Origins of the Vietnam War
Before the Second World War Vietnam was ruled by France, during
the war the region was conquered by the Japanese. They ruled the
area brutally and treated the Vietnamese savagely. As a result a
strong anti-Japanese movement called the Viet Minh emerged under
the leadership of communists Ho Chi Minh and Vo Nguyen Gap. He
had studied communism in the USSR during the 1920’s. In 1930 he
had founded the Indochinese communist party. He inspired the
Vietnamese people to fight for an independent Vietnam. At the end
of the Second World War the Viet Minh controlled the North of the
country. The Viet Minh entered the city of Hanoi in 1945 and declared
the Vietnamese independent.
Fighting the French
Timeline of early events:
1945- Ho Chi Minh declares Vietnam independent and Democratic.
1946- First major confrontation between the Vietminh and the French. (Haipong)
6000 Vietnamese dead, only 29 French dead. Fighting intensified over the next 8
years, cruelty on both sides. Guerrilla tactics took place mainly at night, Vietminh
had control of the Countryside the French had control of the cities.
1949- The Chinese communist party take control in China and their new leader Mao
Zedong supported the Vietminh by supplying them with weapons. The USA
responded by supporting the French. (They hate Communism.)
1950- The American President Truman gives the French $15 million. $3 billion is
given over the next 4 years.
1951- Bigger and stronger attacks on French Strongholds.
1954- The battle of Dien Bien Phu. 13,000 French dead. They surrender and sign an
armistice. They leave Vietnam.
The battle of Dien Bien Phu
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November 20th 1953 the first French troops
Arrived in Dien Bien Phu.
Initial successes for the French, 9,000 French
and allied troops, and 6 parachute battalions
occupied the region.
Still faced many problems, Dien Bien Phu
surrounded by jungle occupied by the Viet
Minh.
January 31st 1954, Viet Minh fired on French
troops for the first time.
March 13th 1954, massive artillery onslaught
against a French stronghold, by March 14th the
Viet Minh had taken it.
March 14th, Airstrip so badly damaged by the
Viet Minh no plane could land, supplies had to
be parachuted in.
T’ai troops, previously loyal to the French deserted, more strongholds fell.
5th April, artillery attack on Viet Minh soldiers caught in the open left heavy
casualties.
The Viet Minh advanced slowly and usually countered and French attack, 22nd April
Viet Minh controlled most of the airfield.
May 1st several strong points over run by Viet Minh.
May 7th Giap ordered an all-out attack on French positions; the last position was
captured at nightfall.
Us involvement in Dien Bien Phu
The US secretary of state John Foster Dulles and other
members of the Eisenhower administration were shocked by
the turn of events at Dien Bien Phu, discussions were held to
decide on a course of action. Options included massive
conventional air strikes, paratrooper drops and the mining of
Haiphong harbour. Eisenhower decided that he would only
take action with the help of the British, but Winston Churchill
the British Prime Minister refused to be involved in escalating
the war. In the end president Eisenhower decided that the
situation was too far gone and no action was to be taken to aid
the French.
The Geneva agreement- (the armistice formed between France and Vietnam.)
Geneva
Agreement
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France to Grant independence to Laos, Cambodia
and Vietnam
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Vietnam to be split into half. Only temporarily by
a partition along the 17th parallel
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The strip of land between the two Vietnams will
become a demilitarised zone
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Free and democratic elections to be held in 1956
to reunite the North and the South under a single
leader.
What
the
reactions to the Geneva Agreement?
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were
The Communists were surprised at how much the French had given away.
• The North was Left in the hands of the Communists and Ho Chi Minh.
• 80,000 communist’s refugees moved to the North of Vietnam.
• The USA were critical of the French, they said they ‘wanted
peace at any price.’ The USA refused to join in any discussions.
It was seen as a defeat for the USA as well as the French.
The USA and the South government refused to sign the agreement.
It seemed like the agreement had tilted the balance of power in favour of the
Communists.
The Elections
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Ho Chi Minh was confident that when the
free elections were held the communists
would win.
The leader of the south Emperor Ngo
Dinh Diem created a republic and placed
himself as leader.
Diem was a nationalist and supported by
the Americans.
No Elections today
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• Diem and the Americans were unwilling to take the risk of the communists
being elected to rule Vietnam.
They claimed Ho Chi Minh would rig the elections in the North.
Whoever their reasons and how right they were, their actions were a breach of the
Geneva agreement.
Why was the Geneva agreement so important?
The actions of these anti-communist governments
increased opposition to the South Vietnam government
amongst ordinary people and amongst influential
Buddhist priests. Support amongst ordinary peasants also
increased for the communist-led national front for the
liberation of South Vietnam, which was set up in
December 1960. This movement is also known as the Viet
Cong. The Viet Cong included opponents of the South
Vietnamese government, and communist Vietnamese
form the North. Peasants who did not support the Viet
Cong faced intimidation and violence. The Viet Cong also
started a Guerrilla war against the South Vietnamese
government, using the Ho Chi Minh trail the Viet Cong
sent reinforcements to the Guerrilla fighters. By 1962
President Kennedy was sending military personal to fight the Viet Cong. In 1963 and 1964
tensions between North and South had increased, and so had American involvement.
11,500 troops by 1962; 23,000 by the end of 1964. After the assassination of JFK in 1963, his
successor Lyndon Johnson was
the USA to full scale conflict in
even more prepared to commit
Vietnam.
Increasing US involvement
Containment meant stopping the
advance of communism wherever it
looked like it was gaining ground. For
example, the USA supported the French
in Vietnam as they thought the
Vietnamese were allies of communist
China. They also wanted to keep the
support of the French against
communism in Europe. The Cold war, the
soviet domination of Eastern Europe and
the Berlin Blockade were also events
happening at this time.
President Eisenhower and his
secretary of state JF Dulles believed
that China and the USSR were
planning to spread communism
throughout Asia. This is known as
the Domino theory. If Vietnam fell to
Communism; Laos, Cambodia,
Burma, Thailand and even India
might also fall. The Americans
wanted to resist the spread of
communism and they believed that
Vietnam was the first domino in the
row.
Why did the USA become
increasingly involved in
Vietnam?
Political issues back in the USA also played a
role in their involvement in Vietnam. The
Americans elect a new president every four
years; in the 1950’s and 1960’s for all
candidates it was a sure vote winner to talk
tough about communism. For example in the
1960 election campaign, John F Kennedy
promised to continue the tough policies of
President Eisenhower.
A controversial view by some historians is
that the USA wanted a war. In 1961,
Eisenhower himself had warned that
America had developed a powerful,
‘military-industrial complex.’ The
government gave huge budgets to military
commanders. These budgets were spent on
weapons contracts which went to huge
corporations. Therefore both the military
and big businesses both gained form war.
In Eisenhower’s last speech as president he
warned the American people not to let
these groups become too influential. Some
historians believe that this was a factor in
Vietnamese Tactics
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They fought a guerrilla war, ambushing US patrols, setting booby traps and
landmines, and planting bombs in towns. They mingled in with the peasants, wearing
ordinary clothes. The Americans couldn't identify who the enemy was.
They were supplied with rockets and weapons by China and Russia. They used the
Ho Chi Minh Trail - a jungle route through Laos and Cambodia - to supply their
armies. The Americans couldn't attack their supply routes without escalating the
war.
Their tactic was "hanging onto the belts" of the Americans - staying so close to the
Americans so they could not use air or artillery backup without killing their own men.
What is Guerrilla Warfare?
The basic aim of guerrilla warfare is to avoid a pitched battle with the enemy. The Vietcong
used this as they could never hope to defeat the might of US forces in a battle. Their aim
was to attack US troops in small groups, and then disappear into the surrounding
countryside. The success of guerrilla warfare depended upon the support of local people; to
hide the Vietcong, as well as provide food and shelter.
Why Use Guerrilla Warfare?
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To wear Down the Enemy - destroying Moral would result in the USA Leaving
Vietnam and the War ending.
The Vietnamese had seen how successful Guerrilla tactics had been used in China This was because Emperor Mao had used these exact same tactics to achieve a
communist victory in 1949 and they looked to China for direction and guidance
because they were trying to achieve the same thing.
The use of Guerrilla tactics made it impossible for the American to fight back - they
deliberately used tactics that made them invisible, they blended into the background
as they dressed as civilians and were hard to tell apart from the peasants. They were
helped by the Ho Chi Minh Trail and from underground supply lines.
Viet Cong Code of Conduct
Viet Cong tunnel complex: to avoid the worst
effects of American air power, the Viet Cong
built a vast network of underground tunnels,
probably around 240km of them. These
tunnels catered for all the needs of the VC,
they included weapon stores, sleeping
quarters, kitchens and hospitals. They were
strongly protected. As well as being difficult to
find, they were booby trapped and trip wired
at the entrances and throughout the tunnel.
There were also wells and blast deflection
walls to stop the whole tunnel being affected
by a grenade.
Puji Sticks: Sharpened bamboo sticks which were
covered in faeces. They were set to hit soldiers or
placed in dug-out covered holes underground.
These sticks would either kill a solider or lead to a
really bad infection and amputation.
Ho Chi Minh Trail: a supply route linking North Vietnam to
South Vietnam through neighbouring countries, Laos and
Cambodia. It was over 600 miles in length and 50 miles
wide. There were also dummy routes to trick American
aerial photography. It also ran through dense tropical
forests which provide good cover.
AK47: The Viet Cong
used the old Fashioned AK47 which was imported
from China, although this rifle was less accurate than
the American M16. It was more reliable and easier to maintain in the Vietnamese terrain.
Viet Cong Soldiers: The Viet Cong lived and worked in the
villages and were part of the community, by following the code
of conduct they won the support of the people. Villagers would
hide the Viet Cong. They also targeted South Vietnam
government who were unpopular with the people. The
Vietcong also managed to get jobs at US camps doing simple
tasks like cooking and cleaning.
One officer bitterly wrote: “What’s a civilian? Somebody who
works for us during the day and puts on VC pyjamas at night?”
-In early 1965 the VC had about
170,000 soldiers. Government of
N Vietnam used conscription to
maintain the size of its army.
Every year Hanoi sent 100,000
troops to the South
-Not everyone in North Vietnam was
enthusiastic about the war. There
was a traditional hostility between
the North and South
-Fighting for two causescommunism and reunification
-The VC recognised that that they
were scared of the sheer force of
the US and their weaponry
-Prepared to accept a heavy body
count. They lost between
500,000 and 900,000 in the war
-Knew the terrain
-Won support of the peasants in
the south- ‘search and destroy’
alienated them
-Aided by the Soviet Union and
China. They had about $2 billion
between 1965 and 1968
-VC bases were well hidden and
booby traps were successful
-They lacked the air power and
military resources of the USA
-They lost a lot of their younger
generation. They became prepared
to die: ‘Born in the North to die in
the South’
American Tactics
Chemical Warfare: The aim of Chemical
Warfare was to flush the Viet Cong out
of hiding in the jungle. Chemical were
sprayed throughout the jungle to kill of
the foliage so the Viet Cong couldn’t
hide anywhere. They were also used to
destroy crops to starve the Viet Cong
out. The most used chemicals were
Agent Orange and Napalm.
Operation Rolling Thunder:
Intended to destroy North
Vietnam’s supply routes to the VC
in the South. They hoped it would
starve the VC out of supplies and
persuade them to give up.
Supposed to last 8 weeks, it lasted 3
years. 8 million tons of bombs
dropped between ’65 and ’73, 300
tons for every man, woman and
child in Vietnam.
Search and Destroy: Idea of General
Westmoreland- the American would
Search out and Destroy the Enemy,
Westmoreland thought it was really
successful since the kill ratio was 1:8
(1 American for every 8 Communists
killed). Example- in 1965 in a battle at
Ia Drang Valley 1800 VC/Communist
forces were killed against 240 US
soldiers before the Communists retreated.
Body Count: Westmoreland was
convinced that the war would be won
by killing large numbers of the enemy.
They would draw out the enemy with
‘bait’ patrols, who would then be
reinforced with air strikes and artillery
fire, but the Viet Cong took their dead
with them it was difficult to know if
they were successful and the count
was always low.
-Almost unlimited economic
-Almost unlimited economic
resources
resources
-Advanced technology
-Advanced technology
-Air power
-Air power
-Theoretically had a vast supply
-Theoretically
had aconscription
vast supply
of
troops- through
of troops
through
conscription
and
the draft
system
and the draft system
-Inexperience
-inexperience of
of Viet
Viet Cong
Cong tactics
tactics
and
jungle
warfare
and jungle warfare
-After
-After 19671967- majority
majority of
of troops
troops were
were
not
skilled
army
menbut
were
men
not skilled army men but were men
who
who were
were drafted
drafted in
in
-Hostility
-Hostility between
between officers
officers and
and
troops.
Many
of
the
soldiers
wanted
troops. Many cases of Fragging
just
to survive
one-year
1970-71
there their
was 700
cases duty.
of
Fragging1970-71
700
cases
of
Fragging
fragging
-Many of the soldiers wanted just to
-Failure
to win
over theduty
‘hearts and
survive their
one-year
minds’ of South Vietnamese. Failure
-Failure
to winthe
over
the ‘hearts
in
destroying
morale
of the and
minds’Vietnamese
of South Vietnamese.
North
potentiallyFailure
to destroytheir
the morale
increased
morale.of the North
Vietnamese this potentially
-Use
of marijuana1971 5,000 men
increased
their morale
treated for combat wounds, 20,000
-Usedrug
of marijuana1971 5,000 men
for
abuse
treated for combat wounds, 20,000
-US
public
starts to oppose the war
for drug
abuse
and are not happy with the body
-US public starts to oppose the war
count
and are not happy with the body
-Many
count US soldiers did not feel they
were fighting for democracy and
-Manycare
US soldiers did not feel they
didn’t
were fighting for democracy and
Life in Vietnam
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Draft- men were conscripted into the Army. Blacks, Hispanics and poor White people
made up the Majority. Criticised as racist and unfair. These soldiers weren’t
committed to the cause.
Morale- Soldiers were there because they had to be, they weren’t committed to the
war like the Vietnamese. By 1968, soldiers didn’t even have the support of people
from home; they were seen as murders, and rapists. There were 503,000 incidents of
desertion.
Psychological- Trained to see the enemy as less than human (easier to kill); the
enemy were referred to as gooks. ‘Kill a Gook a day’ was a well-known phrase. Most
men only served a year in Vietnam, replacement men ‘Cherries, found it hard to fit
in. They also brought danger to themselves and their platoon as they were
inexperienced.
Fragging- there was often hostility between soldier and officers. This lead to solider
killing their officers (fragging). 700 officers were killed between 1970-1971.
Drug abuse- many soldiers turned to drugs to deal with the trauma of war.
Marijuana, Heroin and cocaine were used to keep soldier awake on night patrol and
to boost morale. 1971- 5,000 soldier treated for combat wounds, 20,000 treated for
drug abuse.
US military operations
The My Lai Massacre: May Lai was a small Hamlet in Son my, the
assault happened at 8am led by Lieutenant William Calley, the US
met no opposition they went into the village and committed a
massacre.
Events of My Lai:
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March 1968 a unit of soldiers called Charlie Company were
sent on a Search and Destroy mission.
They were told that Son My was a Vietcong fortress, with 200 guerrillas there.
Leaflets had been dropped to order all non- Viet Cog to flee.
Soldiers were told to destroy all homes, foodstuff and livestock.
The soldiers were told that all villagers would be at market by 7am, many were
under the impression that they had to kill everyone.
Soldiers were told that all the people there were Viet Cong or Viet Cong
sympathisers.
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In 4 hours over 400 civilians were killed, mostly women, children and old men.
No Viet Cong were found, only 3 weapons.
At the time the army considered this a success, and claimed that only 20 civilians
were killed, the rest were Viet Cong.
1969- 12 months later a letter arrived in offices of 30 politicians, written by Ronald
Ridenhour a US soldier, stating the he had evidence of something ‘Dark and bloody.’
Life magazine soon published pictures.
September 1969- Lieutenant Calley charged with the Murder of 109 peoplesentenced to 20 years, released in 1974 after serving 3 years.
November 1969- 700,000 anti-war protesters demonstrated, largest in history.
The Tet Offensive: on the 31st January 1968 70,000 communists launched an offensive
against the south and the Americans. It was a surprise attack and fought using conventional
battles.
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In military terms, the offensive was a disaster for the Viet Cong, 45,000 fighters were
killed, and it took them year to recover. It was 3 years until they were able to launch
another attack.
Experienced leaders and fighters were killed and could not be replaced.
Whilst they might have lost, they met at least one of their aims, with the help of
American media; the American people saw the war as pointless, one that couldn’t be
won.
The news showed guerrilla fighters, fighting in the grounds of the US embassy.
An American journalist when he saw it commented ‘What the hell is going on, I
thought we were winning this war.’
Johnson commented that if he had lost the support of the journalists then he had
definitely lost the support of the ordinary American.
• The execution of a Viet Cong
fighter shown on American television.
Vietnam in the Media
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Initially the media supported the Vietnam War, the relationship between the
government, the army and the press was good. Journalists were even allowed to visit
Vietnam and report on the war through the creation of the MACV, (Military
assistance command Vietnam.
By 1967 improved technology meant that lightweight camera equipment could be
taken into Vietnam, and a first-hand account of US brutality could be shown on the
news.
Walter Cronkite a famous TV reporter declared the war as ‘unwinnable’ after the Tet
Offensive- this shaped many people views.
Daniel Hallin wrote- that the media brought the ‘horror of the war’ night after night
into people’s homes. He also argued that any war publicised without restriction
through the media would lose public support.
People claimed that the media crippled the war effort.
However… attitudes in America were changing anyway
The media only reflected changed in people’s attitudes not created them.
Casualties were the main reason why support dropped.
Shocking scenes were rarely seen through television. Less than 25% of reports
showed the dead or injured
In a sample of 800 news reports, only 16% held criticism from journalists, the
majority were from the public and officials.
Protest: Types of protest
• Sit in’s
• University lectures gave teach in’s against
the war.
• Marches and demonstrations, poster and
slogans.
• Burning the draft and draft dodgers, in
1969 there were 34,000 draft dodgers
wanted by the police.
Civil rights campaigns
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The war demonstrated the inequality faced by African Americans.
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Lyndon B Johnson promised to create a ‘Great society’- better living standards and
healthcare. Due to the never ending cost of war he was unable to deliver these
promises.
30% of African Americans were drafted compared to 19% of white Americans.
22% of all US casualties were black, even though they only made up 11% of the
army.
Muhammad Ali- “No, I am not going 10,000 miles to help
murder kill and burn other people to simply help continue
the domination of white slave masters over dark people
the world over. This is the day and age when such evil
injustice must come to an end."
• Ali was sentenced to five years imprisonment and a
$10,000 fine, as well as being stripped of his world heavy
weight title.
Kent State university protest
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• By 1969 250,000 people had protested against the Vietnam
War.
• In 1970 the Kent state university protest took place, where
students protesting were shot.
nd
On 2 May 1970 over 800 students protested over what they saw as an escalation of
the war in Vietnam, with the invasion of Cambodia.
National guardsmen were brought in to deal with the protest.
The students were told that they weren’t allowed to group together, a skirmish
broke out between some students and the
guardsmen. The guardsmen fired some
Gas cylinders into the crowd of
guardsmen.
The guardsmen became encircled and
started to retreat. As the students
continued to get closer to them they fired
at them.
The Aftermath…
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4 students were killed and 10 others wounded.
The Governor of Ohio had called them ‘communists’, other people claimed they
were nothing of the sort.
It sparked widespread protest against the war and what many called a massacre.
All the protests put extra pressure on the US to find a peaceful way out of Vietnam.
Paris Peace talks
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Peace talks begin in 1968 in Paris.
January 1969, President Johnson is replaced by Nixon who promises to bring an end
to the war as soon as possible.
January 1969 North Vietnam demand that there should be a complete withdrawal of
US troops from Vietnam, a return to the Geneva agreement of 1954. The south
should be left alone and reunification of Vietnam without any foreign interference.
June 1969 Nixon announces the withdrawal of 25,000 troops from Vietnam- the
policy of Vietnamisation.
April 1970 further 150,000 US troops leave Vietnam.
March 1970 Nixon ordered ‘friendly’ invasion of Cambodia to drive the NVA (North
Vietnamese army) out of hiding.
End of 1971, US army had withdrawn 400,000 troops from Vietnam- only 140,000
remained (the rest he promised would leave by 1972).
30 March 1972 war erupted in Vietnam when the NVA led a massive invasion on the
South using Soviet tanks.
April 1972 Nixon responded by ordering the air-force to bomb north Vietnam- this
devastated much of the North’s infrastructure, aiming to persuade the North to give
in to the negotiations in Paris.
December 1972 (after months of bombing) there was a breakthrough at the Paris
Peace Talks- the talks stalled.
• December 1972- after the stalling of further talks,
Nixon organises the largest bombing campaign of North
Vietnam in the entire war. Over 36,000 tonnes of bombs
were dropped in days causing enormous damage.
• January 1973- the bombing worked, the North
agreed to further peace talks.
• 27 January 1973 Peace is agreed between the
USA and North Vietnam.
What was decided?
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Cease fire to take effect of 28 Jan 1973
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US armed forces to completely withdraw
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NVA to remain in the areas of the South they controlled at the time of the ceasefire
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All foreign forces to leave Cambodia and Laos
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Elections aimed at reuniting Vietnam were to be held
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US prisoners of war to be returned to the US
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US would clear all their mines
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North Vietnam would recognise the government of the South
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Ceasefire would be monitored by Commission for Control and Supervision (Canada,
Hungary, Poland)
Exam Practice
Typical 4 mark questions –
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What was the Vietcong?
What was the Tet Offensive?
What was the domino theory?
What military tactics did America use in the Vietnam War?
Describe American involvement in Vietnam up to 1963.
Typical 6 mark questions •
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Why were American methods to defeat the VC unsuccessful? (6)
Explain why the Vietcong was an effective fighting force. (6)
Why did the Vietnam War become increasingly unsuccessful in America? (6)
Explain why US involvement increased from 1954 to 1964 (6)
Typical 10 mark questions –
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Why did America withdraw from Vietnam? (10)
The tactics of the USA are the main reason for its failure in Vietnam. How far do you agree?
(10)
Media coverage was more important than protest movements in causing America to
withdraw from Vietnam. How far do you agree? (10)