Antonina Skydanova
Trade as a Factor in Economic and
Cultural Ties between Ukrainian Towns
and Villages in the Second Half of the
Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century
(From Information Gathered from the
Kharkiv Region)
ece-urban
The Online Publication Series
of the Lviv Centre for Urban History of East Central Europe
No. 9
Lviv, November 2010
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
The multi faceted history of the coexistence between urban and rural areas is
essential to understanding the socio-economic and cultural development of any society.
This history of coexistence on Ukrainian lands has only been researched partially.
Particularly insufficiently examined has been the coexistence of urban and rural areas in
eastern regions which were under the Russian Empire.
The second half of the
Nineteenth through the beginning of the Twentieth century (from the abolition of
serfdom to the First World War) is an important period to examine as during these years
ties between urban and rural areas in eastern Ukrainian lands underwent significant
changes and produced new processes in socio-economic life.
Towns and villages were connected on many levels. Trade created many of
these relationships. During this period of reform, trade became a more regular activity
that extended beyond fair type venues. As sales grew, contact between merchants
became more regular and started involving all sectors of the population. Under these
circumstances, trade became an important factor of economic and socio-cultural
relations between urban and rural areas. Today, the relationships caused by trade, are
rarely mentioned in historical research circles; for this reason little is known about
them. Nonetheless, understanding their evolution is necessary in order to form a more
accurate understanding of the co-existence of rural and urban areas during any given
period.
The Kharkiv Governorate will not explain the development of trade relations
between all towns and villages. Differences caused by socio-economic situations, the
historical development of various cities, and the unique natural or geographic conditions
in cities throughout Ukrainian lands put a unique twist on every relationship between a
given urban and rural area.
Examining information gathered from the Kharkiv
Governorate will allow us to identify the key areas of trade relation development and to
trace the socio-cultural changes that resulted. The Kharkiv Governorate is a particularly
interesting case to study because within its boundaries were settlements that were on
opposite ends of development in the socio-economic sphere, which allows us to
consider the issue from different perspectives.
Understanding the terms ―city‖ and ―village‖ are crucial to understanding this
work. Today, these terms are not clearly defined. ―Village‖ in this research refers to
rural life. This is a narrowed interpretation which excludes a string of events connected
2
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
to, for example, the life and homestead in villages of former lords, etc. The subject of
this research covers a range of aggregate changes in the life of the peasantry after the
abolishment of serfdom which is directly related to development influenced by trade.
The term ―city‖ must also be clarified because of so called ―real‖ and ―unreal‖
cities which existed in the Russian Empire.1 When examining the cities of the Kharkiv
Governorate, we take into account the varying degree of their socio-economic
development and the features of their functional value, while including populated areas
which were termed ―cities‖ during the period being examined.
Among them:
Kharkiv—the administrative center and its immediate territories; the county seats of
Sumy, Okhtyrka, Lebedyn, Bohodukhiv, Valky, Zmiiv, Izium, Kupiansk, and
Starobilsk; and towns that have no lands under their administrative control such as
Nedryhayliv, Bilopillia, Krasnokutsk, Chuhuiv, Sloviansk, and Zolochiv.
In this
research, cities are examined in the context of their economic, cultural and social
spaces.
1
Миронов Б.Н. Социальная история России периода империи (XVIII – начало XX в.). Генезис
личности, демократической семьи, гражданского общества и правового государства / Б.Н.
Миронов. – Т. 1. – СПб., 1999. – С. 284; Чорний Д. М. По лівий бік Дніпра : проблеми модернізації
міст України (кінець XIX – початок XX ст.) / Д. М. Чорний. – Харків, 2007. – С. 13–14, 23.
(Myronov, B. N. Sotsialnaia Istoriia Rossii pierioda impierii (XVIII-nachalo XX stolittia). Hieniezic
lichnosti, diemokratichieskoy siemi, hrazhdanskoho obschiestva i pravovoho hosudarstva / B. N.
Myronov. -- vol. 1. -- St. Petersburg, 1999. – p. 284; Chornyy, D. M. Po Livyy bik Dnipra: problemy
modernizatsii mist Ukrainy (kinets XIX-pochatok XX stolittia) / D. M. Chornyy. -- Kharkiv, 2007. -- pp.
13-14, 23.)
3
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
4
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
This research intends to explore trade as a factor in economic relations between city and
village. This demands a thorough understanding of its problems. It is clearly understood that trade
was a mechanism that connected village to city economies by dividing labor and addressing the
common needs of village and city dwellers. The reasons for the type of economic development that
occurred in the cities during the specified time period is explained by the general socio-economic
situation of rural areas, their locations, the distances, and routes that connected the populated areas
of the Kharkiv Governorate.
Here the above mentioned components will further be explored.
A unique system existed in Sloboda Ukraine in the second half of the Seventeenth and first
half of the Eighteenth Centuries. Through the 1750s the administrative and military centers in this
region were colonel and regimental cities. After abolishing the autonomy of Sloboda regiments in
1765, and administrative reforms that occurred throughout the Russian Empire in the second half of
the 1770s,2 towns in Sloboda Ukraine began to resemble other administrative centers in the empire.
For a long time, the level of socio-economic development of the cities of the Governorate
remained on par with provincial towns. Provincial towns, as a rule, differentiated themselves from
the surrounding rural areas because of a denser population and relatively more developed trade and
production capabilities. In practically all cities of the Governorate, statistics indicate that at the
beginning of the 1860s the majority of the population was compromised of rural inhabitants whose
main activity was related to agriculture. Kharkiv stood out among these cities, as did, to a certain
extent, Sumy, where only a portion of the population was involved in farming, as the rest of the
population was already primarily focused on production and trade activities. 3 It follows that in the
1860s the lifestyle of a large portion of urban dwellers in the Kharkiv Governorate remained similar
to that of rural inhabitants.
The large portion of inhabitants involved in farming activities indicates that urban
inhabitants required little of what their rural neighbors produced.
Similarly, the condition of
internal markets suggests that the most attractive cities for consumers during the middle of the
Nineteenth century were Kharkiv and Sumy.
2
On November 7, 1775 under the Russian Empress, Catherine II, the Statute for the Administration of the Provinces of
the Russian Empire was signed. The Statute was enforced in Sloboda Ukraine in 1780. According to this reform,
instead of the Sloboda Ukraine Governorate, which included five provinces, the Kharkiv viceroyalty (from 1835, again
called the Kharkiv Governorate) was created which was divided into fifteen counties, each with their county seat.
According to the 1785 Brevet of Cities every ―official‖ city received a certificate from the Empress which allowed local
self-government.
3
Экономическое состояние городских поселений Европейской России в 1861-1862г. – СПб.,– Ч.2. – Отд. 2 :
Харьковская губернія, 1863. – С. 3–48. (Yekonomichieskoie sostoyaniie horodskikh poseleniy Evropeyskoiy Rossii v
1861-1862. -- St. Petersburg, -- part 2. -- Chapter 2 : Kharkovska hubierniia, 1863. -- pp. 3-48.)
5
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
During the reform period agricultural activities in urban areas were reduced. However,
urban development was not uniform. The activity of the inhabitants, as a rule, changed most
dynamically in areas where manufacturing and trade were being developed. Far from all cities were
able to develop these sectors. For this reason at the end of the Nineteenth century and at the
beginning of the Twentieth century the inhabitants‘ activities in the Governorates cities remained
varied.
According to the first general census of the Russian Empire in 1897 the cities with the
fewest agricultural workers were identified as Kharkiv, Sumy, Sloviansk and Valky. The cities of
Kupiansk, Izium, Zmiiv, Chuhuiv, Okhtyrka, and Lebedyn had 20-34% of inhabitants working in
agriculture. In Bohodukhiv and Bilopillia 38% and 40% of inhabitants were working in agriculture.
Lastly, in Vovchansk, Starobilsk and in the non Governorate cities of Krasnokutsk, Zolochiv and
Nedryhayliv 48-90% of inhabitants were involved in agriculture (Table 1).
Table 1
Percentage of the urban population involved in agriculture according to the 1897 census 4
City
Kharkiv
Valky
Sumy
Sloviansk
Kupiansk
Izium
Zmiiv
Chuhuiv
Okhtyrka
Lebedyn
Bohodukhiv
Bilopillia
Percentage of the population whose primary
activity was crop cultivation or livestock raising
(including family members)
%
1.6
12
12.5
13
19
20
23
27
33
34
38
40
4
Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи 1897 г. Харьковская губерния. – Харьков, 1904. –
С. 180–187. (Piervaia vsieobschaia pieriepis nasielieniia Rossiyskoy impierii 1897. Kharkovskaya hubierniia. -Kharkov, 1904. -- pp. 180-187.)
6
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
Vovchansk
Starobilsk
Krasnokutsk
Zolochiv
Nedryhayliv
48
48
51
89
90
The largest consumer markets for agricultural products were Kharkiv, Sumy and Sloviansk.
Sufficient internal markets existed in Izium, Chuhuiv, Okhtyrka, and Lebedyn. Bilopillia and
Bohodukhiv had small but central markets that relied on village products.
Despite the small percentage of agricultural workers in Valky, Kupiansk, and Zmiiv (12, 19,
and 23% respectively) they remained small towns which probably did not have an attractive market
for selling agricultural products. Other weak attractions for peasant sales included Vovchansk,
Starobilsk, Krasnokutsk, Zolochiv, and Nedryhayliv.
Based on this information, few cities of the Governorate had the potential to become
substantial markets for rural goods in the second half of the Nineteenth century. The development
of a limited number of cities, mainly Kharkiv, Sumy, Sloviansk, Okhtyrka, and Lebedyn, was the
foundation for expanding and strengthening economic ties with rural areas.
Did farmers adapt, did they provide necessary items for city markets? What was the extent
of the connection between agriculture and urban markets? Did the farmers themselves initiate
economic ties with the cities? The answers to these questions are directly connected with how we
determine the marketability of local farms.
Specific data on the marketability of agricultural products does not exist. For the purpose of
this paper the percentage of commodity products sold is averaged (by determining the minimal level
of consumption of agricultural goods or by examining transportation statistics).5 According to data
obtained from various sources it is possible to assert that in the 1890s through the 1910s grain
surpluses, on average, did not exceed 30% of crop in the Kharkiv Governorate.6 Gardens and
orchards were poorly developed. As a rule they satisfied the needs of the peasant families who
cultivated them. Gardening and keeping orchards had no commercial value for the inhabitants of
the Kharkiv Governorate. Exceptions to this rule existed in settlements that were closest to the
cities, especially around Kharkiv where gardens and orchards were cultivated for profit.
To a
5
Куліков В.О. Селянське господарство Харківської губернії в другій половині XIX – на початку XX ст. : дис. ...
канд. іст. наук : 07.00.01. / Куліков Володимир Олександрович. – Харків, 2004. – С.129. (Kulikov, V. O.
Selianske hospodarstvo Kharkivskoi hubernii v druhiy polovyni XIX na pochatku XX stolittia. PhD Candidate
Dissertation : 07.00.01. / Kulikov, Volodymyr Oleksandrovych. -- Kharkiv, 2004. -- p. 129.)
6
Ibid., pp. 130, 145.
7
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
limited extent, products from peasant raised livestock also reached the market. Usually, most
peasants raised livestock for personal consumption.7
The limited quantity of products for sale was connected with the low productivity of farms
in the Governorate; that farms developed distinctly in different regions of the Governorate also
played a role in the quantity of goods taken to market. In central and northern areas (Kharkiv,
Vovchansk, Valky, Okhtyrka, Lebedyn, and Sumy) there is evidence of more intense productivity.
The yields from land in these areas were higher.8 So, they sent more products to market. The more
developed cities of the Governorate were also located in these areas. So it stands to reason that in
these northern and central areas trade relations between city and village were more intense. The
same conclusions can be drawn from population density statistics and from the short distances
between villages and cities in these areas (Table 2).
Table 2
Population density in villages of the Kharkiv Governorate in 18809
Region
Sumy
Kharkiv
Valky
Lebedyn
Okhtyrka
Vovchansk
Zmiiv
Bohodukhiv
Kupiansk
Izium
Starobilsk
Population Density (people
per square mile)
50.6
50
49.8
44
42
40
34
32.5
32
29.5
27.5
The last of the mentioned factors—distance—played a direct and arguably the most
important role in trade relations between villages and cities. Road conditions during those times
were such that traveling more than 10-15 kilometers from home would require spending the night
on the road.10 So, either by foot or by horse, only those living in the nearest settlements could bring
goods to city markets.
For peasants who lived further from the cities, regular trips into the city
7
Ibid., pp. 131–132, 134.
Ibid., p. 171.
9
Харьковский календарь на 1882 год. – Год. – С. 34–54. (Kharkovskiy kaliendar na 1882. --Hod. -- pp. 34-54.)
10
Миронов Б.Н. Социальная история России периода империи (XVIII – начало XX в.). Генезис личности,
демократической семьи, гражданского общества и правового государства / Б.Н. Миронов. – Т. 1. – СПб., 1999. –
С. 286. (Myronov, B. N. Sotsialnaia Istoriia Rossii pierioda impierii (XVIII-nachalo XX stolittia). Hieniezic lichnosti,
diemokratichieskoy siemi, hrazhdanskoho obschiestva i pravovoho hosudarstva / B. N. Myronov. -- vol. 1. -- St.
Petersburg, 1999. – p. 286.)
8
8
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
made no sense. For this reason, geography dictated where fair and market locations were
established on the territory of the Governorate. As a rule settlements located directly near a city
(for example within 20 verst), did not have markets and often did not have fairs, because the local
population travelled to the city to conduct their trade. Similarly, substantial settlements located
farther from the city almost always had their own local market.11
When cities held large markets or fairs, distance was not an obstacle, even for peasants who
lived very far away. These events held the promise that peasants would profitably sell their
products and inexpensively purchasing necessary items. Market Day in Kharkiv on Palm Sunday of
1892 shows how far people were willing to travel to participate in this event. According to
statistical estimates, peasants from 214 villages and settlements of the Kharkiv, Poltava, Kursk, and
Voronizh Governorates as well as from the Don Military Region were selling their products in
markets on that day. In the days leading up to this event 2,575 horse and 525 ox drawn wagons, as
well as 699 merchants on foot arrived in Kharkiv from rural areas with items to sell. 12
Peasants from further way were connected by the railway at the beginning of the Twentieth
Century. However they crossed the territory of the governorate after the mechanisms for trade in
rural areas had already been established. For this reason it is likely that manufacturers used the
railway to periodically deliver their products to city markets.
Villagers viewed cities as not only a place to sell their goods but also as a place of constant
trade where necessary items could always be obtained.
Regardless of the high level of self
sufficiency among rural households, the need to purchase some items was constant, and at times
increased. Villagers usually purchased equipment, pieces to make handmade products, tar, and
food stuffs including salt, pickled and dried fish. In the period being examined the need to purchase
material for clothing also increased.
Starting in the 1890s gas was increasingly used for
illumination among villagers. A list of narrative sources shows that in the last decade of the 1800s
purchases of items related to gas illumination were noted to be made much more frequently than
when large fairs were held.
In some areas of the Governorate, the set of peasant needs that united city and village was
fairly strong; in others it was much weaker.
The center of gravity was Kharkiv. It was to the Governorate‘s center, whose economic
potential was 100 times greater than the average city, that villagers frequented, not only compared
to the Kharkiv area but when compared to other areas as well. They came to Kharkiv for work, to
11
Список населенных мест по сведениям 1864 года. Харьковская губерния. – СПб., 1869. – С. 1–177. (Spisok
nasieliennykh miest po sviedieniiam 1864 hoda. Kharkovskaia hubierniia. -- St. Petersburg, 1869. -- pp. 1-177.)
12
Харьковский сборник. Литературно-научное приложение к «Харьковскому календарю» – Вып. 7. – С. 60 – 62.
(Kharkovskiy sbornik. Litieraturno-nauchnoie prilozhieniie k 'Kharkovskomu kaliendariu.' -- Vypusk 7. -- pp. 60-62.)
9
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
sell their products, and seasonally to transport seed, etc. After the railway connections to Kharkiv
were completed villagers began arriving from more and more distant settlements. As villagers who
lived closer had become accustomed to doing, those from afar also began purchasing necessary
items chosen from wide assortments at inexpensive prices.
Obviously, constant trade from other cities also attracted villagers as purchasers. Again we
note that the most sought-after urban markets were in the northern and central regions. One of their
main advantages was the close proximity of cities and their extensive trade networks.13 Despite the
considerable expanse of the surrounding areas, countless cities in the southern areas did not become
powerful trading centers to which villagers gravitated. In the Starobilsk, Zmiiv, and Vovchansk
areas there was a tendency to concentrate steady trade in sizable rural settlements. There, general
stores served anywhere from 14 to 16% of the population, at the same time general stores served
only between 5-9% of the population in other areas where villagers‘ needs could be satisfied by
local markets.14
That is, regular trade in a large territory, far from large cities, found other
convenient trade centers.
In this way trade relations between city and village increased overall during the period of
reform. The reason for the intensification of trade was the increased demand from the consumer
market and the gradual changes which were occurring in the rural economy.
These changes
stemmed from an increasing alienation towards their own products and their evolving consumer
needs.
More developed trade relations were formed in the central and northern areas of the
Governorate where, in addition to the greater number of large cities and higher productivity of
farms, the area also benefited from the close proximity of villages to the cities. In southern areas
where the population was more scattered and distances between settlements significant, the
development of direct trade links with cities was weaker.
Equal consideration must be given to how trade influenced communications between
villagers and city inhabitants and to the socio-cultural influence of trade on the lives of villagers.
In the Kharkiv Governorate, trade was one of the most wide spread means of contact
between city and rural inhabitants. Seasonal jobs were a powerful reason for contact between rural
13
Скиданова А.В. Розвиток стаціонарної торгівлі у Харківській губернії (друга половина XIX – початок XX ст.)
: автореф. дис. на здобуття наук. ступеня канд. іст. наук : спец. 07.00.01 «Історія України» / Скиданова Антоніна
Вікторівна. – Харків, 2010. – С. 11. (Skydanova, A. V. Rozvitok statsionarnoi torhivli u Kharkivskiy hubiernii (druha
polovyna XIX—pochatok XX stolitti) : Thesis abstract of dissertation for admission to PhD. Program History specialty
07.00.01 'Istoria Ukrainy.' / Skydanova Antonina Viktorivna. -- Kharkiv, 2010. -- p. 11.)
14
Волости и важнейшие селения Европейской России / [сост. В. В. Зверинский]. – СПб., 1885. – Вып. 3 :
Губернии Малороссийские и Юго-Западные. – С. 20–38. (Volosti i vazhnieyshiie sielieniia Yevropieyskoy Rossii /
[sostavitiel V. V. Zvierinski]. -- St. Petersburg, 1885. -- Vypusk 3 : Hubiernii Malorossiyskiie i Yuho-Zapadnyie. -- pp.
20-38.)
10
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
and urban inhabitants; however the practice of working at seasonal jobs did not become widespread
throughout the Kharkiv Governorate.
Seasonal employment offered villagers work in the
agricultural sphere that they were accustomed to (in the Don Military Region and the
Katerynoslavsk Governorate for haying, to regions where sugar beets were grown and processed, to
farms owned by nobility, etc.).15
Under such conditions trade on various levels remained an
important way for city inhabitants to become familiar with rural life, and acquainted villagers with
commerce, city landscapes, and representatives of different groups that resided in the cities.
Direct contact resulting from trade was primarily due to the following activities:

Organizing and holding rural fairs;

Villagers buying and selling goods in the cities;

Sale or trade of goods by villagers through intermediaries outside of the city (in rural
towns).
In the second half of the Nineteenth century and the beginning of the Twentieth century fair
centered commerce, which for a long time was the leading venue for product turnover in the
Russian Empire, underwent changes. In the Kharkiv Governorate, as in the rest of the empire, the
number of fairs grew while their function changed. A significant number of fairs began catering to
seasonal commodities such as grain and attracting sellers wanting to unload large volumes.
Together with these fairs large, well-known annual public auctions also continued functioning. In
the Governorate the biggest fairs were the Khreschennia, Uspenia, Pokrova and Troytsia fairs of
Kharkiv and the Vvedennia Fair in Sumy. Urban fairs gradually lost their traditional atmosphere of
being loud, long awaited events for locals and became gatherings for well known businessmen
wanting to solidify agreements related to the purchasing and selling of merchandise. Fairs in rural
areas, however maintained their traditional character. The majority of rural inhabitants longed to
visit these events. This desire to participate in fairs was driven by the considerable isolation of
peasants and the monotony of rural life. Traveling artists and musicians performed at the large fairs
which drew merchants and large numbers of people. This provided the opportunity for people not
only to buy and sell their goods, but also to be entertained and to socialize. The fair for a rural
inhabitant, according to M. F. Sumtsov, was transformed into ―a so called club where one could see
15
Ефименко П.С. Отход крестьян из Харьковской губернии / Ефименко П.С. // Харьковский календарь на 1885
год. – 1884. – С. 509–565; Савицкий Н. Промыслы сельского и городского населения / Савицкий Н. //
Харьковский сборник. – Вып. 3. – 1889. – С. 21–25; Жизнь и творчество крестьян Харьковской губернии. Очерк
этнографии края / Под ред. В.В. Иванова. – Харьков, 1898. – Т.1. – С. 1–996. (Yefimienko P. C. Otkhod kriestian
iz Kharkovskoy hubiernii / Yefimienko P. C. // Kharkovskiy kaliendar na 1885. -- 1884. -- pp. 509-565; Savitskiy N.
Promysly sielskoho i horodskoho nasielieniia / Savitskiy N. // Kharkovskiy Sbornik. -- Vypusk 3. -- 1889. -- pp. 21-25;
Zhizn i tvorchiestvo kriestian Kharkovskoy hubiernii. Ochierk yetnohrafii kraia / Edited by V. V. Ivanova. -- Kharkov,
1898. -- vol. 1. -- pp. 1-996.)
11
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
people.‖16 These fairs which joined trade, entertainment and the ability to socialize were one of the
oldest and most widespread reasons for rural and urban inhabitants to interact. This was evidenced
in interpersonal relationships. From visitors the peasants heard about life and news from the cities
complementing their ideas of how people lived beyond the village. Sellers, busy at the fairs with
their merchandise, had an opportunity to familiarize themselves with local economic conditions
(crop yields, the condition of livestock, etc), and this gave them the foundation for their business.
The most intense interactions between rural and city dwellers occurred when people were
arriving for bazaars. For peasants, selling products in the city appeared to be quite profitable and
easy at first glance because villagers sold items they made themselves and these items were not
taxed in the cities. 17
Additionally, city authorities secured access to the market for arriving
peasants. This is because under Russian law, the procurement of food for the cities was connected
with the stability of village deliveries. 18
With the goal of protecting commercial conditions for villagers, city councils in the Kharkiv
Governorate began issuing decrees on trading times in the 1870s. According to these decrees, resellers were forbidden from buying up merchandise from the villagers until after a designated time
(for example: 11 o‘clock am). But there is evidence that shows that these decrees were not
enforced. In explaining the situation, Kharkiv hlasni (council members) stated that such orders
were inconvenient for peasants who, pressed for time, were willing to sell their goods at a reduced
price instead of spending their time waiting for an optimal buyer. In 1880, the above mentioned
law was abolished in Kharkiv (it was renewed during the First World War because of a destabilized
market and problems with food procurement).19
16
Сумцов Н.Ф. Очерки народного быта (Из этнографической экскурсии 1901 г. по Ахтырскому уезду
Харьковской губернии) // Сумцов М.Ф. Дослідження з етнографії та історії культури Слобідської України.
Вибрані праці. – Харків, 2008. – С. 239. (Sumtsov N. F. Ochierky narodnoho byta (Iz yetnohrafichieskoy yeskursii
1901 po Akhtyrskomu uiezdu Kharkovskoy hubiernii) // Sumtsov M. F. Doslidzhennia z yetnohrafii ta istorii kultury
Slobidskoi Ukrainy. Selected works. -- Kharkiv, 2008. -- p. 239.)
17
Положение о пошлинах за право торговли и промыслов: Высоч. утв. 9 февраля 1865 г. // Полное собрание
законов Российской империи. – Собрание 2-е. – Т. 40. – Отд. 1. – № 41779. – С. 158–159; Приложения к
Положению о пошлинах за право торговли и других промыслов // Полное собрание законов Российской
империи. – Собр.2-е – Т. 40. – Отд. 2. – С. 54–55; Торгово-промышленный сборник. Свод действующих в
империи узаконений и правил о торговле и промышленности / сост. С. А. Просьбин. – СПб., М., 1910. – С. 40.
(Polozhieniie o poshlinakh za pravo torhovli i promyslov: vysochayshie utvierzhdiennoie 9 February, 1865 // Polnoie
sobraniie zakonov Rossiyskoy impierii. -- Sobraniie 2. -- vol. 40. -- chapter 1. -- #41779. -- pp. 158-159; Prilozhieniia k
Polozhieniu o poshlinakh za pravo torhovli i druhikh promyslov // Polnoie sobraniie zakonov Rossiyskoy impierii. -Sobraniie 2. -- vol. 40. -- Chapter 2. -- pp. 54-55; Torhovo-promyshliennyy sbornik. Svod dieystvuuschikh v impierii
uzakonieniy i pravil o torhovlie i promyshlennosti / sostavitiel S. A. Prosbin. -- St. Petersburg, Moscow, 1910. -- p. 40.)
18
Устав о обеспечении народного продовольствия. Издание 1892 года // Свод законов Российской империи. –
1892. – Т. 13. – С. 22–24. (Ustav o obiespiechienii narodnoho prodovolstviia. Izdaniie 1892 // Svod zakonov
Rossiyskoy impierii. -- 1892. -- vol. 13. -- pp. 22-24.)
19
Журнал Харьковской городской Думы. – 1880. – № 35. – С. 656, 658, 667; Известия Харьковской городской
Думы. – 1915. – № 4–5. – С. 1. (Zhurnal Kharkovskoy horodskoy Dumy. -- 1880. -- No. 35. -- pp. 656, 658, 667;
Izviestiia Kharkovskoy horodskoy Dumy. --1915. -- Nos. 4-5. -- p. 1.)
12
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
So, given the realities of city trade, and considering how work on farms was organized, it
can be assumed that the majority of peasants contracted local intermediaries to sell their goods for
them in the cities. Intermediaries expedited all interactions with the city within the confines of the
bazaars.
Selling surplus goods at markets or fairs in their own villages or in neighboring villages,
also gave peasants exposure to professional merchants (those who dealt with selling and buying
items on commission, and intermediaries who bought large quantities for resale).20 Under these
circumstances, trade conditions were dictated by entrepreneurs and peasants became mere
producers from whom products were purchased even though in theory, villagers could set their
prices. In this way villagers were relegated to a less influential role in commerce.
Whether because they were forbidden to conduct independent trade by dealers, or because of
their mentality, villagers who were accustomed only to agricultural work in Sloboda Ukraine simply
did not know how to conduct trade according to the rules of those times. In the 1850s I. S.
Aksakov21 noted that the average Ukrainian rural merchant has no inherent desire to be a merchant:
―little Russians22 hardly ever bargain but stick to their price which normally is determined by the
market with only a moderate profit margin. ‗How much (for this item)?‘ asks a buyer. ‗Thirty
shahiv,‘ replies an unemotional little Russian not getting up from his chair. ‗Take a hryvennyk!‘
retorts the buyer….accustomed to bartering. ‗You call that money?‘ calmly responds the little
Russian and turns away.‖23 This characteristic of Ukrainian rural merchants at the beginning of the
Twentieth century is supported by the ethnographer M. F. Sumtsov. 24 The attitude towards trade
was also reflected in proverbs that existed amongst the villagers of the Governorate in this period:
―The market set the price.‖ ―Selling it for the price I paid for it‖ and ―You can‘t set your own
20
Описание Волчанского уезда Харьковской губернии в сельско хозяйственно-статистическом отношении / И.
Клинген. – Харьков, 1882. – С. 154–155, 177. (Opisaniie Volchanskoho uiezda Kharkovskoy hubiernii v sielsko
khoziaystvienno-statistichieskom otnoshienii / I. Klinhien. -- Kharkov, 1882. -- pp. 154-155, 177.)
21
In 1853-1854, I. S. Aksakov, on behalf of the Russian Imperial Geographical Society, visited the Kharkiv, Poltava,
Chernihiv, Kursk, and Kherson Governorates where he studied fair commerce. During his travels, Aksakov thoroughly
explored a list of organizational and trade issues. His findings served as the basis for his work Issliedovaniie o torhovlie
na ukrainskykh yarmarkakh (Аксаков И.С. Исследование о торговле на украинских ярмарках / И. С. Аксаков. –
СПб. : Типография Императорской Академии Наук, 1858. – 383 с. (I. S. Aksakov. – Issliedovaniie o torhovlie na
ukrainskykh yarmarkakh / I. S. Aksakov. -- St. Petersburg : Tipohrafiia Impieratorskoy Akadiemii Nauk, 1858. -- p.
383.)) This work is still believed to be the best research conducted on Ukrainian trade in the mid-Nineteenth century.
22
Little Russians was an ethnonym used in Russia from the Eighteenth through Nineteenth centuries for Ukrainians
living on lands under the Russian Empire.
23
Сумцов Н.Ф. Очерки народного быта (Из этнографической экскурсии 1901 г. по Ахтырскому уезду
Харьковской губернии) // Сумцов М.Ф. Дослідження з етнографії та історії культури Слобідської України.
Вибрані праці. – Харків, 2008. – С. 238. (Sumtsov N. F. Ochierky narodnoho byta (Iz yetnohrafichieskoy yeskursii
1901 po Akhtyrskomu uiezdu Kharkovskoy hubiernii) // Sumtsov M. F. Doslidzhennia z yetnohrafii ta istorii kultury
Slobidskoi Ukrainy. Selected works. -- Kharkiv, 2008. -- p. 238.)
24
Ibid., pp. 239-263.
13
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
price.‖25
Peasants distrusted enterprising intermediaries and wholesalers calling them
―speculators,‖ ―cork-screw tails,‖ ―white gypsies,‖ and ―bazaar dogs.‖26
At the same time
merchants were regarded as more authoritative and did not illicit the same comparisons by peasants.
This attitude was caused by the elevated financial positions of bulk buyers who were connected to
production and trade in the rural areas and their significance for the villagers as potential
employers. 27 Additionally, in daily life villagers and merchants rarely interacted; consequently
peasants did not form nor perpetuate negative attitudes towards them and did not realize that
merchants also infringed on their interests.
Regardless of the usual passive attitude peasants had towards selling, the mere hope of
selling something they made on their own was recognized by them as a means to improve their
financial situation. This attitude helped to form and personalize their unique moral justifications for
using classical trade methods. The attitudes and justifications for trade among peasants are traced
by folk legend and were documented during ethnological research conducted in the Mostky district
of the Starobilsk area of the Kharkiv Governorate in the 1890s:
The Apostle Paul (others say Luke brought a bull to the bazaar to sell. The
bull was old and blind. Buyers approached the Apostle and asked: How much for
the bull? Is he healthy? The Apostle responded ―My bull is old and blind.‖ And
the buyers walked away. Finally a buyer purchased the bull at a much reduced
cost. When the Apostle returned, Jesus asked him: ―How much did you get for
the bull?‖ The Apostle explained why he sold the bull at such a low price. After
listening, Jesus said: ―You dummy, you should have praised the bull, even swore
that he was the best, because the bazaar is exactly a place where a poor person can
improve his situation.‖ 28
25
Жизнь и творчество крестьян Харьковской губернии. Очерк этнографии края / Под ред. В.В. Иванова. –
Харьков, 1898. – Т.1. – С. 288, 369. (Zhizn i tvorchiestvo kriestian Kharkovskoy hubiernii. Ochierk yetnohrafii kraia
/ Edited by V. V. Ivanova. -- Kharkov, 1898. -- vol. 1. -- pp. 288, 369.)
26
Иванов В.В. Современная деревня Харьковской губернии // Жизнь и творчество крестьян Харьковской
губернии. Очерк этнографии края. – Харьков, 1898. – Т. 1. – С. VIII. (Ivanov V. V. Sovriemiennaia dierievnia
Kharkovskoy hubiernii //Zhizn i tvorchiestvo kriestian Kharkovskoy hubiernii. Ochierk yetnohrafii kraia. – Kharkov,
1989. – vol. 1. – p. VIII.)
27
Описание Волчанского уезда Харьковской губернии в сельскохозяйственно-статистическом отношении / И.
Клинген. – Харьков, 1882. – С. 154; Иванов В.В. Современная деревня Харьковской губернии // Жизнь и
творчество крестьян Харьковской губернии. Очерк этнографии края. – Харьков, 1898. – Т. 1. – С. V. (Opisaniie
Volchanskoho uiezda Kharkovskoy hubiernii v sielsko khoziaystvienno-statistichieskom otnoshienii / I. Klinhien. -Kharkov, 1882. -- pp. 154; Ivanov V. V. Sovriemiennaia dierievnia Kharkovskoy hubiernii //Zhizn i tvorchiestvo
kriestian Kharkovskoy hubiernii. Ochierk yetnohrafii kraia. – Kharkov, 1989. – vol. 1. – p. V.)
28
Жизнь и творчество крестьян Харьковской губернии. Очерк этнографии края / Под ред. В.В. Иванова. –
Харьков, 1898. – Т.1. – С.82. (Zhizn i tvorchiestvo kriestian Kharkovskoy hubiernii. Ochierk yetnohrafii kraia /
Edited by V. V. Ivanova. -- Kharkov, 1898. -- vol. 1. -- pp. 82.)
14
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
At the end of the Nineteenth and beginning of the Twentieth century trade in the Kharkiv
Governorate was continuing to develop urged on by general instability in farming29 from a string of
poor harvest years and agrarian famine, the circumstances for villagers becoming more actively
involved in the trading sector were created.
When conducting the first empire-wide census in 1897, trade was listed as the main
occupation by 6,092 independent peasant farmers (Table 3).
Table 3
Residents of the Kharkiv Governorate Employed in Trade in 1897
(from the number of independent farms, not including family members)30
Area
Starobilsk
Izium
Kupiansk
Zmiiv
Kharkiv
Valky
Vovchansk
Sumy
Okhtyrka
Lebedyn
Bohodukhiv
Total
Number Engaged in Trade
1,185
790
787
758
652
447
370
341
298
238
226
6,092
This portion of the population changed farm work for trade enterprise, but remained living
in villages. A certain part of villagers participated in trade activities seasonally, when they did not
interfere with their primary farming work.31 These phenomena were part of the process of labor
29
Farming during the period researched was largely dependent on natural conditions so poor crop years greatly
impacted the wellbeing of families.
30
Первая всеобщая перепись населения Российской империи 1897 г. Харьковская губерния. – Харьков, 1904. –
С. 180–187. (Piervaia vsieobschaia pieriepis nasielieniia Rossiyskoy impierii 1897. Kharkovskaya hubierniia. -Kharkov, 1904. -- pp. 180-187.)
31
Work connected with traveling to sell merchandise or seasonal buying and reselling of merchandise increased among
peasants of the Governorate. Traveling salesmen‘s‘ work in Sloboda Ukraine was grounded in the seasonal summer
distribution of various small items (threads, buttons, ribbons, soap, etc). Merchandise spread through rural areas;
merchants either purchased their stock outright in bulk or, were hired for pay to work as salesmen by large scale
15
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
differentiation in the village which was sped up after the abolition of serfdom and which grew
parallel to the development of market interactions in the socio-economic life of the entire empire‘s
inhabitant‘s, including the Ukrainian lands within it.
One of the reasons for economic and
ideological changes among the rural population was that peasants were working in different
spheres. Within this context, the expansion of trade activities among rural inhabitants was also a
unique source of new tendencies.
According to characteristics identified by one of the best experts on folk life in Sloboda
Ukraine, the ethnographer V. Ivanov, the appearance of successful trade activity among rural
residents was a symptom of a new movement. At the end of the Nineteenth century fellow villagers
who were involved in trade activity became the catalyst that provoked change and the spread of the
―spirit of trade.‖32
Obviously, it was not accidental that trade caused these results in rural areas.
The
ideological convictions of peasants which were identified by local ethnographers in the second half
of the Nineteenth century show that usual physical labor was not viewed as a means to gain wealth.
Peasants believed that if someone achieved significant material wealth they must have made a deal
with the devil and benefited from someone else‘s hard work. These ideas were closely linked in the
rural ethos. They believed that if a person had obtained wealth it must have been preceded by a gift
that could be utilized but not used up (a nice job, inherited family capital, sale of natural resources,
etc.).33 According to these beliefs, the handsome profits made by peasants engaged in trade created
an interesting precedent. Improved conditions for realizing independent trade activities and craft
production demonstrated that trade may well be a peasant ―craft.‖ Trade activities gained appeal
because they brought profits without the physical effort that farming or other activities demanded.
Additionally, trade, as a means of acquiring wealth, demanded mobility, initiative and other
personal qualities that the aforementioned positions or inheritances which gave a limitless amount
of wealth did not require. This to some extent broke down previous ideological stereotypes of labor
etiquette among the peasantry and concurrently created restlessness and fostered the ―spirit of
trade‖ in villages.
merchants. Seasonal purchasing of domestic birds and eggs becomes more widespread. In southern areas of the
Governorate at the end of the Nineteenth century peasants started reselling coal bought at the neighboring mines in the
Donbas region. (Жизнь и творчество крестьян Харьковской губернии. Очерк этнографии края / Под ред.
В.В. Иванова. – Харьков, 1898. – Т.1. – С. 494; 198, 514, 792; 52, 74, 533, 564). (Zhizn i tvorchiestvo kriestian
Kharkovskoy hubiernii. Ochierk yetnohrafii kraia / Edited by V. V. Ivanova. -- Kharkov, 1898. -- vol. 1. -- pp. 494,
198, 514, 792; 52, 74, 533, 564.)
32
Иванов В.В. Современная деревня Харьковской губернии // Жизнь и творчество крестьян Харьковской
губернии. Очерк этнографии края. – Харьков, 1898. – Т. 1. – С.IX. (Ivanov V. V. Sovriemiennaia dierievnia
Kharkovskoy hubiernii //Zhizn i tvorchiestvo kriestian Kharkovskoy hubiernii. Ochierk yetnohrafii kraia. – Kharkov,
1989. – vol. 1. – p. IX.)
33
Ibid., pp. XVII-XIX.
16
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
Entrepreneur activity added rationale to villagers‘ behavior and self-initiative altered the
traditional agricultural rhythms of rural life. Working in trade forced peasants to leave the confines
of their village and become acquainted with other types of liaisons and domestic habits. Returning
to their villages they incorporated all this information into the microcosm of their village where it
continued to circulate and become integrated to some degree.
Peasant trade activities, at times, were the cause of noticeable changes in occupation. Rural
teachers who were correspondents for ethnographic studies during the 1890s noted the following of
the population of the Starobilsk district in the Bilovodsk region: "Trade has a bad influence on
people.
Children are left with no supervision; they get torn from their families and become
reluctant to complete household chores because they dream of spring arriving so that they can
embark on long trade journeys. Earlier, peasants were settled and predictable, working the land, but
now they have been transformed into some kind of nomads.‖34 Another correspondent noted that in
the Rymarivka region girls and young women started utilizing flashy items in their clothing because
of their increased involvement in the seasonal haberdashery trade.35 A certain amount of flashy
items always existed among rural youths. However, it had limitations. Individuals that earned
money independently often retained it for their personal disposal; they spent it in any way they saw
fit, usually on clothing. As a result of trade, a wider assortment of goods became available, and
young people began displaying their style more boldly and demanding more from the clothing they
bought. So this new flashiness brought with it not only new styles, but probably made the seasonal
distribution of goods a highly sought after job for the young.
Changing the usual rhythms of life, behavioral stereotypes, and alliances, trade influenced
the fate of rural modernization. Trade activities that demanded more mobility and encouraged the
development of the entrepreneur spirit obviously manifest themselves in the development of
characteristics which were inherent to city life. Peasants who flocked to the trade sphere became a
buffering layer because they did not disengage from the microcosm of village life but instead
became a leader for changing village norms.
In addition to establishing direct contacts and creating stereotypical behavior, trade balanced
out the goods available in cities and villages. Within this context, it is worth noting not only trade
itself, but also the material aspect of trade.
Trade was a way to introduce manufactured and crafted items into the rural consumer
market. This mechanism remained an operative route by which to distribute items which were
34
Жизнь и творчество крестьян Харьковской губернии. Очерк этнографии края / Под ред. В.В. Иванова. –
Харьков, 1898. – Т.1. – С. 924. (Zhizn i tvorchiestvo kriestian Kharkovskoy hubiernii. Ochierk yetnohrafii kraia /
Edited by V. V. Ivanova. -- Kharkov, 1898. -- vol. 1. -- p. 924.)
35
Ibid., p. 806.
17
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
made or used in cities to rural areas, gradually weaning peasants from using handmade and crafted
items. By participating in trade, peasants also were influenced by the assortment trade made
available, which because of the development of manufacturing and improvement of connecting
routes became uniform throughout.
The influence of trade on the material possessions of peasants is an especially interesting
and many sided problem. One indicative example of this influence in modern times is the ―demand
revolution‖ in France.36 In the 1840s, thanks to technologies which introduced machine-made
goods, specifically fabrics, significant quantities of merchandise became available. This resulted in
a relative lack of demand which was overcome by lowering prices to make items affordable for the
average citizen. The lowering of prices caused a sharp increase in demand for these inexpensive
items in France. Because of the availability of affordable manufactured goods, a broad segment of
society gradually began refusing to use fabrics and other items that were handmade which in turn
caused changes in their financial lifestyle.
In the Russian Empire the blossoming of textile manufacturing began in the first decade of
the Nineteenth century. Given protection by the government, light industry increased the volume of
their output. By the middle of the Nineteenth century, production of textiles (manufactured)
exceeded the needs of the internal market.
When sales did not keep pace with expanding
production, manufacturers started utilizing mechanisms of trade. Large quantities of goods were
sold on commission. Using existing trade routes manufacturers gained access to all areas of the
empire. By the 1880s and 90s the cost of manufacturing textiles decreased. In the 1890s Russian
manufactured textiles often cost less on the internal market then it cost consumers to make
homemade fabric. Affordable prices made manufactured goods accessible to average citizens (as it
did in France).
In the villages of the Kharkiv Governorate the inhabitants spent a lot of their time making
the simplest fabrics in their homes: dresses from commercial crops and woolen fabrics from
shearing domestic sheep. The agrarian famine reduced the amount of acreage available for linen
and hemp and depleted pasture lands where sheep grazed in the southern areas of the Governorate.
These changes created the conditions for a reduction in domestically produced fabrics. These
conditions also made manufactured textiles less expensive than their homemade alternatives. .
Additionally, trade provided an exceptionally large assortment which was impossible to achieve
under domestic conditions.
Machine made fabrics were less sturdy than their homemade
36
Бродель Ф. Материальная цивилизация, экономика и капитализм, XV – XVIII вв. / Фернан Бродель – Т. 2 :
Игры обмена. – М., 1988. – С. 172. (Brodiel F. Matierialnaia tsivilizatsiia, yekonomika i kapitalizm, XV –XVIII
stolitti / Fernan Brodiel – vol. 2 ; Ihry obmiena. – Moscow, 1988. – p. 172.)
18
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
equivalents, but brighter and offered more variety. 37 Manufactured goods were one of the most
developed sectors of the market. In the Governorate, ―nice products‖, as they were traditionally
called, could be found in cities, at rural fairs, and in local stores. The prevalence and affordability
of manufactured goods combined with the above mentioned factors, contributed to rural inhabitants
transitioning fairly rapidly to using them regularly. This transition became especially noticeable in
the 1890s. During this time in the Kharkiv Governorate rural inhabitants used calico, chintz, and
various cotton materials along with other manufactured woolens and cloth fabrics. Homemade
cloth and woolen fabrics continued to be used for sewing men‘s work clothing and winter clothes.
In conjunction with manufactured fabrics, readymade clothing also became more prevalent
in rural areas. Traditionally, rural inhabitants bought footwear, winter outerwear, and women‘s
accessories (head coverings and decorative accessories). The growth in demand for goods intended
to be used when sewing clothing, and for readymade clothing is evidenced by indicators of average
rural family expenses. If in the 1880s approximately 20% of a family‘s annual budget was spent on
footwear and clothing, then in 1915 up to 85% of the rural family‘s budget was spent on these
items. 38
Purchased items became commonly used in daily life and were increasingly influenced by
fashion. However, even trading in the most straightforward and inexpensive items brought with it
the introduction of new items. In ethnographic studies of the Governorate conducted at the end of
the Nineteenth and beginning of the Twentieth century not once was the presence of ―flashy‖
dressing habits noted among peasants.39 Flaunting oneself manifest itself as a desire to wear new
things, that differed from traditional dress. Often fashion was borrowed from afar, especially from
cities and from people from other areas. Certainly, flaunting oneself emerged at this time in other
parts of the empire as well, because of certain changes in the mentality of the post serfdom era.40
37
The aesthetic value that manufactured textiles held for local villagers is most eloquently demonstrated by the number
of villagers who used colored cloths to adorn the corners and walls which held icons in their homes.
38
Ставровский Л.Я. Еще по поводу бюджета и инвентаря местного крестьянина / Л.Я. Ставровский //
Харьковский сборник. – Вып. 1. – 1887. – С. 133; Бюджеты крестьян Старобельского уезда. – Харьков, 1915. –
С. 43. (Stavrovskiy, L. Y. Yeschie po povodu budzhieta i invientaria miestnoho kriestianina / L. Y. Stavrovskiy //
Kharkovskiy sbornik. – Vypusk 1. – 1887. – p. 133; Budzhiety kriestian Starobielskoho uiezda. – Kharkov, 1915. – p.
43.)
39
Сумцов М.Ф. О мужицком франтовстве // Сумцов М.Ф. Дослідження з етнографії та історії культури
Слобідської України. Вибрані праці. – Харків, 2008. – С. 283–285; Жизнь и творчество крестьян Харьковской
губернии. Очерк этнографии края / Под ред. В.В. Иванова. – Харьков, 1898. – Т.1. – С. 806. (Sumtsov M. F. O
muzhitskom frantovctvie // Sumtsov M. F. Doslidzhennia z etnohrafii ta istorii kultury Slobidskoi Ukrainy. Selected
works. -- Kharkiv, 2008. -- pp. 283-285; Zhizn i tvorchiestvo kriestian Kharkovskoy hubiernii. Ochierk yetnohrafii
kraia / Edited by V. V. Ivanova. -- Kharkov, 1898. -- vol. 1. -- p. 806.)
40
Миронов Б.Н. Социальная история России периода империи (XVIII – начало XX в.). Генезис личности,
демократической семьи, гражданского общества и правового государства / Б.Н. Миронов. – Т. 1. – СПб., 1999. –
С. 335. (Myronov, B. N. Sotsialnaia Istoriia Rossii pierioda impierii (XVIII-nachalo XX stolittia). Hieniezic lichnosti,
diemokratichieskoy siemi, hrazhdanskoho obschiestva i pravovoho hosudarstva / B. N. Myronov. -- vol. 1. -- St.
Petersburg, 1999. – p. 335.)
19
Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
However, along with the desire to express themselves through their dress, trade, with its significant
assortment, enabled them to realize their desires. The Ukrainian inhabitants of this Governorate,
according to observations made by contemporaries, differed because of their greater openness to
accepting new things that were brought in from beyond the reaches of their villages.41 This trait
was due to a less patriarchical structure of family relations and a weaker influence of the
community on family life, than for example among Russians.
During the adjustment to purchasing goods, fashions became more homogenous because of
commerce and this was the main contributing factor for noticeable changes in traditional dress. At
the turn of the Twentieth century this process was witnessed practically across the whole empire. In
the Kharkiv Governorate the traditional (for that time) headdress almost vanished, 42 instead silk and
woolen scarves previously seen only in the cities were used in rural areas. Occasionally they were
worn with traditional wrap around skirts.43 Women began dressing more in simple skirts and
sweaters. Men‘s dress increasingly included cloth shirts, and pants made of purchased fabric that
were narrower than traditionally worn pants.
The growth of consumer needs caused peasants to add new items which were produced and
previously only used in cities, to their list of items of daily use. The most obvious changes in
clothing occurred because machine made fabrics became available and because peasants gradually
began using elements of clothing that were widely used by common city dwellers. The latter was
greatly influenced by increasingly homogenous goods available for purchase. However along with
this, considerable influence was given to their sense of style, a desire to display individuality
through clothing and as a result a desire to adopt something different, particularly from the city.
***
Looking at the co-existence of rural and urban areas in the Kharkiv Governorate, it is
possible to trace a certain uniqueness and similarity to other territories during this particular time
and place. The unique characteristics of the inhabitants and the administrative and social structure
of Sloboda Ukraine created long lasting similarities between its rural and urban spaces. In the post
reform period most of the cities in the Governorate retained, to some degree, features similar to
rural life, while nonetheless turning into settlements that were distinctly different from rural areas.
41
Радакова Е.П. Отчет о поездке по Старобельскому уезду / Е.П. Радакова // Труды харьковского
предварительного комитета по устройству XII археологического създа. – Т. 1. – Харьков, 1902. – С. 105–106;
Жизнь и творчество крестьян Харьковской губернии. Очерк этнографии края / Под ред. В.В. Иванова. –
Харьков, 1898. – Т.1. – С. 956–957. (Radakova, Y. P. Otchiet o poiezdkie po Starobielskomu uiezdu / Y. P. Radakova
// Trudy kharkovskoho priedvaritielnoho komitieta po ustroystvu XII arkhieolohichieskoho szda. – vol. 1. – Kharkov,
1902. – p. 105-106; Zhizn i tvorchiestvo kriestian Kharkovskoy hubiernii. Ochierk yetnohrafii kraia / Edited by V. V.
Ivanova. -- Kharkov, 1898. -- vol. 1. -- pp. 956-957.)
42
Women‘s headdress was often made of brocade.
43
Different types of women‘s skirts made by fabrics, woven by hand from wool, which they wrapped around the waist
and secured with a belt.
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Antonina Skydanova, Trade as a factor in economic and cultural ties
between Ukrainian towns and villages
In addition to providing traditional administrative functions, urban spaces also began to differentiate
themselves because their inhabitants were largely involved in commercial and industrial activities;
they had a developed infrastructure, a unique way of life and a materialistic culture. However, in
distinguishing themselves the differences also became the reason for new interactions between the
city and the village, and strengthened ties which ultimately produced reciprocal changes in both
urban and rural life.
Trade was one of the spheres where the city and village met. Trade connected them
economically, and became a common sphere of activity, fueling initiative and mobility among
peasants, distributing homogeneous products, and luring peasants to borrow urban lifestyle
accessories. Obviously the characteristics of trade as a factor in economic and socio-cultural ties
were pivotal in the period being researched because of their potential to develop and form new
features and qualities in the bond between city and village. In various areas, because of economic
and geographic features (and sometimes cultural and the mentality of the population), they emerged
either stronger and more obvious or weaker and incompletely evolved.
An example of this
inconsistency is clearly traced in the Kharkiv Governorate. However, together with this, and
regardless of the irregular, often slow, dynamics of disclosure, it is worth including trade as one of
the factors which forged innovations in the relationship between city and village in the post-serfdom
period of the history of Ukrainian lands that were included in the Russian Empire.
Translated by Uliana Paluch
Antonina Skydanova completed her studies in history at the V. N. Karazin Kharkiv National University. She later obtained her PhD
("Candidate") in history, and is currently employed at the Center for Presessional Education at the V. N. Karazin National
University in Kharkiv.
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