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Florida International University
Engineering Center
10555 West Flager Street
Miami, Florida.
EGN 1033“Technology Human and Society”
(Summer A, 2005)
Professor S. Tosunoglu
Presented by:
Lisa Samough (Leader)
Christian Hernandez
Hannah Njau
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Table of Contents
Abstract (by Lisa Samough) .………………………………………………………… 2
Introduction (by Hannah Njau) ………………………………………………………. 3
Technology and Methods (by Hannah Njau) ………………………………………… 4
Possible Impacts on Society (by Christian Hernandez) ………………………..……. 7
Ethics of Cloning (by Lisa Samough) ..………………………………………………. 9
Conclusion (by Lisa Samough, Hannah Njau, and Christian Hernandez) …………... 13
References …………………………………………………………………………… 15
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Abstract
This report aims to give a compact yet thorough view of the technology known as
cloning. This presentation begins with an introduction explaining the history and background
behind cloning. Following this is a look at the techniques behind cloning, and how it can be
applied. Next, the negative and positive implications involved with this technology’s application
will be investigated, as well as the potential short-term and long-term effects of its possible
application to society. Finally, the ethics involved in this controversial technology will be
addressed. A conclusion containing a summary of the major points will bring this presentation to
a sound end, where one will be able to use the information presented here to help decide the
future of this revolutionary technology.
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Introduction
The possibilities of human cloning first came into view after the successful cloning of the
famous sheep Dolly. Experimental techniques involve cloning plant and animal embryos. The
first animal to be cloned was a tadpole in 1952. Since then experimental techniques involving
cloning plant and animal embryos have been undertaken extensively. Dolly was cloned from the
frozen cells of an adult sheep. Her genetic makeup was exactly the same as that of her mother
who had died years before.
Human cloning has brought up many debates concerning the ethical issues involved.
Currently, human cloning is banned in many countries worldwide and is still considered to be
unethical by most. The following presentation will cover the technologies used in human cloning
and the ethical issues on human cloning. Furthermore, the applications of human cloning
including the advantages and disadvantages and the possible impacts of the technology behind
human cloning.
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Technology and Methods
What is Cloning?
Cloning is the production of exact replicates of multiple copies of a single gene or
segment of DNA using DNA technology. There are various types of cloning technologies:
Recombinant DNA technology, therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning. This technology
has been around since the 1970s.
Recombinant DNA technology involves the transfer of a DNA fragment from one
organism, replicating it in a plasmid and inserting it into a foreign host cell.
Therapeutic cloning, which is also known as embryo cloning, is the cloning of embryos
for the purpose of research, not to clone humans. Biomedical researchers use this technique. In
this technique, stem cells are harvested in order to study human development and to find cures
for diseases. Scientists hope that the stem cells can be used to create replacement cells for failing
organs like the heart or to treat various diseases. The stem cells are obtained from the eggs at the
blastocyst stage. These stem cells can be differentiated into any specialized human cells.
The main problem with therapeutic cloning is that the embryos are destroyed once the
stem cells are extracted. This has brought about many ethical issues that will be discussed later.
The first embryos were successfully cloned in November 2001 by the biotechnology company
Advanced Cell Technologies in Massachusetts, USA.
Reproductive cloning is the most widely known and discussed technique as it is the main
technique that would be used to clone humans. The sheep dolly was cloned through reproductive
cloning. The process involves generating an animal that has the same nuclear DNA as another
animal. There are three main techniques in this category, Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT),
the Roslin Technique and the Honolulu technique.
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Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer was first explored in the 1920s by Hans Spemann for
genetic research purposes. It involves two cells, a donor cell which is a somatic cell and an egg
cell. A somatic cell is a normal body cell that is not a reproductive cell. The nucleus of the egg
cell is firstly removed and the nucleus of the somatic cell is transferred into the egg by cell fusion
or transplantation. The egg cell is then prompted to begin forming an embryo. An electric current
is applied to the egg to stimulate cell division. Once the embryo has developed it is transplanted
into a surrogate mother or could be used to generate stem cells for therapeutic purposes. This is
the technique that is currently being used to clone adult humans.
The Roslin technique developed at the Roslin Institute in Roslin Scotland, and it aims to
synchronize the cell cycles of the donor and recipient cells. The donor cell is first put in an
inactive suspended state. This is done by keeping the cell in a Petri dish with just enough
nutrients to keep it alive. The two cells are then placed next to each other. An electric pulse is
fired to fuse the donor cell and enucleated egg together and to activate formation of the embryo.
The embryo is then placed in an ewe’s uterus in attempts to produce a sheep clone. Dolly was
cloned using this specific technique.
The Honolulu technique was developed by Teruhiko Wakayama and Ryuzo Yanagimachi
at the University of Hawaii, Honolulu. It is different from the Roslin technique because it does
not use an electric shock for cell fusion. Instead the donor’s cell nucleus is transferred to the
enucleated egg by transplantation and allowed to sit for an hour. The resulting cell is then treated
with chemicals to activate cell division so as to form an embryo. This technique has a higher
success rate that the Roslin technique.
Cloning technologies can be used for various purposes. Recombinant DNA technology
can be used in gene therapy that can be used to treat genetic diseases. Reproductive cloning can
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be used to repopulate endangered animals or animals that have problems with breeding. However
more research and tests need to be conducted to make this process successful. Therapeutic
cloning can be one day used in humans to produce full organs from stem cells or to produce
healthy cells to replace damaged ones in diseases like Alzheimers disease.
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Possible Impacts on Society
Through the application of this technology there is a vast amount positive and negative aspects to
consider. The positive aspects of cloning include:
•
Cloning plants and animals will create an infinite supply of research subject for use in
fields like genetics, evolution, and cause/ effect behavior
•
Cloning plants and animals will also create an almost limitless source of food for
humanity
•
Cloning humans will bring about a huge advance in modern medicine and eliminate the
“waiting list” for organ transplants
•
Cloning humans will also create the greatest solution ever known for infertile couples
•
Cloning humans could even go further and help humanity as a whole be freed from genes
that are known to lead to diseases and go beyond average human capabilities
On the contrary, the negative aspects of cloning include:
•
Cloning is expensive and requires a lot of funds to be dedicated to it, and many argue that
the money is better spent in other areas of national and global need.
•
Cloning is pretty unrealistic because of the constraints created by our current technology,
and therefore could be considered a huge waste of money if it is practiced
•
Cloning animals will bring up arguments of animal right violations.
•
Anything that is created in a lab through cloning could be patented, marketed, and sold
like any other piece of property on earth.
•
Hidden motives of those with great power can lead to gross misuse of cloning to create
armies of soldiers and clones of themselves to have their reign continue forever.
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Beyond the positive and negative aspects that can arise from cloning there are also short-term
and long-term effects to consider. The short-term effects include:
•
The developing filed might get a surge of funds from those companies desperate to get
some control on the groundbreaking technology.
•
Certain disease will be researched and better understood. Cures for major disease will be
that much closer.
•
Infertile couples will welcome the developing technology in hopes of having the means
to have children of their own some day.
•
Development of specialized cells and whole organs will bring modern medicine into a
new era of development and practice.
•
Arguments of morality and ethical viewpoints regarding cloning will bring up heated
discussions, for better or for worse.
The long-term effects of cloning include:
•
Psychological effects of being born a clone cannot be determined without taking the large
risks associated with cloning a human in the first place.
•
Technology will probably advance to the point of making a market out of genes and
“buying” the ideal child.
•
Some major side effects that a clone experiences might not be revealed until later in its
life when it is too late to stop from debilitating of killing the clone.
•
The “Gene Pool” might become significantly smaller and a disease that affects those
genes can cause an epidemic that can nearly wipeout humanity.
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Ethics of Cloning
Cloning is one of the most controversial issues of the decade. This controversy stems
from the manipulation of embryonic cells, or the manipulation of genetic material to produce
desirable results. Where these results can produce great benefits to mankind it simultaneously
creates an unbalance within science and ethics. Between bioethicists, religious enthusiasts,
politicians, conservatists, and liberalists, this battle on the ethics of cloning is one that proves
difficult to balance.
Arguments for cloning as being ethical are powerful, precise and many. These include:
•
Arguments for autonomy, where everyone should be able to determine the fate of
their own cells, including whether they be transformed into other cell types or what
they are used for (Easton). Where our society has generally respected individual
privacy and the general right to control ones body in regard to reproduction, this view
is one that liberalists are increasingly advocating.
•
Allows nontraditional couples and individuals (same-sex couples, single mothers,
single fathers) to have children who are biologically related to themselves. Therefore
both a male and female gamete would be no longer necessary for reproduction (The
President’s Council on Bioethics).
•
According to the President’s council on Bioethics, society should resist fearing new
technology. Where culture plays a role in developing the values of society, once a
society adopts a new technology it will be no longer feared and rejected. As, just
because something is possible does not mean it is desirable. However, just because
something is new (even "revolutionary") does not mean it ought to be feared and
rejected. Prohibiting it would violate the fundamental freedom of scientific inquiring.
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The basis of science is to conduct research so as to produce new findings about
ourselves as humans, and how we can benefit or be harmed. Since this is the basis,
obstructing the major goal of science is a possibility.
•
Prohibiting it would violate the fundamental freedom of scientific inquiring. The
basis of science is to conduct research so as to produce new findings about ourselves,
and how we can benefit or be harmed. Where this is basis is obstructed the major goal
of science is jeopardized.
•
Costs and other such failures are unavoidable. Beneficial research and technological
breakthroughs often come with errors in all fields, especially research on human
embryos and fetuses. In all areas of science and engineering, even life in general,
many drafts must be tested before the final product is perfected.
•
With respect to a legal aspect, where one recognizes human life at birth, or at least
where there is consciousness there is thus no morally relevant difference between an
embryo and a fetus until some critical point in brain development (Easton). It is
ethical to use such cells according to a wanted cause.
•
The belief that an embryonic cell is just like any other cell, as all cells have the
potential to differentiate into a stem cell if the right conditions persist, the argument
for the special treatment of embryonic cells becomes useless (Easton). Thus the
manipulation of an embryonic cell to produce a desirable want can be seen as ethical.
•
Where this technology can result in life-saving or reduce the suffering of ailing
persons, to delay such research is synonymous to being responsible for the person’s
death (Easton). As it can be used to prevent and cure genetic disease, in this respect,
cloning can be seen as ethical.
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Similarly, the arguments against cloning as being unethical are also just as strong,
verifiable, and honorable. These arguments include:
•
With respect to working with an embryo, despite claims that a fetus has rights only after
tissue differentiation, or when there is an identifiable brain structure, or consciousness,
these claims can be viewed as insensitive, as once fertilization occurs it is recognized as
having the ability to develop into a human being. As such it should be endowed with
rights, and practices upon it would be unethical.
•
Where these technologies can be applied to cure and prevent diseases, would it be
unbiasly administered among the population despite distinctions in class, race, income
earnings, and other such prejudices? What will influence the equal administration of the
benefits of cloning?
•
Through manipulating embryonic cells to produce a human clone primarily for the
purpose producing a needed organ or the like, this intention is unethical life would be
creating life with the intention of ending it.
•
Cloning violates the right to individuality and identity. A human clone would be the
genetic and phenotypic copy of its parent. This is beyond the concept of twins, which can
share a similar phenotype. Through allowing this technology to be applied it would be
unethical to purposely rob someone of such a right.
•
Where specific genetic traits can be chosen, such a eugenic process can be violated where
it keeps the "superior" man-made genotype free of the flaws that sexual reproduction
might otherwise introduce. Furthermore it reduces genetic diversity.
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•
The activities of cloning allow man to play the role of “God.” Where one can argue that
we are unaware of God’s intentions for human knowledge, from an ethical stance
manipulating human life cannot be accepted.
•
A ban on clonal baby making will not harm the progress of basic genetic science and
technology. On the contrary, it will reassure the public that scientists are happy to
proceed without violating the deep ethical norms and intuitions of the human community
(Easton).
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Conclusion
Cloning is the asexual reproduction of an organism, with the exact replication of a single
gene or segment of DNA. It involves the use of manipulating embryonic cells and genetic
material to produce a specific desired trait. There are 3 types of cloning procedures currently
available- therapeutic cloning, reproductive cloning, and recombinant DNA cloning. Somatic
Cell Nuclear transfer (SCNT), the Roslin Technique and the Honolulu technique are the
techniques used within these procedures. These techniques involve the insertion of a foreign
nucleus into an enucleated egg cell so as to produce the desired result. The most successful is the
Honolulu technique, which is being applied to clone animals. Future research can yield the
successful clones of human beings.
The pros of cloning include: a means to cure and prevent genetic disease, provides organ
replacement, solutions to infertility, and an infinite food supply. The cons of cloning are: the
technology can be misused by unscrupulous persons, high costs are involved (both financially
and ethically), issues concerning patent and marketing could enable the product to be sold, issues
concerning animal rights violations.
Such a technology has both great implications for the future. The short term effects
include: arguments of morality and ethics, a reduction in the number of deaths from major
diseases, the waiting list for organs can be drastically reduced, companies desperate to be
involved in such a technology would provide a surge of funds. The long term effects include:
reduction in genetic diversity, harmful side effects of cloning may be realized too late,
psychological effects of cloning are uncertain, technology will allow the ideal child to be bought
Such effects and benefits of cloning raises major issues concerning morality and ethics.
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The main ethical concern against the practice of cloning involves the use of an embryo
due to its ability to produce a human. Psychological concerns, eugenic desires, the corruption of
the human body, and assuming the role of “God” are also used to argue against cloning.
Counteracting this are claims that the benefits greatly outweigh the costs, where ailments can
relieve, and acknowledgment of the embryo as being ordinary accompanied with the view that
the fetus isn’t conscious until brain development.
Even with the current bans on cloning and limitations on working with embryos the
reality of cloning on humans, or otherwise are becoming more evident. Whether one is for or
against cloning all can appreciate its pros and cons to realize that it is such a technology that will
launch mankind into the 21st century of biotechnology as it represents a remarkable test of
human restraint, wisdom and institutional development.
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References
1. Cloning Fact Sheet. 2004. <www.ornl.gov/hgmis/elsi/cloning.html>.
2. Easton, Thomas. 2005. Taking Sides: Clashing Views on Controversial Issues in Science
,Technology and Society. 6th Edition. McGraw Hill: Iowa.
3. Human Cloning Methods
<http://www.stanford.edu/~eclipse9/sts129/cloning/methods.html>.
4. Methods of Cloning. 2005. <http://www.humancloning.org>.
5. The President’s Council on Bioethics. 2002. Arguments for Reproductive Cloning.
<http://www.bioethics.gov/background/workpaper3a.html>.
6. Thinkquest.org. 1998. <http://library.thinkquest.org/18258/cloning.htm>.
7. You Yan, Human Cloning: A Blessing or a Curse?
<http://www.bjreview.com.cn/2001/200147/CoverStory-200147.htm>.