Glossary
access In group theory, the opportunity for persons or groups to express
their viewpoints to decision-makers.
adjudication The application through judicial or judicial-like procedure of
existing law or policy to particular cases.
administrative agencies Executive-branch organizations that implement
public policies and carry on the day-to-day activities of government.
advocacy coalition A like-minded set of officials, groups, agencies, and
others that operates within a political subsystem.
agenda-setting The various ways by which problems can gain a place on an
agenda and attract the attention of policy-makers.
antitrust policy A public policy intended to prevent monopoly and maintain
competition in the economy.
appropriations legislation Following authorization legislation, this law
actually makes money available to support government programs.
attentive public Those persons who are especially interested in and
informed about a public policy.
authorization legislation Law that creates government policies and programs
and provides legal authority for the outlay of money to carry them out.
backdoor spending Expenditures made by government agencies on the
basis of borrowing and contracting authority, and which circumvent the
normal appropriations process. Also includes entitlements.
bargaining Decision-making through a process of negotiation, give-and-take,
and compromise.
baseline budgeting Based on economic assumptions, this system of
budgeting estimates the future budgeting costs of current policies.
basic decision A decision that makes a major change in the direction or
content of public policy. Also called a “fundamental decision.”
budget Technically, a statement of estimated revenues and proposed
expenditures; it is also a policy statement and a political document.
budget authority This permits agencies to commit or obligate themselves to
the later expenditure (or outlay) of funds.
budget deficit The amount by which a government’s expenditures exceed
revenues in a fiscal year.
bureau A major administrative subunit in a government department or
agency, such as the Bureau of Reclamation or the National Park Service.
capture Said to occur when interest groups are thought to have too much
control or influence over a government agency.
checks and balances The constitutional right of the branches of the
national government to interfere with and to limit the exercise of power by
one another.
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G2
Glossary
clientele The set of reasonably distinct or identifiable individuals and
groups served or regulated by an agency, such as broadcasters and the
Federal Communications Commission.
collective goods Goods such as national defense or clean air that are
indivisible and must be provided to all or to none. They are “nonrivalous.”
command The ability of those in hierarchical positions to make decisions
that are binding on subordinates.
common law Law based on judicial decisions and custom and usage rather
than on statutes.
competitive regulatory policy This controls entry into an industry and the
quality of goods or services provided.
congressional oversight Actions by Congress to supervise and control the
activities of administrative agencies.
constituency Those groups, officials, and others that an agency or its
officials take into account when making decisions.
continuing resolution Congressional action permitting agencies whose
appropriations have not been enacted to continue to operate and expend
funds.
cooperative federalism All levels of government—national, state, and
local—interacting and cooperating in the formation and execution of
public policies.
decision-making The process of making a choice among a number of
alternatives.
decision rules Guidelines or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making
on particular topics.
deference A form of decision-making in which a person accepts, or defers
to, the judgment of someone else.
delegated powers Those powers assigned to the national government in
Article I, Section 8, of the Constitution.
delegation of power Action by Congress authorizing the executive or
administrative agencies to take action on specified topics, often by
rule-making.
deregulation Proposals and actions to eliminate or severely reduce
economic regulatory programs.
discretion The capacity of administrative officials to exercise choice on
some topics because of authority delegated to them.
discretionary spending This is authorized but not required by law; the
appropriations process determines how much money will be spent for a
given purpose.
distributive policy A policy that provides services or benefits to particular
persons, groups, or communities.
dual federalism The theory that the national and state government have
distinct and separate spheres of action. Now outdated.
Glossary
G3
elite theory The view that public policies are determined by a small segment
of society, such as an upper class, uncontrolled by the mass of citizens.
entitlement programs These provide that everyone meeting eligibility
requirements is legally entitled to benefit payments on the basis of a
formula in the law—for example, Social Security.
environmental movement A social movement comprising many persons
and organizations advocating environmental interests.
executive department A large administrative organization, headed by a
secretary, that is a basic component of the executive branch; for example,
the Department of Health and Human Services.
executive order A legally binding policy statement issued by the president
on the basis of his or her constitutional or delegated authority.
executive veto Action by a chief executive to formally disapprove a
legislative enactment.
federalism The constitutional division of power between a central or
national government and a series of state or provincial governments.
fiscal policy Policy that involves the use of government taxing and spending
activities, and budget surpluses and deficits, to influence the overall
operation of the economy.
fiscal year A twelve-month period, often not coincident with the calendar
year, used for budgetary purposes.
formulation The development of proposed courses of action or alternatives
for dealing with public problems.
government corporation Corporation established to administer businesslike
or commercial activities, this agency has more operating freedom than other
agencies.
group theory A theory holding that policies result from conflict and struggle
among political interest groups.
hammers Provisions included in laws that are intended to compel agencies
to take actions.
ideology A more or less systematic set of values and beliefs that serves as a
guide to action and understanding.
incremental budgeting Limited analysis that produces marginal changes in
budget expenditures.
incrementalism A theory of decision-making holding that decisions are
usually based on limited analysis and involve marginal changes in existing
policies.
independent agency An agency other than an independent regulatory
commission or government corporation, formally located outside of the
executive departments, for example, the Central Intelligence Agency.
independent regulatory commission A plural-headed agency handling
economic regulatory programs that is somewhat free from presidential
control, such as the Federal Reserve Board.
G4
Glossary
informal procedures Agency modes of handling matters that are not
specified by laws or other legal documents—for example, negotiated
settlements and friendly persuasion.
initiative A process available in some states by which a proposed law is put
on the ballot by citizen petition for voter approval.
institution A regularized pattern of human behavior that persists over time
and that performs an important task. The political party is an institution.
institutional agenda A set of problems of interest to the member of a
particular governmental body, such as a legislature.
institutionalism A theory stressing the importance of organizational
arrangements and rules in shaping public policies.
interest group A private organization or group that strives to influence the
actions of governmental officials.
iron triangle A political subsystem comprising a government agency,
congressional committees, and some interest groups that is resistant to
external influences.
issue A problem or matter on which there is disagreement as to what should
be done about it.
issue network A political subsystem marked by its loose amorphous
character and the inclusion of many policy experts.
judicial review The power of a court to determine the constitutionality of
legislative and executive actions.
laissez-faire A term designating government inaction either on some aspects
of economic activity or generally.
legislative intent The meaning and purpose, not always clear, of a law
passed by Congress.
legislative veto The rejection by Congress or its committees of proposed
executive or agency actions. Unconstitutional but frequently used in
practice.
legitimacy The quality of rightness or appropriateness that may
characterize a government or a policy and enhance its acceptability
and authoritativeness.
lobbying The transmission of information to public officials by pressuregroup representatives hoping to influence government decisions.
logrolling The exchange of support by persons interested in different
matters; often called “mutual back-scratching.”
macropolitics Policymaking that includes a wide range of important
political actors the president, congressional leaders, interest groups,
and others.
majority building The use of bargaining and other means to create the
various numerical majorities needed to pass or kill legislation.
mandatory spending Spending that is required by law, as for Social
Security benefits. It is not subject to the regular appropriations process.
Glossary
G5
material policy A policy that provides or denies tangible resources or
substantive power to those at whom it is directed.
methodological individualism The individual, rather than group, class, or
some other unit, is the focus of analysis.
micropolitics Political activity to gain benefits for particular persons,
companies, or communities, characterized by limited participation.
monetary policy Manipulation of the interest rate and money supply to
influence the overall operation of the economy.
national debt A product of budget deficits, this is the total of financial
obligations that the national government owes to others, now more than
$7 trillion.
nondecision The failure of government to take action on a problem or
condition or to even meaningfully consider it.
opportunity cost The value of the next best alternative to the one that a
person has chosen.
organization A formal social structure with members and/or employees
established to accomplish some purpose.
outlays The payments made by agencies for goods and services and to meet
obligations.
persuasion The use of reason, facts, and logic to convince others of the
correctness of one’s position on an issue.
pluralism A theory holding that political power in a society is dispersed
among many groups or other entities.
policy advocacy Activity to secure what someone identifies as good or
proper public policy.
policy agenda A set of problems that public officials feel they should act on
in some way.
policy analysis Research drawing upon economic theory that seeks to
identify the most efficient way to handle a problem.
policy community A subsystem with many participants that is more stable
and determinant in nature than an issue network.
policy decisions Choices made on whether something should be adopted as
public policy.
policy demands Requests or calls for action or inaction by government on
some matter by individuals, groups, or others.
policy entrepeneur A person who, through effort, persistence, or expenditure
of resources, promotes action on policy issues, often successfully.
policy evaluation Concerned with trying to determine the effects or
consequences of actual public policies.
policy formation The total process by which public policies are developed
and implemented.
policy impact The effects or consequences of a policy, whether intended or
unintended, on society.
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Glossary
policy implementation The process of applying a policy to its target
population.
policy outcomes The ultimate consequences that a policy has for society—
for instance, its contribution to social contentment or security.
policy outputs Specific actions taken to carry out policy decisions and
statements, such as the collection of taxes or the paying out of benefits.
policy priorities A ranking on some basis of a set of problems or issues
from more to less important.
policy problem A condition or situation in society that causes people
distress or dissatisfaction and for which relief is sought through
government action.
policy statements Formal expressions or articulations of public policies in
laws, administrative rules, and other documents.
policy study The effort to systematically explain or account for the adoption
of public policies.
political culture Widely shared attitudes, values, and beliefs regarding the
nature and use of political power.
political parties Organizations that nominate candidates, contest elections,
and seek to gain control of the government.
political system Those interrelated and identifiable institutions and
activities in a society that make authoritative allocations of value or
binding rules.
political systems theory Theory that holds that public policies are a
political system’s responses to demands from its environment.
pollution The discharge of substances into the environment that interfere
with or prevent socially desired uses of the environment.
pork-barrel legislation Legislation that authorizes spending on projects
such as dams and research facilities located in particular states or localities,
i.e., pork.
presidential commission A temporary group, created by the chief executive,
consisting of public officials and/or private citizens who study and make
recommendations on a problem.
presidential veto Constitutional authority of the president to reject laws
passed by Congress, unless reenacted by a two-thirds vote of each house.
pressure group See interest group.
primary policy-makers Those who are given constitutional authority to
engage in policymaking—for example, the legislature.
private goods Goods that can be divided into units and individually
awarded or sold and charged for.
private problems Matters that are of real concern to only one (or a few)
person(s).
privatization The transfer of government functions or property into private
hands.
Glossary
G7
procedural policy A policy that specifies how government will handle some
matter, such as the conduct of criminal trials.
program A set of rules, routines, and resources (including personnel) in an
agency designed to carry out a policy or portion thereof—for example, the
adult education program in the U.S. Department of Education.
public interest What is of interest or benefit to people generally rather than
particular groups or segments of the population.
public-interest group A group that supports broad causes and goals that are
of benefit to society generally—for example, Common Cause.
public opinion Expressions of public attitudes or beliefs on political issues
that public officials find it prudent to heed.
public policy A purposive course of action followed by government in
dealing with some problem or matter of concern.
public problems Problems that have a broad effect, including consequences
for persons not directly involved.
quantitative data Numerical indicators of social, political, or economic phenomena, such as birth rates, voter turnout, or employment levels.
rational-choice theory Theory that holds that public policies result from the
pursuit of self-interest by citizens and officials.
rational comprehensive decision-making The theory that decisions should
be made on the basis of full analysis of all of the alternatives for a problem. Optimum decisions are the goal.
reconciliation A process by which Congress adjusts the amounts in tax,
spending, and debt legislation to conform to ceilings in the budget
resolution for a given fiscal year.
redistributive policy A policy that shifts resources such as money or power
among broad groups of people, from the haves to the have-nots.
referendum A vote by citizens on whether a legislative proposal, such as a
tax increase, should become law. Also used for proposed constitutional
amendments.
regulatory policy A policy that imposes limitations, restraints, or mandates
on persons, groups, and businesses, thus reducing their discretion to act.
rescission Action by the president and Congress to cancel previously granted
appropriations authority.
reserved powers Those governmental powers possessed by the states on the
basis of the Tenth Amendment.
revenues Taxes, fees, donations, and other sources of government income.
routine decision A comparatively minor or limited decision that falls within
the bounds of settled policy.
rule An agency policy statement of general applicability and future effect.
Also called a regulation. It fills in the details of law.
sanctions Rewards or penalties used to promote compliance with public
policies.
G8
Glossary
self-regulatory policy A policy in which those ostensibly being regulated
have much influence over the regulation.
separation of power The constitutional allocation of power among
legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.
stare decisis A judicial decision rule that holds that precedents established
by previous cases should be followed in deciding current cases.
substantive policy A policy that directly distributes advantages and
disadvantages, or costs and benefits, to people.
subsystem politics Policymaking activity involving a limited number of
participants that is focused on a particular policy area, such as banking
regulation.
sunk costs Previous decisions and actions that limit what one can do in the
future.
supplementary policy-makers Those who gain their authority to engage in
policymaking from others, namely, primary policy-makers.
sweeteners Special provisions added to a bill to make it more acceptable to
some legislators or other persons.
symbolic policy A policy that expresses desired values but has little if any
material impact on people.
systemic agenda A set of problems that are of concern generally to the
members of a community.
task force An informal or ad hoc group of citizens and officials used to
examine and/or propose action on a problem. Used by some presidents.
terrorism The unlawful use of force, violence, and intimidation against civilians in a society to advance political or ideological goals.
transition rules Special provision in tax laws that lessen the impact of tax
changes or increases.
trust fund Money collected and used by the government only for a
particular purpose, such as highway construction or Social Security.
uncontrollable expenditures Funds that the government is required to
spend on the basis of existing laws. Also called direct spending.
values Strongly held preferences or standards that guide the conduct of
people.