
In the differentdepartmentson the plantation as
much distinctionand separationare kept up as possible, with a view to create responsibility.The driver
has chargeof directingeverything,but there are subordinatepersons,who take the more immediatecare
of the differentdepartments.For instance,I make one
personanswerablefor my stock of cattle, the plantation horses, the carts, wagons, plows and their tacklings. Anotherhas chargeof my boats. A thirdattends
the dairy, the sick, etc.; a fourth, the poultry, and
providingfor,andtakingcareof the little negroeswhose
parentsare in the field.Each of these negroes,however,
do otherwork.
As good a plan as any I have found, to establish
security and good orderon the plantation,is that of
constitutinga watchat night, consistingof two or more
men. They are answerablefor all trespassescommitted
dunng their watch.... The very act of organizinga
watch bespeaksa careand attentionon the part of the
master,which has a due influenceon the negro....27
As the end of slavery was approaching,a
MississippiDelta plantationownerset downthese
rulesin 1857:
The health, happiness,good disciplineand obedience;
good, sufficientand comfortableclothing,a sufficiency
of good wholesomeand nutntious food for both man
and beast being indispensablynecary to successful
planting, as well as for reasonabledividends for the
amount of capital invested, without saying anything
about the Master's duty to his dependants,to himself and his God I do hereby establishthe following
rules and regulations for the management of my
Prairie Plantation, and requirean observanceof the
same by any and all OverseersI may at any time have
in chargethereofto wit:
Punishmentmust never be cruel or abusive, for it
is absolutelymean and unmanlyto whip a negrofrom
merepassionor malice,and any man who can do this
is entirelyunworthyand unfit to have controlof either
man or beast.
My negroesare permittedto come to me with their
complaints and grievancesand in no instance shall
they be punishedfor so doing.On exaniination,should
I find they have been cruelly treated,it shall be considereda good and sufficientcause for the immediate
dischargeof the Overseer.
Proveand show by your conducttowardthe negroes
that you feel a kind and considerateregardfor them.
Never cruellypunishor overworkthem, never require
them to do what they cannot reasonablyaccomplish
or otherwise abuse them, but seek to render their
situation as comfortableand contented as possible.
See that theirnecessitiesare supplied,that theirfood
and clothingbe good and sufficient,their housescomfortable;and be kind and attentive to them in sickness
and old age....
See that they keep themselveswell cleaned:at least
once a week (especiallyduringsummer)inspect their
houses and see that they have been swept clean, esaminetheir beddingand see that they are occasionally
well aired; their clothes mended and everything attended to that conducesto their health, comfortand
happiness....
Christianity,humanityand orderelevate all-injure
none whilst infidelity, selfishnessand disordercurse
some delude others and degrade all....
All hands should be requiredto retire to rest and
sleep at a suitablehourand permittedto remainthere
until such time as it will be necessaryto get out in time
to reachtheir work by the time they can see well how
to work-particularly so when the tlights are short
and the morningsvery cold and inclement.
Allowsuchas may desireit a suitablepieceof ground
to raise potatoes, tobacco. They may raise chickens
also with privilegesof marketingthe same at suitable
leisuretimes.
There being a sufficientnumberof negroeson the
plantationfor society amongthemselves,they are not
to be allowedto go off the plantationmerelyto seek
society, nor on businesswithout a permitfrom myself
or the Overseer in charge-nor are other negroes
allowed to visit the plantation....
I would that every human being have the gospel
preachedto them in its onginalpurity and simplicity;
it thereforedevolvesuponme to have these dependants
properlyinstructedin all that pertainsto the salvation
of their souls; to this end wheneverthe servicesof a
sllitableperson can be secured,have them instructed
in these things- in view of the fanaticismof the age
[i.e., abolition sentimentlit behooves the Master or
Overseerto be present on all such occasions.They
should be instructedon Sundays in the day time if
practicable,if not then Ot1Sundaynight.28
27Extract from SowthernAgricultwrist,quoted in
Southern Cultivator,Appendix, 4: 43 (1846); 5: 61
(1847); Appendis,7 :103 (1849); Appendis,8 :163-164
28"Instructionsby J. W. Fowlerof CoahomaCounty,
(1850); Appendis, 9: 87 (1851); 10: 88, 227 (1852); Miss.," quoted in Phillips,PlantaXion
ard Frontier,1:
Appendis, 11:226, 301 (1853); De Bozv'sReview11: 112-115. See also 17e Bow's R¢iaw, 25:463 (1858);
369 (18S1); AlabamaPlanter, quotedin ibid., 13: 193 SotthernCtdtivotor,15:303 (1857); Appendi2c,17: 169
(1852).
(1859);18: 276, 305)325. A letterto theSovGhern
Culti-
PLANTATION
LABORERBEFORE:
THE CIVILWAR
The managementof slave laborers,in the
planters'
view,wasnot merelya meansof getting
workdonefor themselves.
By controlling
slaves
they werealsoperforming
a semi-public
service,
relievingthe rest of societyof the task of controllinga particularly
unmly groupof people.
Anitemin De Bow'sReview
in 1857stated:
Slaveryis nothingmorethan a ruleof society-nothing
more than a civil rule restraiIlingthe naturalliberties
of slaves 'so far,' in the words of Blackstone,'as is
necessaryand expedient for the general advantage.'
Slaverythus reposesupon the very samebasisthat the
GeneralGovernmentof the United States does, and
that is, uponthe necessityof guardingby constitutional
or legal provisionsor restrictionsagainst the undue
indulgenceof unreasonableand immoralmen, when
left to no other restraintthan natural libe}tiesurged
on by wicked propensities....29
11
sistencethan affordedby plantationrations,was
a matter on which masters differed.Some approved, others disapproved.One wrote in De
Bow'sReuiewin l85 1:
I do not permitthem to have 'truckpatches'other
thantheirgardens,or to raiseanythingwhateverfor
market;but itl lieu thereof,I give to eachheadof a
familyand to everysinglenegroon Christmas
day,
fivedollars,andsendthemto the countytowIlunder
the chargeof the overseeror dnveryto spendtheir
money.In thisway,I savemy mulesfrombeingkilled
up in the summer,
andmy osenin winter,by working
and haulingoff theircrops;and morethan all, the
negroesareprearented
fromacquinnghabitsof trading
in farmproduce,wbichinvariablyleadsto stealing,
followedby whipping,
troubleto the master,anddiscontenton the part of the slave.3l
Laborwas supervisedin gangs on most plantations. On rice plantationsindividualtasks to be
performedseparatelywere assigned;even with
ganglabor,taskswerecommonlyset in the manner
of piece rates. "A task is as much work as the
meanestfull hand can do in nine hours,working
industriously,X'
was the rule on a rice plantation
Each managerwiIIdo well to organizein his neighbor- in South Carolinain 1856.
Patrolsorgarizedby planterswereamongthe
instruments
for performing
this policefunction.
In 1853De Bow'sRanewpnntedthisruleof "one
of the wealthiestandmostintelligent
plantersof
the OldDominion":
hood, wheneverpracticable,patrolparties,in orderto
detect and punish irregularitiesof the negroes,which TheDriveris eachmorxiing
to pointout to eachhand
are generallycommittedat night. But Iest any patrol theirtask,andthistaskis neverto be increaseds
and
party visit his plantation without apprisinghim of no workis to be doneovertaskexceptunderthe most
their intention,he will orderthe negroesto reportto urgentnecessity,whichover-work
is to be reported
him every such visit, and he will promptly,upon re- to the Proprietor,
whowillpay for it. No negrois to
ceivingsuch report,join the patrolparty, and see that be putintoa taskwhichtheycannotfinishwithtolerthey stnctly conformto the law whilst on his planta- ableease.It is a badplanto punishfor not finishing
tion, and abstain from committingany abuse.30
task;it is subversiveof disciplineto leavetasksun-
finished,and contraryto justiceto punishfor what
Esrenthe plantersX
police patrols,it appears, cannotbe done.In nothingdoesa goodmanagerso
wouldbearwatching
by thosetheyweresupposed muchexcela bad,as in beingableto discernwhata
to protect.
handis capableof doing,andin neverattemptingto
Planterswere responsible
for the subsistence makehimdo more.
of theirslaves.Whetherslavesshouldbe allowed No negrois to leavehis task until the dnverhas
gardenswith opportunityto make small sales examinedandapprovedity he is thento be permitted
to go home;andthe handsareto be enfor cashas an incentiveto achievea bettersub- immediately
vatorin 186()provides the followingcommentaryon
contemporarydisciplineof soldiers, as well as slave
laborers.'sEverygang of negroesrequiressome little
differencein management;but as a generalthing, the
Army Regulationsas to the disciplinesin Forts is the
best mode of managingnegroesI know of." 18:305
(1860).
28De Bow's Reviewt22:75 (1857); see also 19:40
(1855); SouthernC7s1tivator,
9:86 (1851); Montgomery
Mail quotedin ibid., 14:192 (1856).
a0De Bow's Re7,
14: 176 (1853); see also
SowtherrCtdtitator,19:313 (1861).
couragedto finishtheirtasksas earlyas possible,so
as to have time for workingfor themselves.32
The rules that planters establishedand their
admonitionsto overseers are reliable evidence
that the mastertspecuniaryinterestin hispropertyy
and his humanity, did afford some substantial
31 De Bow's
Review,
10:624(1851);Alabama
Ptaner,
quotedin ibid.,17:424(1854);Southern
Cultitator,
1l:
227(1853).
32"Ruleson theRiceEstateof P. C. Weston,South
Carolina,1856,"De Bow's Reviffflwy
22:3844 (1857).
AGRICULTURALHISTORY
12
protections to plantation laborers. Planters relied
In 1846 a committeereportedto a
southern
heavily on this fact when meeting their
opponents. county agriculturalsociety on the
"Management
They repeated again and again that the
interest of slaves."
of planter and slave coincided, since
the latter
was property of the former. John Randolph
argued Of all the motives which influence the intercourse
that raising the price of slaves'
blankets svas between men, interestis certainlythe strongest this
the employerof the hirelinglacks to a great
raising it to the slave. A tariff on wool, he
extent to
said,
inducehim to treat his hirelingkindly.The
would "enhance to the poor slave (or, what
interestof
was the
master in connectionwith the hireling,is to obthe same thing, to his master) the price
of his tain as much
laborfromhim as possibleat the smallest
annual blanket, and of his sordid suit of
coarse, cost; and when he becomes
too old . . . to get rid of
but to him comfortable woolen
cloth...."33
him. . . whilstwith the ownerof the slave, as
the slave
In 1851, De Bow's Ranv declared that
is his property,and he is boundfor his
supportunder
allcircumstances,
we can readilyconceivehow strongly
The most eflicient,and, of course,the most
profitable the motive of the master in
taking good care of the
laborers,are tiose who are the most active,
healthy, slave,and thus extendinghis
time of usefulness.
happyand contented. To be active, healthy,
happy
andcontented,there is a higherlaw, which
says, their
This committeewent on to acknowledgeand
gnefsshall be inquiredinto, their troubles
removed, deplore
that the same communityof interest beandthey shall be well fed, lodgedand
clothed.Inter- tweenmaster and slave
did not exist between
estedmotives,if nothingelse, would force the
master, overseer
and slave.
whoseslaves are profitableto him, to protect
them
fromwhat are called the abuses of slavery,
and to
Thereis one class of our communityto whom
all the
bestowon them every comfortand attention that
the
motivesreferredto, to induce us to kindnessto
mosttender humanitywould give. Everything
our
which
slaves,do not apply. Your Committee refer to
enhances
the value of the slave improveshis condition;
our
overseers.
As they have no propertyin our slaves, of
asit brings the self-interestof the master
the more
course
they
lack the checkof self-interest.As their only
strongly
to bear in protectinghim against abuses,and
aim
in generalis the merecrop resultsof the
inaddingto his comforts.34
year, we
canreadilyconceivethe stronginducement
they have
toover-workour slaves, and here masters
The motive of interest was ever present,
are often
the
muchto blame, for inadvertently
more
so as the price of Negroes went up. A
encouraging
this
cynical
feeling
in theiroverseers.37
letterpublished in the SogthernCultivator
said,
In 1850JeffersonDavis touchedon these
The
aspects
time has been, throwinghumanityaside, that
the
when
speakingbeforethe UnitedStates Senate:
farmer
could kill up and wear out one Negro to buy
another;
but it is not so now. Negroesare too high in
Wherever
there is an immediateconnectionbetween
proportion
to the priceof cotton,and it behoovesthose
the
masterand slave, whateverthereis of harshnessin
who
own them to make them last as long as
possible.36 the
system is diminished.Then it preservesthe domestic
character,and strictly patriarchalrelation. It
This assurance that the economic interest of
the
isonlywhen the slavesare assembledin large
numbers,
planter
was the guardian of the laborer extended
on
plantations,and are removedfrom the interested,
beyondprotection from excessive
the
kind, the affectionatecare of the master, that
punishment,
it
and
beyond provision during sickness, infancy,
ever
can partake of that cruelty which is made
the
and
old age, to include protection against
great
chargeagainst it by those who know nothingof
accidents.
The
it,
advantage of being a slave instead of a free
andwhich,I will passinglysay, probablyexists
to a
laborer
smaller
became the subject of stories. Thus, the
extent than in any other relation of labor to
capital.38
So?hthern
Cultivatorin 1859 told the story of the
slave
who refused to climb up a tree to trim
Ontheir own plantationsSenator Davis
branches,
and
saying that if he fell the planter would
his
brothervested disciplineentirelyin a system
lose
a thousand dollars. Hire an Irishman,
the
of
slavecourtsand slave constables,save for the
Negro
suggested and "if he falls and kills himself,
masters'
powerof pardon.39
The Senator'swords,
dar
won't be no loss to nobody."36
97
Ibid.,
4:
113
(1846).
33
Annalsof Congress,18 Cong., 1 sess., 2: 2256.
38Appendix
to the Congressional
Globe,31 Cong., 1
34
De Bow'sRefiew,11: 188 (1851).
sess.,
1849-1850(Washington,1850), 22, pt. 1, p. 150.
36
SouthanCitivatm, 7: 69 (1g9).
89
W. L. Fleming,"Jeffersen
36
Ibid., 17:46 (1859)Davis, the Negroesand
the
Negro
Problem,"SewonecRcvzew(October,1908),
PLANTATIONLABORERBEFORE THE CIVIL WAR
-thoughneither insincerenor idle, minimizedthe
number of absentee planters and their use of
overseersand the fact that in 1850,one half of all
slaves were held in parcels of 20 or more, and
aboutone fifth in parcelsof 50 or more.40
All criminallaws were severe in the colonial
period, and the slave codes partook liberallyof
the harshnessof the times.41Besides,the dangers
of slave insurrectionwere greaterin the earlier
period when unsubduedAfrican primitives annually were swelling the labor supply. By the
nineteenth century moderating influences had
been effective. Closing the slave trade in 1808
raisedthe ever-growingproportionof slaves who
had acquiredtheir status by birthratherthan by
capture. This fact, together with the general
moderationof legal punishmentof all offenders
in society, combinedto moderatethe emphasis
on physical punishment during the last half
century of slavery.<
Since the master's property interest in his
slaves failed to prourideas complete protection
against abuses as was claimed, or deemed desirable, some legal protections were written
graduallyinto the slave codes. Naturallyit was
for the courts to interpretthem. The slave was
given his day in court, but the mastersstill held
the upper hand in the administrationof justice.
In 1850De Bow's R¢igw carriedthis commentary
upon the meaningof a portionof a slave code in
the instructionsof a southernjudge to a jury:
svhip or beat any slave
The terms, 4'shallxnlawfuJly
not under his charge,""without reasonableprovocation," seem to me convertible.For, if the beating be
eitherwithout provocation,or is so enormousthat the
provocationcan be no excuse, then it is unlawful.
What is sufficientprovocation,by word or deed, is a
question for the jury. The question is, whether, as
slave ownersand rcasonablemen, if they had been in
the place of the defendant,they would have inflicted
the whippingor beating which the defendantdid? If
they answerthis questionin the affirmative,then the
defendant must be acqliittedtherwise convicted.4
13
Punishmentwas regardedsimply as one manifestationof a system of coercionto obtain necessary labor.Plantersdid not questionthe necessity
eitherof getting the workdone or of coercingthe
Negro to accomplishit. As a southerngovernor
saidin 1850,
Can you conceivethat anythingshort of the powerof
the master over the slave, could confinethe African
race,notoriouslyidle and improvident,to laboron our
plantations?Breakthis bond, but for a day, and these
plantationswill be solitudes.44
Once grantedthe proprietyof whatevercoercion
was necessaryfor controland the accomplishment
of work, furtherdiscussionwas reducedto mere
details of method.This, in fact, was the setting
in which the planters aired their differencesof
oplnlonover cilsclpllne.
In the decades just preceding emancipation
this question what were suitable means of
punishingslaves?-was discussedfrequentlyand
broughtdifferinganswers.Somefavoredstrictness
with physicaIforce to back it up; others favored
primaryrelianceon moralcoercion.The following
admonition,set downin 1855in De Bow'sR<ngw,
illustratesthe deliberatetemperin which discussions over punishmenttook place:
*
*
*
*
*
It is indispensablethat you exerci5ejudgment and
considerationin the managementof the negroesunder
your charge.Be firm, and at the same time gcZc in
your control.Never display yourselfbeforethem in a
passion;and even if inflictingthe severestpunishment,
do so in a mild,cool manner,and it mrillproducea tenfold effect. Whenyou find it necessaryto use the whip
nd
desirableas it would be to dispensewith it entirely, it is necessaryat timespply it slowly and
deliberately,and to the extent you are determined
in your own mind to be needfulbeforeyou begin.The
indiscriminate,constantand excessiveuse of the whip
i5 altogether unnecessaryand inexcusable.When it
can be donewithouta too greatloss of time, the stocks
offer a means of punishmentgreatly to be preferred;
so securedin a lonely,quiet place,whereno communicationcan be held with anyone,nothingbut breadand
water allowed, and the confinementextending from
Saturday,when they drop work, until Sabbathevening, will prove much more effectualin preventinga
repetitionof the offencethan any amountof whipping.
Never threatena negro, but if you have occasionto
punishdo it at once,or say nothinguntil you are ready
to do so. A violent and passionatethreat will often
quoted in Ulnch B. Phillips, AmencanNegro Slasery
(New York and London,1918),296.
1: 530.
40 Gray,B1storyof Agriculturc,
25: 296 (1858). On slave codes,
{1De Bow's R,
see Farnam,Ch4ptersin the Hsstoryof SociaJLegislatson, Chapter 14, "Southern Legislation Regarding
Slavery."
eDe Bow'sRetzew,1:411 (1846).
8: 131 (1850); 3: 193 S. (1M7).
44 Dc Bow's R,
43 Ii.,
8: 70 (1850); SoShr Citivatx, 17: 31 See also "Our Dangers," Sobthan Cultistor, 23: 90
(1859).
(1865).
AGlUCULTURAL
XIISTORY
14
scare the best disposed negro to the woods. Always
keep your word with them}in punishmentsas well as
in rewards.If you have Tlamedthe penalty for any
certainoffence,inflictit without listeningto a word of
excuse. Never forgive that in one that you would
punishin another,but treat all alike,showingno favoritism. By pursuingsuch a course,you convincethem
that you act fromprincipleand not fromimpulse,and
you will certainly enforce your rules. Wheneveran
opportunityis aforded you for rewardingcontinued
good behavior,do not let it pass; occasionalrewards
have a much better effect than frequentpunishments.
Never be inducedby a courseof good behavioron
the part of negroesto relas the strictnessof your discipline;but, when you have by judiciousmanagement
broughtthem to that state, keep them so by the same
means.By taking frequentstrollsabout the premises,
includingof coursethe quarterand stock yards, during the evening and at least twice a week duringthe
night, you will put a moreeffectualstop to any irregularitiesthan by the most severepunishments.The only
way to keep a negro honest is not to trust him. This
seems a harsh assertion,but it is unfortunatelytoo
true.4
neath all de variedforrustheir defensesassumed
was the simplethesis that the white plantermust
exerciseundisputedcontrolover Negro laborers.
James Barbourtold the AlbermarleAgricultural
Societythat
Any eSortforciblyto disturbtheirrelationwith a view
to a changeof theirconditionwhichcan be attempted
only by thosewho do not foresee,or seeing,are reckless
of the consequences,cannot fail to make worse the
conditionof the slaves. For our own daily experience
teachesus, that the conditionof the slaves, when well
treated,is infinitelypreferableto that of free peopleof
colour.We know that they are ignorant,indolent,and
demoralized,having no ostensiblemans of acquiring
their subsistence,wretchedas it is, so as to leave no
doubt that it is derivedfrom prostitution,from theft,
and from begging,and to be rid of whom is an object
of our first desire.Our slaves, broughtamongstus by
other generations,not only underthe sanctionof, but
by the existingsovereignauthority-mised with us in
such numbersas to be unmanageable,except in their
presentcondition;guaranteedas propertyto us by the
fundamentalprunciplesof society, both implied and
expressed,they are, and of necessitymust so continue
Referencesto use of the whip as a means of under our control;and such, I believe, is the settled
coercionwere infrequentin southernagricultural convictionof a vast proportionof the Americanpeople,
journals.Usuallythese nvereby way of a caution to whateversectionwe refer.The croakingsof the disto moderation."Negroes are not slaves unless tempered,who seek to establisha characterfor philankept in subjection,"said the Southern
Cxltivatorthropyat the expenseof others;whosespeculationsare
in 1860,"andif slaveryis right,it is also right to indulgedwithout scruple,at the hazardof the future
use meansto keep up subjection,and my opinion peace and happinessof a great nation;who encounter
is, the lash not used murder0usly}
as would-be neithernsk nor sacrificein the projectsthey proposea
will soon be consignedto the oblivionthey ment.48
philanthropistsassert, is most eSectual."46A
letter published by de So?Whern
C- Sor in Coercionis necessaryto evokelabor,rananother
1849 is perhaps the most literal treatment of of these defenses,and so, to advancecivilization.
physicalforcecarriedin its files.
De Bow'sRe7newreprinted in 1850 a memoir by
The overseersswhip is a barbarousinstrumentand its
use shouldbe abolished-but a slight strolkewith one
will laceratethe skin and cause a scar that the negro
will carry to his grave. To say nothing of the inhumanityof the thing, the value of the negrois impaired,
for purchasersgenerallyregarda negro'sback as an
indes to his character.Severe punishmentis often
necessaryon a well-condueti plantation,and, as a
substitutefor the whip, a leatherstrap may be used,
eighteenincheslong}and two and a halfbroad,fastened
with tacks to a woodenhandlea foot in length.47
Chancellor Harper, which stateds
The coercionof slaveryaloneis adequateto formman
to habitsof labor.Withoutit therecan be no accumulation of property,no providencefor the future,no taste
for comfortsor elegancies,whichare the characteristics
and essentialsof civilization.He who has obtainedthe
commandof another'slabor,firstbeginsto accumulate
and provide for the future, and the foundationsof
civilizationare laid. We find confirmedby expenence
that which is so evident in theory.49
The Chancellor was very definite that it is
The growthof abolitionsentimentin the North
command
over the labor of others which is necesstirredsouthernplantersto self-examination
and
sary
to
the
advancement of civilization.
defenseof theirsystemof plantationlabor.Under45 De Bow's Rw}
18:344 (1855);22: 316 (1857);
Sorn
C2vziwJ0r, 18:176, 258 (1860).
4650uther¢
Cultivator,
18:240 (1860).
47
Ibi,d¢,
7:135 (1849).
48"Addressof James B?rbour,"290 291.
4iDe Bow's Resew, 8:234 (1850); see also 9:495
(1850); 20: 13 (1856); AugustaChroniclc& Sentinel,
quoted in SouthernCultivator,15: 87 (1857).
PLANTATIONLABORERBEFORE TE
Having the commandof abundanceof land, no one
will submit to be employedin the serviceof lliSneighbor. No one, therefore,can employ more capital than
he can use with his own hands, or those of his family,
nor have an income much beyond the necessariesof
life. Therecan, therefore,be little leisureforintellectual
pursliits, or means of acquiringthe comfortsor eleganciesof life. It is hardlynecessaryto say, however,
that if a man has the commandof slaves,he may combine labor and use capital to any requiredextent, and
thereforeaccumulatewealth.50
CIVE WAR
15
tighterandtighterday by day to be assuredthat sve
holdthemIn completecheck.52
The defendersof slaveryusuallyconcededthat
force was at the bottom of work disciplineunder
slavery, but they pointed out that force is not
pecutiarto slavery. The force of economicinsecurity, they said, coercedmen to performlabor
just as the disciplineof slaverycoercedthe slaves.
The committee which reported to a southern
countyagriculturalsocietyin 1846said:
This defensewas a directchallengeto the intense
assertionby northernfarmersthat a life of culture
was withinthe reachof a workingfarmer.
Whenthinkingof the needfor defendingslavery
against abolitionistsratherthan counselingoverseers how to rule plantation laborers,southern
spokesmenplayeddowntheiremphasison physical
forcein discipllneevenmorethanusualand talked
of the forceof will-power.Dr. Cartwrightsaid:
Fromthe attachment
whichexistsbetweenthe master
andslave,yourCommittee
areof opinionthatan appealto theirbetterfeelingswouldbe sufficient
in most
casesto controlthem.Theyareawaw,however,that
this rulemusthavea limit,andthat the law of force
musthavesomesharein the government
of the negro
as wellas thewhiteman.In thosecountries
wherewhat
is calledvAuntary servitudeexiststthe forcethen is
necessity.Whenthe laboreris dependentupon his
daily incomefor the supportof himselfand family;
andwhenthelossof hiswagestas is oftenthecasefinIt is not the whipyas many suppose}which calls forth
volvesthestarvation
of hiswifeandchildren,
certaitlly
those muscularesertions,the result of wbich is sugar,
no greaterforcecanbe appliedto himthanthe threat
cotton, breadstuffs, rice, and tobacco. These are
of tug hitnoS to seekhis bread,withouta characproductsof the white man's will, acting throughthe
ter,orprobably
witha blackened
one.
muscles of the prognathousrace in our Southern
States. If that will were withdrawn,and the plantation handed over as a graciousgift to the laborers,
agnculturallabor would cease for the want of that
spintualpowercalledthe willwto move those machines
the muscles They would cease to move here, as
they have in Hayti.5t
To clinchthis argumentof you, too" directed
at northern
eruployers,
the committee
pointedout
thatthe slaveholder
wasprohibited
fromexerting
the samekindof economicforcewhichsufEced
for"government"
of whitemen."Inthe managementof ourslaves,thiscannotbe,"continued
the
I)efenses against criticism mrerenot always committee,"as the masteris boundfor their
consistentwith each other. Some defendersem- SUpport,1'53
This economic security as an advantage of the
phasizedthat disciplineof slave laborersrestedon
wwill-power.
Others admitted that it rested on slave which the free laborer did not possessforce?and blarnedthe abolitionists.Thus in 1849 received much emphasis. Indeedt Governor Hammond pressed the argument so far as to depict
GovernorJames H. Hammonddeclared:
In the face of discussionswhich aim at looseningall
ties betweenmasterand slavet we have in some measure to abandonour efiCorts
to attach them to us and
control them through their affectionsand pride We
have to rely Inoreand more on the powerof fear. We
must in all our intercoursewith them assertand maintain stnct mastery,and impressit on them that they
are slaves. IEis is painfulto us, and certainlyno present advantageto them.But it is the directconsequence
of the abolitionagitation.We are determinedto contimle masters,and to do so we have to draw the rein
the planter, to his own economic disadvantage,
as relieving the community. Thus the taxpayers,
along with the slaves, appeared as principal
beneficiaries.
WhileI thusfreelyadmit,thatfto the individual
pro
prietor,slavelaboris dearerthanfree,I do not mean
to admitit as equallyclear,thatit is dearerto thecommunityandto the State.Thoughit is certainthatthe
slaveis a fargreaterconsumer
thanyourlaborer,the
yearround,yet yourpaupersystemis costlyandwasteful. Supported
by yourcommunity
at largetit is not
6°Dc Bow's Rcxew?8: 339 (1850).
w De BowXs
Rcw, 7: 498 (1849);seealsoSouthern
6'Ii.,
25: 48 (1858). See abo "Free Nigger,)' CtdtivaXor,
18:13s131 (1860);19:164 (1861).
Corn.)&ld
Press, quoted in SoZhern Culsior, 23: 29
" So#Scrn CitiwXor, 4:113-114 (1846)
; see also
(1865).
17:132(-1859).
16
Afm
n
Ts-TfT
WA1WUb1
Tf TD A T
vr
=T/D
Av1vX\X
v
aduiiIlistered
by your hiredagentswith that interested
care and economy-- not to speak of humanity-which
mark the managementof ours, by each proprietorof
his own non-effectives;and is both more expensiveto
thosewho pay, and less beneficialto those whoreceive,
its bounties.i
the rigid rule of labor-payingexaction, which termi^
nateswhen the time of senricehas expired.66
-I say nothingof the blacks therc are as happy, or
as contented,or as comfortablysituated,as the blacks
in the South. Sir, the slaves in the South do not suffer
one-tenthpart of the evils that the white laborersdo in
the North. Poverty is unknownto the southernslave;
for as soon as the masterof slavesbecomestoo poorto
providefor them, he sells them to otherswho can take
care of them. This, sir, is one of the excellenciesof the
system of slavery,that the slave neverexperiencesthe
pinchingwants of poverty.Sir, one may travelthrough
the northerIlStates and see thousandsof the poorand
destitutealrnostwithout the commonestnecessanesof
life; but, sir, I defy any man to travel through the
broad area of the fifteen southernStates and filld a
singlepoorslave.Thereneverwas one, and therenever
will be one, as lQNg as the mstitution of slavew
pictureof slaveryis one of light, (and this they would
correct).But they do insist that, in comparisonwith
other formsof servitude,it will bear a favorablecontrast in fact, they challengethe world to producea
laboringpopulationmore happy, better fed, or cared
for, than our slaves.... No more beautifulpicture of
humansocietycan be drawn than a well organized
plantation}thus governedby the humaneprinciplesof
reason.Whenthe negroesare well fed, well clothedand
havenot unreasonable
burthensimposedon them}but
are accustomedto a systematicandregularcourseof
labortespeciallyif the slaveshavebeenbornandreared
up in the master'shousehold,or have long been members of his family,and hence have that strongattachment whichneverfails to growup betweenthe master
and his slave in the courseof time. The picturenever
fails to remindone of the patnarchal
dayswhenAbra-
It was even assertedthat slaveryproducedhappiness among plantation laborers. The county
agriculturalcommitteequoted earlierpainted a
pictureto matchthe contemporary
idyllicdescripAsforthe slavelaborer,he mightnot knowfreedom tions of laboron a northernfreeholdfarm.
or ease, but he wouldnever be left to starve.On
arewellpersuaded
that the condition
February19, 1850, SenatorSolomonW. Downs Yourcommittee
o£ourslaveswillbeara favorable
contrastsviththat
of Louisianatold the UnitedStates Senate:
of anyotherlaboringpopulation
in thecivilizedworld,
as
far
as
comfort
and
happiness
is
concerned.... Your
Sir, I call uponthe opponentsof this system. . . to
do not by any meanscontend,that all the
provethat even the white labonngclassesin the North sommittee
exists.58
SenatorDos' answerto the attac3 on slavery,
in otherwords,was to take the oSensiveby trying
to strip the northernindustriallaborerof the halo
that freedomwas supposedto adornhim with.
Defenders of plantatioIllabor gave as direct
an answer to farmer-employers
as to industrial
employers.They comparedthe conditionsof slaves
of plantersand free wage laborersemployedby
farmersto the advantageof the former.An article
in the SouGhern
CultiuAor
in 1858dedared:
The planteris a paterIlalguide for all his people, the
farmeris a daily or monthly task-master,who takes
vital powersto the tune of so many dollarsand cents
for monthsand days of toil} as the case may be. One
is a position of kindly care, based on the mutual dependenceof interestand humansympathy;the otheris
i
65
De Bow'sRevsew,7:495 (1849).
ApperuSix
to the Congress$ons1
Globe,31 Cong.,
sess., 175. See also "Equalityof the Races- Negro
Mania," De Bows Rew, 11:630 (1851); 12:507
(1852); "The Hirelingand the Slave," ibid., 18:185,
461 (1855); 19:208 ff. (1855); also 18:688; 19:44;
'iCentralizationand Soeialism,"ibid., 20:692 (1856).
1
ham hail slares born in his house or purchased with his
money.Undersucha stateof thingsthe masterknows
the man;the man,his master.The masterfeelsconfidentthatthemanis attachedto him,andwillconsult
his interest. The man feels confidentthat the master
will only requirewhat is right of him, and will abundantly providefor all his wants as well as that of his
family.Whenhe or his childrenare sick, he knowsthat
he will have his master'sphysicianto ministerto them
When he is naked, he knows he will be clothed;and
whenhe is old he knowsthat his wants will all be supplied to him in his smallcottage;duringthe winterhe
will be warmedby his master'sfire, and clothedfrom
his master'sflock; and at all times he knows that he
will be fed fromhis master'scnb and meat house.Ihe
manlooksearenbeyonddeath,and knowsthat whenhe
shall have died, he will be decently buried, and his
childrenafter him providedfor. When sickness and
afflictionhappen to such a master, how ansious the
solicitudeof his slaves for his recovery?And when at
last death ofirertakes
the good master, the tears, the
sobs and the cries of his faithful slaves point to him
ratheras theirfatherthan theirmaster.This is no fancy
sketch-it is a picture,the originalof which we have
oftenadmired and we venturethat no morebeautiful
66 Florida Home Companion, quoted in Sogthern
Citivator, 16 368 (1858).
PLANTATIONLi4BORERBEFO:EtETHE CIVL WAR
17
sight has ever beenviewedin the countriesof voluntary
servitude,however great the boast of its superiority
as a system of laborover slavefy. Your Committeeare
aware that there are those who doubt the probability
of a strong attachment between the master and the
slave. But they are satisfiedthat this positionis wrong,
and from their expenence they knowthat there are
numerouscases in the SouthernStates where the picture drawnabove is faithfulas a sketchof actuallife.57
which proved an entire failure, costing them about
$2,000.... His working force is one hundred and
seventy-fivenegroes.... The only dangerto be apprehended is, that such men cominghere would become
slave owners;for the institutionas seen here presents
no obnoxiousfeatures,and providesso wellfor theanimalhappiness
of thesZave,
that it necessitatesone to
continuallysummonup his principleto resistfallingin
with and heartily approvingthe whole system.... 6°
The theme that the slaves were happy recurs
again and again 'I believe our slaves are the
happiestthreemillionsof humanbeingson whom
the sun shines" said GovernorlIammond.58
In a
mellowmood the editor of the Farmer'sMonthly
Visitordrewthis pictureof an Alabamaplantation
in 1845:
While defenders of the plantation system often
spoke sincerely of the advantages and happiness
of the laborers within it, at other times they revealed uneasiness that the slaves might not share
the same opinion. The editor of the American
Farmer,for example, pointed out the dangers to
planters of permitting contact between slave and
free Negroes:
A morehappy set of laborerscan hardlybe conceived
tllan the slavesupon the plantationof Col. Wood.The
daily task of thoseengagedin the outdoorworkis easy;
and they have much time every week which they call
their own, with opportunitiesto cultivate their little
gardenplot, to raise and feed poultry,with otherextra
pnvileges.They areall wellfed andclothedin the abundancewhich the plantationproducesfwith little of the
concernwhich poor people of other countnes experience. Upon the faces of the coloredpeople which we
saw about the premiseshealth and contentmentwere
depicted:the womenchantedwith their voices of song
and musiccorrespondentto the movementsof carding
and the buzz of the spinningwheel.69
Descriptionsof this sort were plausible, and
even northernersunfarrorable
to slaveryon principle found it difficultto resist them, especially
when they came South. A North Carolinacorrespondentof the New EnglandFarmerwas disturbedwhen he saw a northernercome Southto
disposeof slaves-he had inherited,and remainto
operatethe plantationas before.In 1856he wrote:
Mr. B. inheritedhis plantationabout seventeenyears
ago, togetherwith some hundrednegroes,he at that
time, living at the North, althoughof Southernbirtht
and at that time decided anti-slaverytendency. His
first businessafter taking possessionof his property
was to investigate how he could best dispose of his
slaves for their own advantage. . . whilst engaged in
this liberationscheme, together with his brother,he
importeda hundredIrishmen,so as to try white labor,
57 SouthernCultivator,
4: 113-114 (1846). See also
"SlaveryAs It Is," New YorkHerald,quotedin ibd.,
13:212 (1855).
68 DeBo?s's R>
8: 123 (1850).
b9 Southern
Cultivator,
3: 148 (1845).
We start with the proposition,startlingas we are aware
it may proveto some,that measuresoughtto be taken,
prospectively,to ranoreaxdeiude aUfranegroesfom
everystatewheresZarery
exists.The two conditionsof
existence,tlle one beingslavesand the othersonly half
free, are incompatiblewith the welfareas well of the
one as of the other.Thereis not, nor will therebe any
securityor happinessfor the slaves while free negroes
live in daily communionwith them-A total separation of the two and the banishmentof the free blacks
beyondthe confinesof the state, is the only thing that
can give any thinglike securityto the master,and conterltmentto the servant.The intermistureof the two
is deleteriousin everyway in whichit can be examined,
withoutbeingattendedwith one solitaryadvantageto
either.The presenceof the free,livingin indolenceand
goingwherehe listeth, even thoughit be, as it often is,
in ragsand squalidmisery,excitesthe envy of the slave
- he becomesimpatientof all labour,and instead of
being as he would,contentedwith a lot that combines
more of the comforts,and less of the caresof life than
that whichis allottedto anyothur
dass of humanbeings
in existenceon the face of the earth, his niind is ever
on the rack to devise the meansof escapefrom all restraint.True, he sees in the abject condition,the complicated diseases, the cnminal lives and premature
death of the free negroesof the cities, enoughto deter
him fromdesiringa changefroma conditionof careless
abundanceto one of precariousand miserablesubsistence;yet hopeflattershim that he will be an e2rception to the almostinvanablelot of the free negro,and
he never rests until, by his aid, as a mediumof communicationand concert, with the abolitionistof the
North, he succeedsat last in absconding;to becomethe
hated nval or worsethan slave of his seducer,or, more
happilyfor him, to be arrestedand sold to the South.6
NewEngZand
Farmer,
8: 173 (1856).
elAmerican
Farmer,1: 107 (August 28, 1839).
60
AGRICULTURAL
HISTORY
18
The seventeenthcenturyargumentthat slavery
had broughtNegroes the blessingsof Christian
religionwas carriedforwardthroughtheeighteenth
century and into the nineteenth. In 1858 the
SoutheirnCultivatorpublishedParson Brownlow's
declarationthat slavery
}as broughtfive times the numberof negroesinto the
churchthan all the missionaryoperationsof the world
combined.Slaveryhas tamed, civilized,chnstianized}
if you please,the brutalnegroesbroughtto this country
by New England kidnappers;it has elevated them,
physically,morallyand mentally and thereforeit has
provena blessingto the negrorace.62
endlesslywithphrasesdescribingit as the 4'natural
and mtended"state and the "scripturalsystem"
of labor.65The argument-in all its myriadforms
for enslaving Africans as plantation laborers
has perhapsnever been set downmoresuccinctly
than in the Texas Altnanucbarely three years
beforethe outbreakof war:
Every citizen of the United States should be the
warm friend, the unceasing advocate and the bold defender of the institution of African slavery, as it exists
in the Southern States of the Union. Why?
F^rst:Because the African is an inferior being, differently organized from the white man, with wool inThe planters'duty, and the good of the Negroes stead of hair on his
head-with
lungs, feet} joints} lips)
themselvesled to the sameconclusion.An A^labama nose and cranium so distinct as to indicate a different
speakerin 1851explained:
and infenor grade of being. Whether this comes from
In dealingwith this questionit will not do to be guided the curse upon Ham and his descendents forever, or
by abstractnotionsof libertyand slavery.We can only from an original law of God, we will not here discuss.
judge the futureby the past; and as experienceproves But the great fact is as true as that man exists. The
that the negro is better off in slavery at the South, negro is incapable of self-governmentX or sed-improve^
than in freedom elsewhere,it is the part of philan- ment, as proven by his universal ignorance and barthropy to keep him here, as we keep our childrenin barism, though ever in contact with cinlized nations,
for five thousand years He has never advanced one
subjectionfor theirown good,63
step, excepting as a slave to white men. And when
Plantersbelievedthat slave laborwas a "pecu- civilized and Christianized in slavery, and then freed,
liar institution,' peculiarlyadapted to Negroes he invanably relapses, more or less rapidly, into igin the southernstates. Consequentlyit was not norance and barbarism Three generations of him as a
subjectto the usualgeneralizations
aboutrelations freeman firld him} in his oSspring, a confirmed barbarbetween human beings. This belief offered op- ian. The exception is only where he remains surrounded
portunity for many a convenient explanation. by white civilization, as in the United StatesJ and then
The troublesomeissueof physicalpunishmentwas he becomes a petty thief and loafer. For proof, look to
Jamaica, to Saxl Doniingos to Hayti, to his now achandledin that way. Physicalpunishment,every- knowEdged degeneracy in Liberia and to the freed
one admitted, would degrade freemen, but, so blacks of the Uxiited States and Canada.
ran the defense,it does not degradeslaves. ChanHe cannot amalgamate with the wrhite race without
cel or . .arper salc :
producing disease and death to the offspnng. The mulatto of the fourth degreeJ unless bred back into the
It is true that the slave is dnven to laborby stnpes;
pure white or black, cannot re-produce himself. Hence,,
and if tlle object of punishmentbe to produceobedithe law of God stamps disease and death as the penalty
ence or reformation,with the least permanentinjuryt
for amalgamation.
it is the best methodsf punishment.But is it not inSewnd:As a slave in a mild climate, the negro is contolerablethat a beingformedin the imageof his Maker,
tented, cheerful, obedient and a long-lived laborer. He
shouldbe degradedby blo7us?
This IS one of the perver- attains his highest civilization in
slavery, receives relisions of mind a;ndfeeling,to which I shall have occa- gious
instruction-becomes
faithful, trustworthy and
s
*!
*
sion again to refer.SuchpunishmentwouIdbe degrading to a freeman,who had the thoughtsand aspirations
of a freeman.In generalit is not degradingto a slave,
nor is it felt to be so. The evil is the bodily pain. Is it
degradingto a child?"
The systemof slave labor,held to be peculiarly
adapted to southern conditions, was hailed
65 "Slavery in the AbstrKt
. . . ," Amscan
Farmer,
1: 233-234 (December 18, 1839); "Emancipation
in
the West Indies," De BowXs
Rcri, 5:486 (1848);
7: 213 S. (1849); "Gov. Hammond's Letters on Slavery,'} ibid., 8: 252 ff. (185%; 9: 495 ff. (1850); 10: 570
(1851); 17: 119-180 (1854); Robert Collins, "lWanagement of Slaves," Alabama
Plonter,quoted in iid.,
17: 421 (1854); 22: 221 (1857); "Serfs, Not Slaves;
or, the Relation Between the Races at the South,"
cluoted in Southern
C"ltsoabr,19:109111
(1861);
2 Parson Brownlow, 4'Religionof the Negroes,"
R;nonille Wh«g}quoted irk Sauthan Ctdtsvator,,
16:
378 (1858).
63 De Bows RAKW}
10: 332(1851).
"Contactof Raceandthe Senseof Honor,"Charlesion
" Ibid., 8: 347 (1850);9: 614(1850j
Mercxry,
quotedin w., 21: 60 (1863).
LABORERBEFORETHE CIVE WAR
PLANTATION
affectionateto his white master and superior-yields
him willing obedienceand enjoys his own highest attainable happinesson earth. For proof, look at the
negroin his wild native haunts in his free condition,
after havingbeen a slave-and at his past and present
happy, contentedand healthy condition,as a slave in
the SouthernStates.
TAird:As a slave, he producesthe great staples of
cotton, sugar, rice, llemp, tobacco,coffee, &c., which
cannot be growneither by white or free laborto meet
the demands of the world. Abolish slavery, and we
abolish the productionof these great staples. Abolish
theirproduction,and we breakup the commerceof the
civilizedworld we destroy the manufactoriesof Europeand America we destroytheircombinedshipping
interests- we throwthe white man of both continents
outof employment,andcauseanarchy,revolutionandinternecinewarsto usurpthe pathsof peacefulcommerce,
progressand Christianadvancement. The Northern
States, without manufactures, without commerce,
would present one universalscene of waste and desolation in this now great and prosperousconfederacyof
free and sovereignstates. "Ruin" would become the
watchwordof every civilizedState and nation. Relief
would only be found, after the total extinctionof the
negro and the suppressionof anarchythrougha military despotismin this rlowgreat and prosperousconfederacy of free and sovereign states. My space is
limitedby the publishersof the "TexasAlmanac,"and
I can but glance at this great question of questions.
But to every citizen of Texas let me say-"These are
sober,solemnportentioustruths!Look at them! Meet
them like men who know their rights!"How to meet
them,do you say?By placingin the handsof everyman
books
and womanpossible,one or moreof the e2rcellent
written in elucidationand defenceof slavery-by convincingeveryoneof the truthshereinso brieflystatedand thus, not only renderingthe institution a moral
Gibraltaras it is, but convincingevery white man of
the land that slaveryis not only a wise, humane,necessary and glonous institution,in which every one, nch
or poor, is vitally interested, and thereby sweeping
away, once and forever,the low and unsoundmisinformedpopularfeelingof the Amencanpeopleagainst
what is commonlycalled the "Slave Trade," or the
transferof the beastly, savage negroesof Africafrom
their ghastly, paganisticslaverythere, to the Heavenordainedand Heaven-approvedsystem of Christian
slaveryin this country.Do this: repealthe law of Congress:importthem in good, well-ventilatedships:look
to their health and well-beingas a dependentbut useful race:breakup the presentinhumansystem of clandestine importation:obey the behests of Heaven to
make sIaves, like humane Christians,of the heathen:
and, in dlle time, the gloriousresultswill be manifest
for the smilesof Deity will be uponthe work.66
Texas Almanac (1858), 132; portions printed in
SouJhernCultivator,20:110 (1862).
66
19
Behindthis elaboratedefenseof slaverylay the
soberfact that the plantersbelievedthe peculiar
institution to be strongly to their own interest
and resentedthe prospectof emancipation.The
SoWherr Cultivatorpublishedin 1844 an address
deliveredin South Carolinathat declared:
The time is now at hand when every South Carolinian
mllst preparefor the deadly struggle,whichit is to be
fearedis soon to take place. This institutionof slavery
whetherwise or notXit is madnessin us to discusswith
men who "seeing will not see, and hearingwill not
witkaery paxtof socKty,
hear!"It is hereso inCerwoverz
and so essentislto hfe itseZf,thst its deskxctionwouldbe
depe?vluponout agriard continuanse
OUt5. Its e*istence
As long as slaueZaboris vaJusblc,so Gongwdl
cuJt2zre.
slase propertybe cherished.Thesrstart it cersesto be so
it witlbehrownaside.67
The doctrine that George Washington and
ThomasJeffersonexpressedaroundthe closeof the
eighteenth century, that slavery was growing
unprofitableeven to the owners,was earhumed,
looked at, and rejected.In 1852 the Honorable
WilloughbyNewton deliveredan address before
the VirginiaState AgriculturalSociety in which
he tookJeSersonto task.
Anotherprominentcause of the failureof all concerted
effortsfor improvementof agriculturein Virginiamay
be tracedto the erroneousopinionextensivelyprevailing, as to the characterand value of our agricultural
at a very early day, (perhapswith
labor. C)riginating
Mr. Jefferson,who, howeverwise as a statesman,was
for the depth of his philosophyJor the
not reInarkable
soundnessof his practicalviews,) this errorsoon becamegeneral.The doctrinewas taughtby philosophers,
statesmenandpoliticaleconomists,that slave laborwas
ruinouslyexpensiveand unproductiveto its owners,
and whereveremployed,carriedbarrennessand desolation in its train.... I trustthat some gentlemanof the
Society, of competent talents and information,will,
at an early day, thoroughlyinvestigateit, and furnish
an essay on the necessaryconnexionbetweenthe institution of slavery and the progressof agriculturalimprovementin Virginia.
The institutionof slaveryis a fised fact; and as wise
and practicalmen,it is ourduty to so regarditoEmancipationis an idle dream,beyond the reachof human
power.Its accomplishment,were it possible,would be
the overthrownot only of all the materialinterestsof
the South,but also of the greatfabricof moralcivilization. Let us be contentwith our condition.We have a
class of laborers, tractable, efficient and profitable.
Withoutthem, VirgiIiiawould be a wilderness;with
them, we may defy the competitionof the world.68
67
68
Ibid., 2: 172 (1844).
AmericanFarmer, 7: 416 417 (Junet1852).
20
AGRICULTURAL
HISTORY
Planters valued enslavementof their laborers
because,shortof insurrection,they weresuretheir
harvestswould be made. No strikeswouldinterrupt the bringingin of a perishablecrop. In
1846 "an intelligentLouisianaian"explainedto
Sir CharlesLyell that the fear of slave-owners
of the effect of strikesin agriculturewas at the
basis of the reasonswhy emancipationcould not
comerapidly,but " 'mustbe the workof time."'
He said furtherthat
"We, as Southernpeople,e'declareda letter to
the 50uXhern
C@ivaWor
in 1860,"areglad to think
that we have a labor upon our plantationsthat
frees us from the uncertainties,and capricesof
free labor.'nl
In the main, masters made life tolerablefor
their plantationslaves, and many lived happily
under the peculiarinstitution.The great loyalty
of slaves dunng and after the Civil War attests
that, and stands over against the instances of
brutalitythat also occurred.72
There were even a
few Negroeswhopetitionedto remainin or to enter
slavery.On the occasionof one of these petitions
in 1857 a South Carolinanewspaperobserved
confidently,"The womanis very intelligent,and
was full awarethat a kind masterwas better able
to provideand care for her than she was herself.
This is a nut for Yankeephilosophersto crack."
But judgmentof a social institutiondoes not
rest solely on how well men treat their inferiors
within its structure. In 1818, before abolition
became a movement,the travellerJames Flint
thoughtit significantto recordthis viewpointof a
slave whowas reapingwheaton a northernfarm
when he passed. " 'But you black peopleare very
well treated here?"' he inquired." 'Oh yes, Sir,
mastervery good to me, give me every thing to
eat he eat self, but no Sundayclothes."' " 'You
may live happierthan some poor free people?"'
pressed Flint. " 'That may be true, Sir,"' was
the slave's reply, " 'but put bird in cage, give
him plenty to eat, still he fly away.""3 The
reception which Negroes accordedto the news
of their emancipationat the conclusionof the
war confirmedthis answer,and today even the
classeswhichonce weremastersagree.
The slave laborerwas deniedaccess to opportunity for self-employment,
and was held to labor
for others under the law. He could not quit the
plantationto farm for himself. Manumissionor
purchaseof freedomwere open to but very few.
The slaveranawayat his peril.He was advertised,
trackeddown as a fugitive, and returnedto his
ownerwith the help of the las if caught. That
many succeededin makingtheir escapewas one
of the great complaintsof slaveowners.Slave
laborerscould not use the freeman'sweapon of
the strikein unison,but must acceptthe master's
disciplineand control. Slavery made plantation
labora caste.The bargainingpositionof the slave
was so weakbecauseof his inferiorpositionunder
the institution itself. He could exact little from
his masterbeyondhis maintenancein an efficient
condition. "It was this appropriablesurplus,"
concludesthe economistL. C. Gray, "that gave
slave labor under plantationorganizationan irresistableabilityto displacefreelabor...."74
69 SirCharles
Lyell,A SccondVisiSto NorthAmerwa
(3rd ed., 2 vols., London, 1855), 2:162-163.
70 De Bow's Rcriew, 10: 59 (1851).
71 So4thwn CZtifabor,18:204 (1860).
72 Ibid.,Appendix,19: 296 (1861);Charleston
Cobrier,
quotedin ibid., 22: 52 (1864).The themeof the slaves'
loyalty to their mastersin wartimecan be overplayed.
In 1864 the SogthernCultsvator
carrieda messageby
a southerngovernordeclaringthat it was "unjusti-
fiable and unpatriotic for the owner to keep his negroes
within such distance of the enemy's lines as to make it
easy for them to escape." Ibid., 22: 52 (1864).
73 F1int's Lettvs from Amaica, 1818-1820, in Reuben
Gold Thwaites, ed., Early Western Trards, 1748-1846
(32 vols., Cleveland, 1904 7), 9: 40.
74L. C. Gray, "Economic Efficiency and Competitive Advantages of Slavery under the Plantation
System," Agricitural History, 4: 41 (April, 1930).
"The prejudicesof ownershave to be overcome,and
the sugarand cotton cropis easily lost, if not taken in
at oncewhennpe; the canesbeingdamagedby a slight
frost, and the cotton requiringto be pickeddry as soon
as mature, and being ruined by rain. Very lately a
planter,five milesbelowNew Orleans,havingresolved
to dispensewith slave labour,hiredone hundredIrish
and Germanemigrantsat very high wages.In the middle of the harvest they all struck for doublepay. No
others were to be had, and it was impossibleto purchase slaves in a few days. In that short time he lost
produceto the value of ten thousanddollars."69
ChancellorHarper asked the rhetoricalquestion
in 1851:
Imagine an estensive rice or cotton plantationcultivated by free laborers,who niightperhapsstrikcfor an
increaseof wages,at a seasonwhenthe neglectof a few
days wouldinsurethe destructionof the wholecrop. . .
even if it werepossibleto procurelaborersat all, what
planterwouldventureto carryon his operationsunder
such arcumstances?70
AGRICETUEL POLICIESOF EUGEM
TEMADGE
Clearly,the restraintswhichlegal
upon the plantationlaborerwere slaveryplaced
in the primary
interestof the planter The planter
borethe overhead cost of trainingprimitive
laborersand their
childrento labor,of providing
hoodfrom cradleto the grave.securityand liveliIn returnhe held
the laboreras property, and
controlled
his life
in hours of leisure as well as
toil. Clothedwith
greatauthority which was
e2ercisedoften with
humanityand kindnessXplanters
believed generallythat without the
discipline of force, the
welfareof society, as indeed
their own interest
andthe welfareof the slave,
would be subjected
tocalamity.
Friendsof the slalresystem of
plantationlabor
acknowledged
seriousabuses. The editor of the
Southerx
Cqxltivator,
speaking for them, and to
21
them, raisedthe questionin 1854
-whatwas the
propet remedy? and made
definiteanswer:
It is concededthat both
slave and hirelinglabor may
be abused, and alas, too
often are
form and improvemankind,the abused.... To retrue way is to assail
wrong-doers
with the directnessof the New
Testament,
andnot waste talent, time and
patiencein silly attacks
uponinstitutions,that will die of
themselveswhentheir
prolongedmission is fulfilled,and
which can not be
overth}own
a day earlier.75
His advice went unheededby
history. Withan
a decade the overthrowof
the institution was
proclaimed;
its end awaitedonly the final
military
victorythat quickly sealed its
doom.
76 SoShan
C"tsv,
Appends, 12:105 (1854).
T}IE
AGRICETURALPOLICIES
OF EUGENETEMADGE
SARAHMcCULLOH
LEMMON
Depattmcnof Gstory
J{eredighCOIICBC
Ralcigh,Norh Carolina
EugeneTalmadgeserved as
commissionerof
to
public office He campaigned
agriculture
in Georgiafor three terms.
against the la2c
More
of
a
fertilizer
inspectionlawsand the powerful
political
opportunistthan an agricultural
political
leadert
machine
he
whichJ. J. Brown,the
used his office as commissioner
incumbentcomto woo the
missioner,
had built up duringfourterms
Georgia
farmerswho became and
in
remainedhis
Aided
by
the influentialownersof the office.
pnncipal
sourceof strengthduringthe
Atlanta
years
that
he
ConstitSion
and by the fact that certain
enjoyed
greatpowerandpopularityas
employees
governor
of
the
of
thestate. An examinationof
Departmentof Agricultureturned
his policies and
against
Brown,
conduct
Talmadge conducteda whirlwvind
as commissionershows the
cammeans
by
paign
andwonthe election.Hewas
which
he laid the foundationfor his
twicere-elected}
subsequent
thus
servingas commissionerfrom 1927
political
success.
through
1932.
Talmadge
was born and rearedon his
father's
cotton
Talmadge's
farmin ForsythCountyin
terms of office coincidedwith
middleGeorgia.
a
He
general
attended
declinein the pricesof
the Universityof Georgia}
agriculturalcomreceived
a
degree
in law, and practicedfor a
modities
and the onset of the Great
few years. In
Depression.
1911,
The
however,shortlyafterhis marriage,he
farmer's
plighthe attributedlargelyto lack
moved
of
to
Telfair
good
Countyin the wire-grasscountry,
farmingmethods.Throughthe
where
medium
of
his
wifeownedpropertyalong
the
Market
Bulletin, a weeklypaper
SugarCreek.Talpublishedby
madge
added to this propertywhich he
the
Department
of Agriculture,Talmadge
and
his
wife
advised
farmedsuccessfullyuntilhis death.
farmers
on subjects rangingfrom
Talmadge
also
complete
selfpracticed
lasvin the county seat of
sufBiciency
to whitewashed
McRae,
and
outbuildings. One
there
dabbledunsuccessfullyin politicsX
project
in whichhe was intensely
In
1926,whenhe was forty-two
interestedwas
the
yearsold, Talimprovement
of fertilizer.He urged
madge
decidedto run for the positionof
farmers
to
make
commistheir own fertilizer, believing
sioner
of agriculturealthough he
that it
was generally
would
not only be of better quality
unknown
in the state and had never
than combeen elected
mercial
productsbut wouldalso save the
farmers