ARTICLE IN PRESS
Journal of
Adolescence
Journal of Adolescence 30 (2007) 885–890
www.elsevier.com/locate/jado
Brief report: Coping among Austrian children and adolescents
Petra Hampel
Center of Clinical Psychology and Rehabilitation, University of Bremen, Grazer Strasse 6, D-28359 Bremen, Germany
Abstract
The study investigated age and gender effects on coping with common stressors among 494 Austrian
children and adolescents (age 8–14 years). Participants were subdivided into subgroups of late children
comprising third and fourth graders, early adolescents consisting of fifth and sixth graders, and middle
adolescents including seventh graders. Middle adolescents showed a maladaptive coping pattern with
decreased problem and emotion-focused coping strategies and increased passive avoidance and aggression.
Females scored higher on social support and also on the maladaptive coping strategy rumination. Female
middle adolescents reported higher resignation than their male contemporaries and female children. Results
suggest the application of primary preventive stress management programs in late childhood and early
adolescence.
r 2007 The Association for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights
reserved.
Keywords: Coping; Children and adolescents
Introduction
Adolescence is a strong transition period, which is characterized by heightened normative and
non-normative stressors. Previous research has shown that the adverse effects of stress on
psychosocial adjustment are moderated and mediated by internal resources such as coping (for
Tel.: +49 421 218 4708; fax: +49 421 218 4617.
E-mail address: [email protected]
0140-1971/$30.00 r 2007 The Association for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All
rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.04.005
ARTICLE IN PRESS
886
P. Hampel / Journal of Adolescence 30 (2007) 885–890
reviews, see Compas, Connor-Smith, Saltzman, Harding Thomsen, & Wadsworth, 2001; Grant
et al., 2006).
Although a greater diversity and flexibility in coping abilities have been found in adolescents
(Roecker, Dubow, & Donaldson, 1996), curvilinear trends with maladaptive coping during early
and middle adolescence compared to childhood and late adolescence are suggested. Thus,
adolescents (age 11–15) showed higher levels of maladaptive coping strategies such as resignation,
self-criticism, rumination, aggression, and avoidance and lower levels of adaptive strategies like
distraction and seeking for social support (Donaldson, Prinstein, Danovsky, & Spirito, 2000;
Hampel & Petermann, 2005, 2006; Seiffge-Krenke, 2000). Inconsistent results on problem-focused
coping point to a U-shaped curve for problem solving and suggest increases in meta-cognitive
capacities in mid adolescence (Donaldson et al., 2000; Rossman, 1992; Wertlieb, Weigel, &
Feldstein, 1987).
Regarding gender effects, strong evidence has been accumulated for a preference of girls
to employ social support on common stressors (e.g., Donaldson et al., 2000; Hampel &
Petermann, 2005, 2006; Roecker et al, 1996; Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Furthermore, girls applied
more emotion-focused coping such as relaxation (de Anda et al., 2000; Donaldson et al., 2000) as
well as more maladaptive strategies such as emotional ventilation, rumination, avoidance, and
resignation (Connor-Smith, Compas, Wadsworth, Harding Thomsen, & Saltzman, 2000;
Donaldson et al., 2000; Hampel & Petermann, 2005, 2006).
Only few studies have investigated the gender-by-age interaction and suggested a maladaptive
coping pattern in females aged 11–15 (e.g., Hampel & Petermann, 2005; Jose & Brown, 2007).
Several models were constructed to explain, that the maladaptive coping pattern with a high use
of ruminative and avoidant coping puts female early and middle adolescents at a high risk for the
development of emotional problems in late adolescence (cf. Grant et al., 2006; Hankin &
Abramson, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987).
The aim of the present study was to replicate earlier results of age and gender effects on coping
with common stressors. It was predicted that the emotion-focused coping strategy distraction
would be decreased and maladaptive strategies would be increased among middle adolescents in
particular. Additionally, it was expected that females would score higher on the problem-focused
strategy social support and on maladaptive strategies than males. With regard to the interaction
effect, it was hypothesized that female adolescents would show a maladaptive coping pattern with
less adaptive and more maladaptive coping strategies.
Method
Participants and procedure
Participants of the present study were 494 children and adolescents recruited from six
elementary and three grammar schools in Graz, Austria. They were aged from 8 to 14 years and
subdivided into subgroups of late children comprising third and fourth graders (n ¼ 156, 64
males, 92 females, M ¼ 9.44, S.D. ¼ 0.68 years), early adolescents consisting of fifth and sixth
graders (n ¼ 213, 97 males, 116 females, M ¼ 11.35, S.D. ¼ 0.72 years), and middle adolescents
including seventh graders (n ¼ 125, 60 males, 65 females, M ¼ 12.78, S.D. ¼ 0.47 years). All
ARTICLE IN PRESS
P. Hampel / Journal of Adolescence 30 (2007) 885–890
887
primary school children and 95% of the students of the secondary school agreed to participate in
the study.
Measure
The German Coping Questionnaire for children and adolescents (Stressverarbeitungsfragebogen
für Kinder und Jugendliche, SVF-KJ) was used to assess coping strategies (cf. Hampel &
Petermann, 2005; Hampel, Dickow, & Petermann, 2001). Related to an interpersonal and an
academic stressor, nine different coping strategies were assessed, each represented by four items.
In accordance with Lazarus and Folkman (1984), the two adaptive coping styles ‘emotion-focused
coping’ and ‘problem-focused coping’ were measured. Emotion-focused coping comprised of
minimization and distraction. Problem-focused coping consisted of situation control, positive selfinstructions, and social support. In addition, four subtests represented the maladaptive coping
style, composed by passive avoidance, rumination, resignation, and aggression.
Participants rated the likelihood for each coping response on a 5-point Likert scale (0 ¼ not at
all, 4 ¼ in any case). Cross-situational coping was obtained by calculating mean scores across data
of coping with both stress domains. Coping strategies showed sufficient to good internal
consistency (mean Cronbach’s alpha ¼ 0.80, Fisher’s z-transformed).
Data analysis
A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) on the nine cross-situational scores of coping
strategies using the age group (late childhood, early, and middle adolescence) and gender as
between-subjects factors was performed. With regard to multiple tests, only results of univariate
analyses with po.01 are considered. To locate mean differences, mean comparisons by Bonferroni
were conducted with po.05.
Results
The two-way MANOVA revealed significant main effects of the age group (Wilks’ F(18,960) ¼
5.06, po0.001, Z2 ¼ 0.087) and gender (Wilks’ F(9,480) ¼ 2.19, p ¼ 0.022, Z2 ¼ 0.039) and a
significant interaction (Wilks’ F(18,960) ¼ 1.73, p ¼ 0.029, Z2 ¼ 0.031). Middle adolescents scored
lower on distraction, situation control, positive self-instructions, and social support as well as
higher on passive avoidance and aggression than late children (Table 1). In addition, middle
adolescents showed less social support as well as higher passive avoidance and aggression than
early adolescents. Finally, compared to late children, early adolescents reported less distraction
and social support and higher passive avoidance.
With respect to gender, univariate ANOVAs revealed that females applied more social support
and rumination than males. Furthermore, the simple interaction indicated that female middle
adolescents scored higher on resignation than female late children. Male late children reported
more resignation than male early adolescents. Finally, male late children showed higher
resignation than females of the same age, whereas female middle adolescents endorsed more
resignation than male contemporaries.
888
Table 1
Means (M) and standard deviations (S.D.) for coping strategies by age group and gender and summary of ANOVA results
Scale
Grade level
5/6
7
3/4
Male
7
Female
Age
group
Gender
Age group
by gender
F(2,488)
F(2,488)
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
M
S.D.
F(1,488)
2.15
2.09
2.82
2.89
2.71
1.49
1.86
1.19
1.28
(0.94)
(0.96)
(0.85)
(0.81)
(0.83)
(0.92)
(1.02)
(0.93)
(0.82)
2.11
1.97
2.79
2.79
2.36
1.58
1.89
0.93
1.32
(0.75)
(0.79)
(0.77)
(0.76)
(1.02)
(0.83)
(1.01)
(0.74)
(0.85)
2.27
1.86
2.44
2.59
1.89
1.88
1.78
1.01
1.56
(0.66)
(0.74)
(0.65)
(0.68)
(0.84)
(0.85)
(0.83)
(0.61)
(0.73)
2.09
2.27
2.92
3.04
2.75
1.40
2.00
0.93
1.19
(0.68)
(0.96)
(0.79)
(0.81)
(0.87)
(0.93)
(0.96)
(0.77)
(0.68)
2.16
1.82
2.72
2.77
2.62
1.78
2.11
1.11
1.43
(0.77)
(0.87)
(0.68)
(0.75)
(0.96)
(0.95)
(0.93)
(0.75)
(0.77)
2.10
1.64
2.69
2.60
2.32
2.00
2.27
1.33
1.66
(0.77)
(0.74)
(0.73)
(0.86)
(0.98)
(1.03)
(0.88)
(0.88)
(0.78)
0.29
0.75
9.43,b,d 0.62
5.89,b
1.84
7.77,b 0.37
15.62,a 7.89
10.02,a 0.82
0.39
10.69
1.58
1.34
7.96,b,c 0.33
0.81
2.24
1.82
0.51
1.51
1.11
1.23
5.39
0.83
Note. Abbreviations of subscales: MIN, minimization; DIS, distraction; STC, situation control; POS, positive self-instructions; SOS, social support;
PAV, passive avoidance; RUM, rumination; RES, resignation; AGG, aggression.
po.01.
po.001.
a
po.05 for all three simple comparisons.
b
po.05 for simple comparisons of 7th graders with 3/4th graders.
c
po.05 for simple comparisons of 7th graders with 5/6th graders.
d
po.05 for simple comparisons of 5/6th graders with 3/4th graders.
ARTICLE IN PRESS
MIN
DIS
STC
POS
SOS
PAV
RUM
RES
AGG
5/6
P. Hampel / Journal of Adolescence 30 (2007) 885–890
3/4
Factor
ARTICLE IN PRESS
P. Hampel / Journal of Adolescence 30 (2007) 885–890
889
Discussion
As predicted, middle adolescents in particular showed a maladaptive coping pattern. The
heightened aggression in middle adolescents supports the increased risk for the development of
externalizing problems among adolescents, which were significantly related to aggression (Hampel
& Petermann, 2006; for review, see Compas et al., 2001). Similar to cross-sectional findings of
Donaldson et al. (2000), the present study has found decreased levels in all three problem-focused
coping strategies among middle adolescents compared to late children. On the other hand,
investigating German third to seventh graders, Hampel and Petermann (2005) failed to show age
effects on problem-focused coping. However, results did not confirm an adaptive coping pattern
(cf. Roecker et al., 1996). Instead, results support the assumption that the transition from
childhood to adolescence is a developmental period of high vulnerability, in which risk factors for
the development of psychological maladjustment are prominent.
Consistent with prior research, males showed higher aggression than females fostering the
assumption that males tend to cope externally and are prone to develop externalizing symptoms
(cf. Compas et al., 2001; Grant et al., 2006). Also congruent with the literature, females applied
more social support and rumination on stressful encounters than males (de Anda et al., 2000;
Donaldson et al., 2000; Hampel & Petermann, 2005, 2006; Roecker et al., 1996). Contrary to
results of the German sample by Hampel and Petermann (2005), showing a maladaptive coping
pattern in female early adolescents, increased resignation in female middle adolescents were found
with the present Austrian sample. The differences in these results found by both European
samples may be attributed to sample characteristics. Whereas the Austrian adolescent sample was
recruited only in grammar schools, the German adolescent sample included students of grammar
schools as well as schools with lower education levels. Interestingly, males in late childhood
showed increased resignation than females of the same age, reflecting higher prevalence rates in
depression among male children.
Some limitations to this study have to be acknowledged. First, the age groups investigated in
the study included children and adolescents aged between 8 and 14 years. Thus, later
developmental changes could not be detected. Studies suggest that in the year of 15 a ‘turning
point’ can be observed, indicating stability in approach and avoidant coping among late
adolescents (Seiffge-Krenke, 2000), especially in rumination among females (Jose & Brown, 2007).
Secondly, results of the present study using a cross-sectional design have to be replicated by
longitudinal research. Thirdly, results relied on assessment of self-reports and have not taken
other informants’ or observational data into account. However, self-report measures have been
shown to be significantly correlated with peer and parents’ report measures and seem to be a valid
methodology for assessing those covert processes (for review, see Compas et al., 2001).
In conclusion, the findings suggest an adverse cross-situational coping pattern among seventh
graders with decreased adaptive coping strategies in conjunction with increased maladaptive
coping strategies. Moreover, results confirmed a maladaptive coping pattern among females, in
particular among female middle adolescents. Results on perceived stress, which were not reported
here, suggested increased interpersonal stress in female adolescents. Thus, similar to Jose and
Brown (2007), our findings support assumptions that girls rely on the use of rumination in
stressful events and, due to this coping style, are prone for the development of depression and
anxiety (Hankin & Abramson, 2001; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987). In sum, the results indicate that
ARTICLE IN PRESS
890
P. Hampel / Journal of Adolescence 30 (2007) 885–890
primary preventive programs should be applied during late childhood and early adolescence.
Furthermore, gender-specific programs, which should strengthen positive cognitive styles among
girls and social competence among boys are supported.
References
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Harding Thomsen, A., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with
stress during childhood and adolescence: Problems, progress, and potential in theory and research. Psychological
Bulletin, 127, 87–127.
Connor-Smith, J. K., Compas, B. E., Wadsworth, M. E., Harding Thomsen, A. H., & Saltzman, H. (2000). Responses
to stress in adolescence: Measurement of coping and involuntary stress responses. Journal of Consulting and Clinical
Psychology, 68, 976–992.
de Anda, D., Baroni, S., Boskin, L., Buchwald, L., Morgan, J., Ow, J., et al. (2000). Stress, stressors and coping
strategies among high school students. Children and Youth Services Review, 22, 441–463.
Donaldson, D., Prinstein, M., Danovsky, M., & Spirito, A. (2000). Patterns of children’s coping with life stress:
Implications for clinicians. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 70, 351–359.
Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., Gipson, P. Y., Campbell, A. J., et al. (2006). Stressors
and child and adolescent psychopathology: Evidence of moderating and mediating effects. Clinical Psychology
Review, 26, 257–283.
Hampel, P., & Petermann, F. (2005). Age and gender effects on coping in children and adolescents. Journal of Youth
and Adolescence, 34, 73–83.
Hampel, P., & Petermann, F. (2006). Perceived stress, coping, and adjustment in adolescents. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 38, 409–415.
Hampel, P., Petermann, F., & Dickow, B. (2001). The German Coping Questionnaire by Janke and Erdmann adapted for
children and adolescents. Göttingen: Hogrefe (in German).
Hankin, B. L., & Abramson, L. Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive
vulnerability-transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773–796.
Jose, P. E., & Brown, I. (2007). When does the gender differences in rumination begin? Gender and age differences in
the use of rumination by adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, online available.
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1987). Sex differences in unipolar depression: Evidence and theory. Psychological Bulletin, 101,
259–282.
Roecker, C. E., Dubow, E. F., & Donaldson, D. (1996). Cross-situational patterns in children’s coping with observed
interpersonal conflict. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25, 288–299.
Rose, A. J., & Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for
the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 98–131.
Rossman, B. B. R. (1992). School-age children’s perceptions of coping with distress: Strategies for emotion regulation
and the moderation of adjustment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 33, 1373–1397.
Seiffge-Krenke, I. (2000). Causal links between stressful events, coping style, and adolescent symptomatology. Journal
of Adolescence, 23, 675–691.
Wertlieb, D., Weigel, C., & Feldstein, M. (1987). Measuring children’s coping. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57,
548–560.