1– –
Chemical
Interactions
Overview
investigation
Where
Am I?
Contents
Introduction............................. 1
Course Matrix.......................... 2
A Framework for K–12
Science Education.....................8
Next Generation Science
Standards................................ 14
FOSS Conceptual Framework. 16
Chemical Interactions
in Middle School.................... 18
FOSS Middle School
Components........................... 22
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Introduction
Chemistry is the systematic unveiling of the nature of matter—its
properties, composition, and structure—and the energy dynamics
that accompany matter transformations. Chemistry is also the
intellectual process of uncovering the nature of matter and energy
that contributes to an ever-expanding body of chemical knowledge.
The earliest analysis of the composition of matter was at once
simplistic and sophisticated. Twenty-five hundred years ago, the
Greek philosophers held that everything was composed of four
elements: fire, air, earth, and water. In time this four-element
model was pushed aside as more-compelling models gained
acceptance. But the core idea that basic substances, when combined
in certain proportions, produce all the forms of matter on Earth was
sound.
Today, we understand matter on Earth to be composed of 90
elements. We accept that the nature of matter depends on the
number and arrangement of atoms of those elements and the
particular energy load carried by that association of atoms at a
particular time.
So, we know it all? Hardly. The frontiers of chemistry, like most of
science, are active, and like all interfaces between the known and the
unknown, chemistry is exciting for those prepared to confront the
challenges.
Full Option Science System
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FOSS Instructional Design...... 24
Managing the Classroom......... 32
Differentiated Instruction........ 37
Safety..................................... 39
FOSS Next Generation
K–8 Scope and Sequence........ 40
The NGSS Performance Expectations
addressed in this course include:
Physical Sciences
MS–PS1-1
MS–PS1-2
MS–PS1-3
MS–PS1-4
MS–PS1-5
MS–PS1-6
MS–PS3-3
MS–PS3-4
MS–PS3-5
Engineering, Technology, and
Applications of Science
MS-ETS1-1
MS-ETS1-2
MS–ETS1-3
MS–ETS1-4
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Chemical Interactions
Investigation Summary
Time
Inv. 1
Substances
Inv. 3
Inv. 2
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– Overview
Students observe a mystery-mixture reaction
and begin to consider the definition of
substance and chemical reaction. They
identify the two substances in the mystery
mixture by observing the characteristics of
the reactions that occur when they mix pairs
of known substances.
1 Session
assessment
survey
(optional)
5 Sessions *
Parts and Focus Questions
Part 1 Mystery Mixture, 1 session
How can we find out what two
substances are in the mystery mixture?
Part 2 Mixing Substances, 4 sessions
How can we find out what two
substances are in the mystery mixture?
Elements
4 Sessions
Part 1 Periodic Table, 2 sessions
Students learn about the periodic table of
the elements. They use an online resource
to consider properties and categories
of elements, and to research individual
elements. Students read consumer-product
labels to think about the presence of
elements in familiar substances.
1 Session
assessment
What is the periodic table of the
elements?
Particles
7 Sessions
Part 1 Capture the Gas, 2 sessions
1 Session
assessment
How can the gas produced in a chemical reaction be studied?
Students recreate the mystery-mixture
reaction, using a setup that allows them to
capture and study the resulting gas. They
learn that the gas is carbon dioxide, which
leads them to a study of air. They use syringes
to discover that air can be compressed and
expanded. Students start to develop a
particulate model for matter.
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Part 2 Elements in the World, 2 sessions
What makes up all the substances on
Earth?
Part 2 Air Is Matter, 3 sessions
Is air matter? Does air have mass and
take up space?
Part 3 Air as Particles, 2 sessions
What is the relationship between
particles in matter?
* A class session is 45–50 minutes
Full Option Science System
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Course Matrix
Content Related to DCIs
•A substance is a form of matter with a
unique composition and distinct physical
and chemical properties that can be used to
identify it.
Substances can be represented with common
names, chemical names, and chemical
formulas.
A chemical reaction occurs when substances
interact to form new substances (products).
•
Literacy/Technology
Assessment
Science Resources Book
Benchmark Assessment
“Science Safety Rules”
“White Substances Information”
Survey (optional)
Online Activity
MS-PS1-2
NGSS Performance
Expectation
“Two-Substance Reactions”
•
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
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•An element is a basic substance that cannot
be broken into simpler substances during
chemical interactions.
There are 90 naturally occurring elements on
Earth.
Elements combine to make all the substances
on Earth.
The relative abundance of elements varies
with location in the universe.
The periodic table of the elements displays
all the naturally occurring and synthesized
elements.
•
•
•
•
•Matter is made of particles.
•Every substance is defined by a unique
particle.
•Gas is matter—it has mass and occupies space.
•In a gas, particles are widely spaced and in
constant motion.
•There is nothing between gas particles except
empty space.
•Gas compresses when force is applied; gas
expands when force is withdrawn.
•During compression and expansion, the
Science Resources Book
Benchmark Assessment
“Elements”
“The Periodic Table of the Elements”
“Elements in the Universe” (optional)
“Substances on Earth”
Investigations 1–2 I-Check
NGSS Performance
Expectations
MS-PS1-1
MS-PS1-3
Online Activity
“Periodic Table of the Elements”
Science Resources Book
Benchmark Assessment
“Particles”
“Three Phases of Matter”
Investigation 3 I-Check
Online Activities
“Particles of Gases”
“Gas in a Syringe”
NGSS Performance
Expectations
MS-PS1-2
MS-PS1-4
number and character of particles in a sample
of gas do not change; the space between the
particles does change.
Chemical Interactions Course, Second Edition
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Chemical Interactions
Investigation Summary
– Overview
Time
Parts and Focus Questions
Kinetic Energy
6 Sessions *
Part 1 Gas Expansion/Contraction, 2 sessions
Students observe expansion and contraction
of solids, liquids, and gases, and explain the
phenomena in terms of kinetic theory—the
constant motion of particles.
1 Session
assessment
What happens to particles in a sample of
air when the air is heated and cooled?
Part 2 Liquid Expansion/Contraction, 3 sessions
Inv. 4
What happens to particles in a sample
of liquid when the liquid is heated and
cooled?
Part 3 Solid Expansion/Contraction, 1 session
Inv. 6
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Inv. 5
What happens to particles in a sample
of solid when the solid is heated and
cooled?
Energy Transfer
7 Sessions
Part 1 Mixing Hot and Cold, 2 sessions
Students learn one way that energy moves
and how to conceptualize energy transfer
as changes of the kinetic energy of particles
resulting from particle collisions. Students
mix equal volumes of hot and cold water
and predict the final temperature. They use
the result to determine an algorithm for
calculating final temperature. Students are
introduced to the calorie as a unit of energy
transfer.
1 Session
assessment
If two equal volumes of hot and cold
water are mixed, what will the final
temperature be?
Thermos Engineering
5 Sessions
How does energy transfer from one
substance to another?
Part 3 Heat, 3 sessions
Students use their understanding of energy
transfer to face an engineering problem: how
to build a container that keeps hot liquids hot
and cold liquids cold. They test materials for
their insulating properties in preparation for
the design challenge. They determine criteria
and constraints in the engineering design
process and test their designs.
Solutions
Inv. 7
Part 2 Particle Collisions, 2 sessions
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Part 1 Insulation, 2 sessions
How can you reduce energy transfer to
or from a sample of water?
Part 2 Thermos Design, 3 sessions
What is the best thermos design?
3 Sessions
Students explore the difference between
melting and dissolving. They go on to study
dissolving by comparing aqueous mixtures,
one with a soluble solid and one with an
insoluble solid. They compare the two
mixtures and then attempt to separate them
with filters and evaporation.
How is heat measured?
Part 1 Dissolve and Melt, 1 session
What is the difference between
dissolving and melting?
Part 2 Solubility, 2 sessions
* A class session is 45–50 minutes
Do all substances form solutions in water?
Full Option Science System
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Course Matrix
Content Related to DCIs
•Solids, liquids, and gases vary in how their
particles are arranged in relationship to
one another, but the particles are always in
motion.
Kinetic energy is energy of motion.
The particles in substances gain kinetic energy
as they warm, and lose kinetic energy as they
cool.
Matter expands when the kinetic energy of its
particles increases; matter contracts when the
kinetic energy of its particles decreases.
•
•
Literacy/Technology
Assessment
Science Resources Book
Benchmark Assessment
“Particles in Motion”
“Expansion and
Contraction” (optional)
Investigation 4 I-Check
Online Activity
MS-PS1-4
NGSS Performance
Expectation
“Particles in Solids, Liquids,
and Gases”
•
•Energy transfers between particles when
they collide. Energy transfer by contact is
conduction.
Energy always transfers from particles with
more kinetic energy to particles with less
kinetic energy.
Energy is conserved. The amount of energy in
a system does not change—no energy is ever
created or destroyed.
Temperature is a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the particles of a substance.
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•
•
•
•Insulating materials reduce energy transfer via
conduction.
•Materials with more widely spaced particles
serve as better insulators.
•Engineers try to solve problems that satisfy a
set of criteria and that conform to constraints
placed on a solution to the problem.
•Dissolving occurs when the solute is reduced
to particles and distributed uniformly
throughout the particles of the solvent.
Dissolving involves both kinetic interactions
(collisions) and attractive forces (bonds).
Not all substances are soluble in water.
Solutions can be separated into their original
components, which are not chemically
changed.
•
•
•
Science Resources Book
Benchmark Assessment
“Energy on the Move”
Investigation 5 I-Check
Online Activities
NGSS Performance
Expectations
“Energy Transfer by
Collision”
“Mixing Hot and Cold
Water”
“Thermometer”
“Energy Flow”
Science Resources Book
“Engineering a Better
Design”
“Science Practices“
“Engineering Practices”
Online Activities
“Energy Flow”
“Particles in Solids, Liquids, and
Gases”
Science Resources Book
“How Things Dissolve”
“Concentration” (optional)
Online Activity
“Explore Dissolving”
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MS-PS1-4
MS-PS3-3
MS-PS3-4
MS-PS3-5
NGSS Performance
Expectations
MS-PS3-3
MS–ETS1-1
MS–ETS1-2
MS–ETS1-3
MS–ETS1-4
NGSS Performance
Expectations
MS-PS1-1
MS-PS1-2
MS-PS1-4
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Chemical Interactions
Inv. 8
Investigation Summary
– Overview
Time
Parts and Focus Questions
Phase Change
7 Sessions *
Part 1 Melting Temperature, 1 session
Students experience three common phases
(states) of matter—solid, liquid, and gas—
and investigate the conditions that induce
substances to change from one phase to
another. Students engage in an engineering
challenge to design a classroom “freezer” that
will freeze water.
1 Session
assessment
What happens at the particle level when
a substance melts?
Part 2 Adding Thermal Energy, 2 sessions
What is the relationship between
melting and freezing?
Part 3 Freezing Water, 3 sessions
How can you freeze water in the
classroom?
Part 4 Changing Phase, 1 session
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or use
Inv.
10other than classroom use without further permission.
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What are all the ways that a substance
can change state?
Reaction
8 Sessions
Part 1 Substance Models, 2 sessions
Students blow bubbles into limewater,
observe the precipitate, and move atom
tiles (representations) to simulate the
rearrangement of atoms to form new
substances (particles). Students study
another reaction involving hydrochloric acid
and baking soda and learn to use models to
balance chemical equations.
1 Session
assessment
How do atoms combine to make new
substances?
Limiting Factors
3 Sessions
Part 1 Citric Acid and Baking Soda, 2 sessions
1 Session
assessment
What is a limiting factor in a chemical
reaction?
Students conduct more chemical reactions,
learning about limiting factors and reactants
in excess.
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Part 2 Limewater Reaction, 3 sessions
What happens at the particle level
during a chemical reaction?
Part 3 Baking Soda and Acid, 3 sessions
What is the chemical reaction between
hydrochloric acid and sodium
bicarbonate?
Part 2 Identify Key Ideas, 1 session
What have I learned about chemical interactions?
* A class session is 45–50 minutes
Full Option Science System
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Course Matrix
Content Related to DCIs
•Matter exists on Earth in three common
states—solid, liquid, and gas.
•Change of state is the result of change of
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energy and motion of the particles in a sample
of matter.
During phase change, particles do not change;
relationships between particles do change.
The temperatures at which phase changes
occur are different for different substances.
The processes of phase change are
evaporation, condensation, melting, freezing,
sublimation, and deposition.
Literacy/Technology
Assessment
Science Resources Book
Benchmark Assessment
“Rock Solid”
“Heat of Fusion” (optional)
“Science Practices”
“Engineering Practices”
Investigations 7-8 I-Check
NGSS Performance
Expectations
MS-PS1-4
MS-PS1-6
MS-PS3-4
MS–ETS1-2
MS–ETS1-3
•
•
•
Online Activity
•All substances are made from some 90
Science Resources Book
Benchmark Assessment
“Better Living through Chemistry”
“The Periodic Table of the
Elements”
“Atoms and Compounds”
“Compound Structure”
“How Do Atoms Rearrange?”
“Fireworks” (optional)
“Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier”
(optional)
“Organic Compounds” (optional)
Investigation 9 I-Check
different types of atoms (elements), which
combine in various ways.
A compound is a substance composed of two
or more different kinds of atoms.
Atoms combine to make particles of
substances: molecules and ionic compounds.
Molecules and ionic compounds are held
together by attractive forces called bonds.
A chemical reaction is a process in which the
atoms of substances (reactants) rearrange to
form new substances (products).
Atoms are neither created nor destroyed
during chemical reactions, only rearranged.
•
•
•
•
•
•The quantities of reactants available at the
start of a reaction determine the quantities of
products.
The limiting factor is the reactant present in
the lowest amount.
Reactants that remain in their original form
after a reaction has run to completion were
present in excess.
Atoms are neither created nor destroyed
during chemical reactions, only rearranged;
matter is conserved.
“Particles in Solids, Liquids, and
Gases”
Video
“Hoar Frost”
NGSS Performance
Expectations
MS-PS1-1
MS-PS1-2
MS-PS1-5
Video
“Burning Sugar Demonstration” (optional)
Science Resources Book
Benchmark Assessment
“Careers in Chemistry” (optional)
“Element Hunters” (optional)
Posttest
•
•
NGSS Performance
Expectations
MS-PS1-1
MS-PS1-2
MS-PS1-5
•
Chemical Interactions Course, Second Edition
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
A framework for K–12
Science Education
The Chemical Interactions Course supports the following principles
set forth in A Framework for K–12 Science Education: Practices, Crosscutting
Concepts, and Core Ideas (National Research Council, 2012).
Science and Engineering Practices
Develop students’ abilities to do and understand science and engineering
practices.
1. Asking questions and defining problems
• Ask questions that arise from careful observation of phenomena,
models, or unexpected results, to clarify and/or seek additional
information to identify and/or clarify evidence and/or the
premise(s) of an argument.
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2. Developing and using models
• Develop and/or use a model to predict and/or describe
phenomena.
• Develop a model to describe unobservable mechanisms.
3. Planning and carrying out investigations
• Plan an investigation individually and collaboratively, and in the
design: identify independent and dependent variables and controls,
what tools are needed to do the gathering, how measurements will
be recorded, and how many data are needed to support a claim.
4. Analyzing and interpreting data
• Analyze and interpret data to provide evidence for phenomena.
5. Using mathematics and computational thinking
• Use mathematical representations to describe and/or support
scientific conclusions and design solutions.
6. Constructing explanations
• Construct an explanation using models or representations.
• Apply scientific ideas, principles, and/or evidence to construct,
revise and/or use an explanation for real-world phenomena,
examples, or events.
7. Engaging in argument from evidence
• Compare and critique two arguments on the same topic and
analyze whether they emphasize similar or different evidence and/
or interpretations of facts.
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A Framework for K–12 Science Education
8. Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information
• Integrate qualitative and/or quantitative scientific and/or technical
information in written text with that contained in media and
visual displays to clarify claims and findings.
• Communicate scientific and/or technical information (e.g. about
a proposed object, tool, process, system) in writing and/or through
oral presentations.
Crosscutting Concepts
Develop students’ understandings of concepts that bridge disciplinary
core ideas and provide an organizational framework for connecting
knowledge from different disciplines. © Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
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• Patterns.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Observed patterns of forms and events guide
organization and classification, and they prompt questions about
relationships and the factors that influence them.
Cause and effect: Mechanism and explanation. Events
have causes, sometimes simple, sometimes multifaceted. A
major activity of science is investigating and explaining causal
relationships and the mechanisms by which they are mediated.
Such mechanisms can then be tested across given contexts and
used to predict and explain events in new contexts.
Scale, proportion, and quantity. In considering phenomena,
it is critical to recognize what is relevant at different measures
of size, time, and energy and to recognize how changes in
scale, proportion, or quantity affect a system’s structure or
performance.
Systems and system models. Defining the system under
study—specifying its boundaries and making explicit a model of
that system—provides tools for understanding and testing ideas
that are applicable throughout science and engineering.
Energy and matter: Flows, cycles, and conservation.
Tracking fluxes of energy and matter into, out of, and within
systems helps one understand the systems’ possibilities and
limitations.
Structure and function. The way in which an object or
living thing is shaped and its substructure determine many of its
properties and functions.
Stability and change. For natural and built systems alike,
conditions of stability and determinants of rates of change or
evolution of the system are critical elements of study.
Chemical Interactions Course, Second Edition
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
Physical Sciences
Core Idea PS1: Matter and Its Interactions
1.A Structure and Properties of Matter
• All substances are made from some 100 different types of atoms,
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which combine with one another in various ways. Atoms
form molecules that range in size from two to thousands of
atoms. Pure substances are made from a single type of atom
or molecule; each pure substance has characteristic physical
and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given
conditions) that can be used to identify it.
Gases and liquids are made of molecules or inert atoms that are
moving about relative to each other. In a liquid, the molecules
are constantly in contact with each other; in a gas, they are
widely spaced except when they happen to collide. In a solid,
atoms are closely spaced and vibrate in position but do not
change relative locations. Solids may be formed from molecules,
or they may be extended structures with repeating subunits
(e.g., crystals). The changes of state that occur with variations
in temperature or pressure can be described and predicted using
these models of matter. (PS1.A)
1.B Chemical Reactions
• Substances react chemically in characteristic ways.
In a chemical
process, the atoms that make up the original substances are
regrouped into different molecules, and these new substances
have different properties from those of the reactants. The total
number of each type of atom is conserved, and thus the mass
does not change. Some chemical reactions release energy, others
store energy. (PS1.B)
Core Idea PS3: Energy
3.A Definitions of Energy
• Motion energy is properly called kinetic energy. . . . Stored
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energy is decreased in some chemical reactions and increased in
others.
The term “heat” as used in everyday language refers both to
thermal energy (the motion of atoms or molecules within a
substance) and energy transfers by convection, conduction, and
radiation (particularly infrared and light). In science, heat is
used only for this second meaning; it refers to energy transferred
when two objects or systems are at different temperatures. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of
particles of matter. The relationship between the temperature
and the total energy of a system depends on the types, states, and
amounts of matter present. (PS3.A)
Full Option Science System
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A Framework for K–12 Science Education
3.B Conservation of Energy and Energy Transfer
• When the motion energy of an object changes, there is
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inevitably some other change in energy at the same time. For
example, the friction that causes a moving object to stop also
results in an increase in the thermal energy in both surfaces;
eventually heat energy is transferred to the surrounding
environment as the surfaces cool. Similarly, to make an object
start moving or to keep it moving when friction forces transfer
energy away from it, energy must be provided from, say,
chemical (e.g., burning fuel) or electrical (e.g., an electric motor
and a battery) processes.
The amount of energy transfer needed to change the
temperature of a matter sample by a given amount depends
on the nature of the matter, the size of the sample, and the
environment. Energy is transferred out of hotter regions or
objects and into colder ones by the processes of conduction,
convection, and radiation. (PS3.B)
Earth and Space Sciences
Core Idea ESS3: Earth and Human Activity
• Humans depend on Earth’s land, ocean, atmosphere, and
biosphere for many different resources. Minerals, fresh
water, and biosphere resources are limited, and many are not
renewable or replaceable over human lifetimes. These resources
are distributed unevenly around the planet as a result of past
geological processes. Renewable energy resources, and the
technologies to exploit them, are being rapidly developed.
(ESS3.A)
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
Engineering, Technology, and Applications of
Science
Core Idea ETS1: Engineering Design
ETS1.A Defining and Delimiting Engineering Problems
• The more precisely a design task’s criteria and constraints can be
defined, the more likely it is that the designed solution will be
successful. Specification of constraints includes consideration of
scientific principles and other relevant knowledge that are likely
to limit possible solutions (e.g., familiarity with the local climate
may rule out certain plants for the school garden). (ETS1.A)
ETS1.B Conservation of Energy and Energy
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• A solution needs to be tested, and then modified on the basis
of the test results, in order to improve it. There are systematic
processes for evaluating solutions with respect to how well they
meet the criteria and constraints of a problem. Sometimes parts
of different solutions can be combined to create a solution that
is better than any of its predecessors. In any case, it is important
to be able to communicate and explain solutions to others.
Models of all kinds are important for testing solutions,
and computers are a valuable tool for simulating systems.
Simulations are useful for predicting what would happen if
various parameters of the model were changed, as well as for
making improvements to the model based on peer and leader
(e.g., teacher) feedback. (ETS1.B)
ETS1.C Optimizing the Design Solutions
• There are systematic processes for evaluating solutions with
respect to how well they meet the criteria and constraints of a
problem. Comparing different designs could involve running
them through the same kinds of tests and systematically
recording the results to determine which design performs best.
Although one design may not perform the best across all tests,
identifying the characteristics of the design that performed
the best in each test can provide useful information for the
redesign process—that is, some of those characteristics may
be incorporated into the new design. This iterative process
of testing the most promising solutions and modifying what
is proposed on the basis of the test results leads to greater
refinement and ultimately to an optimal solution. Once such a
suitable solution is determined, it is important to describe that
solution, explain how it was developed, and describe the features
that make it successful. (ETS1.C)
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Full Option Science System
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A Framework for K–12 Science Education
Core Idea ETS2: Links among Engineering,
Technology, Science, and Society
• Engineering advances have led to important discoveries in
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•
virtually every field of science, and scientific discoveries have
led to the development of entire industries and engineered
systems. In order to design better technologies, new science
may need to be explored (e.g., materials research prompted
by desire for better batteries or solar cells, biological questions
raised by medical problems). Technologies in turn extend
the measurement, exploration, modeling, and computational
capacity of scientific investigations. (ETS2.A)
All human activity draws on natural resources and has both
short- and long-term consequences, positive as well as negative,
for the health of both people and the natural environment.
The uses of technologies and any limitations on their use are
driven by individual or societal needs, desires, and values; by the
findings of scientific research; and by differences in such factors
as climate, natural resources, and economic conditions. Thus
technology use varies from region to region and over time.
Technologies that are beneficial for a certain purpose may later
be seen to have impacts (e.g., health-related, environmental) that
were not foreseen. In such cases, new regulations on use or new
technologies (to mitigate the impacts or eliminate them) may be
required. (ETS2.B)
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
Next Generation Science
Standards
This course supports the following principles set forth in Next
Generation Science Standards (2013). Physical Sciences
• MS-PS1-1. Develop models to describe the atomic
•
•
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Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
•
•
•
•
•
•
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composition of simple molecules and extended structures.
MS-PS1-2. Analyze and interpret data on the properties of
substances before and after the substances interact to determine
if a chemical reaction has occurred.
MS-PS1-3. Gather and make sense of information to describe
that synthetic materials come from natural resources and impact
society.
MS-PS1-4. Develop a model that predicts and describes
changes in particle motion, temperature, and state of a pure
substance when thermal energy is added or removed.
MS-PS1-5. Develop and use a model to describe how the total
number of atoms does not change in a chemical reaction and
thus mass is conserved.
MS-PS1-6. Undertake a design project to construct, test, and
modify a device that either releases or absorbs thermal energy
by chemical processes.
MS-PS3-3. Apply scientific principles to design, construct, and
test a device that either minimizes or maximizes thermal energy
transfer.
MS-PS3-4. Plan an investigation to determine the relationships
among the energy transferred, the type of matter, the mass,
and the change in the average kinetic energy of the particles as
measured by the temperature of the sample.
MS-PS3-5. Construct, use, and present arguments to support
the claim that when the motion energy of an object changes,
energy is transferred to or from the object.
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Next Generation Science Standards
Engineering, Technology, and Applications of
Science
• MS-ETS1-1. Define the criteria and constraints of a design
•
•
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
•
problem with sufficient precision to ensure a successful solution,
taking into account relevant scientific principles and potential
impacts on people and the natural environment that may limit
possible solutions.
MS-ETS1-2. Evaluate competing design solutions using a
systematic process to determine how well they meet the criteria
and constraints of the problem.
MS-ETS1-3. Analyze data from tests to determine similarities
and differences among several design solutions to identify the
best characteristics of each that can be combined into a new
solution to better meet the criteria for success.
MS-ETS1-4. Develop a model to generate data for iterative
testing and modification of a proposed object, tool, or process
such that an optimal design can be achieved.
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
FOSS Conceptual Framework
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
FOSS has conceptual structure at the course level. The concepts are
carefully selected and organized in a sequence that makes sense to
students when presented as intended. In the last half decade, research
has been focused on learning progressions. The idea behind a learning
progression is that core ideas in science are complex and widereaching­—ideas such as the structure of matter or the relationship
between the structure and function of organisms. From the age of
awareness throughout life, matter and organisms are important to us.
There are things we can and should understand about them in our
primary school years, and progressively more complex and sophisticated
things we should know about them as we gain experience and
develop our cognitive abilities. When we as educators can determine
those logical progressions, we can develop meaningful and effective
curriculum.
FOSS has elaborated learning progressions for core ideas in science for
kindergarten through grade 8. Developing the learning progressions
involves identifying successively more sophisticated ways of thinking
about core ideas over multiple years. “If mastery of a core idea in a
science discipline is the ultimate educational destination, then welldesigned learning progressions provide a map of the routes that can
be taken to reach that destination” (National Research Council, A
Framework for K–12 Science Education, 2012).
The FOSS modules (grades K–5) and courses (grades 6–8) are
organized into three domains: physical science, earth science, and life
science. Each domain is divided into two strands, which represent
a core scientific idea, as shown in the columns in the table: matter/
energy and change, atmosphere and Earth/rocks and landforms,
structure and function/complex systems. The sequence of modules and
courses in each strand relates to the core ideas described in the national
framework. Modules at the bottom of the table form the foundation
in the primary grades. The core ideas develop in complexity as you
proceed up the columns.
In addition to the science content framework, every course provides
opportunities for students to engage in and understand science practices,
and many courses explore issues related to engineering practices and the
use of natural resources.
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FOSS Conceptual Framework
The science content used to develop the FOSS courses describes
what we want students to learn; the science and engineering practices
describe how we want students to learn. Practices involve a number
of habits of mind and philosophical orientations, and these, too, will
develop in richness and complexity as students advance through their
science studies. Science and engineering practices involve behaviors, so
they can be best assessed while in progress. Thus, assessment of practices
is based on teacher observation. The indicators of progress include
students involved in the many aspects of active thinking, students
motivated to learn, and students taking responsibility for their own
learning.
FOSS K–8 Module Sequences
P h ys i c a l S c i e n c e
Earth Science
Life Science
Energy and
C h a n ge
Mat t e r
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Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
Electronics
6–8
5
Chemical
Interactions
2
Force and
Motion
Weather and
Water
Motion and Matter
Soils, Rocks,
and Landforms
Water and
Climate
K
Sound and Light
Materials and Motion
Air and Weather
Trees and
Weather
Chemical Interactions Course, Second Edition
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structure/
f u n c t io n
Co m ple x
s ys t e m s
Human Brain and Senses
Diversity of
Life
Populations and
Ecosystems
Living Systems
Environments
Structures of Life
Pebbles, Sand,
and Silt
Solids and
Liquids
1
Earth
History
Earth and Sun
Energy
3
Ro c ks a n d
la n d fo r m s
Planetary Science
Mixtures and
Solutions
4
at m osp h e r e
and Earth
Insects and Plants
Plants and
Animals
Animals Two by
Two
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
Chemical Interactions in
Middle School
In this course we open the chemical treasure chest just a crack
and invite students to look in. Earth is doubtless one of the most
diverse chemical repositories in the universe, made so by a fortuitous
convergence of factors and events.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
First of all, Earth is in a planetary system with a star that is at least a
second-generation star. That means our planetary system formed out of
a mixture of gases and dust that was the by-product of a massive nova or
supernova explosion of a star that previously held court in this region
of the galaxy. We know this based on our understanding of the nuclear
chemistry that takes place in stars.
Stars are composed of hydrogen (element 1). The usual business of stars
is to fuse hydrogen. The by-products of hydrogen fusion are helium
nuclei and a lot of energy. When a star dies, however, it goes into a
period of intense nuclear transformations, the products of which are
large atoms (lithium and larger), and a lot more energy. Large stars
go through unimaginably violent endgames, culminating in huge
explosions that can be seen all over the universe. The interesting byproducts are the atoms that stream out. In the case of our predecessor
star, the end was so intense that atoms up to the size of the uranium
atom (element 92) were forged and blasted out into a gigantic
interstellar dust cloud.
When the dust settled into a swirling vortex, these atoms accreted into
planets. Earth had complex chemistry even before the second great
chemical event occurred: life.
A major branch of chemistry is biochemistry, the study of the chemistry
of life. And it is complex. The second layer of complexity of substances
on Earth is attributable to life, because life processes produce the
substances. Add it all up . . . a wealth of raw atomic materials and a
billion living organisms transforming those resources into a wonderful
array of substances, and you start to get the picture of a wonderland.
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Chemical Interactions in Middle School
Why Study Chemical Interactions?
The student’s case. It’s been heard many times . . . the middle-school
students’ mantra: “Why do I have to learn this? What does this have to
do with my life?” They ask these questions not to be argumentative, but
because they are awakening to a larger world and feeling the first sting
of realization that soon they will have to make their way in it. “I’ll need
a job, and I’m not going to be a chemist.”
Such utterances betray the fact that middle-school students have
acquired a complex worldview. They have progressed from a life guided
by concrete experiences and events in the present to a more global view
interwoven with powerful abstractions, extending from past to future.
Now the curriculum can advance a level to take advantage of the new
abilities of students. They are ready for some serious thought focused
on developing mental models that explain properties of matter.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
Chemistry is arguably the study of everything. The study of chemistry
stems from three fundamental questions.
• What is matter (everything tangible) made of?
• In what ways and under what circumstances does matter change?
• How do we know?
The first question addresses one of the grand ideas in science. Students
in middle school have notions of atoms—everything is made of atoms.
That bit of information enters our general knowledge formally or
informally during the elementary years. But now students will learn to
understand the immense diversity of objects and materials in terms of a
few different kinds of atoms in combination—a huge idea. We live in a dynamic universe. The one certain thing is change. To
answer the second question, students grapple with the difficult ideas
of matter transformation and energy. Some things that students know
from everyday experience, such as water changes to ice in the freezer,
and chocolate melts in the sunshine, are challenging to analyze and
explain. Pursuing melting and freezing opens the door to the kinetic
theory of atoms—atoms are always in motion. The amount of motion
of the microscopic, invisible particles that constitute a sample of matter
determines its macroscopic properties. This requires developing an
intellectual model for the behavior of objects that cannot be observed
directly. Also, when samples of two different kinds of matter are
mixed, it is possible that they will transform into new forms of matter.
Students can observe this process directly—we had these substances
at the start, and we have these different substances now. The process
is called a chemical reaction, and it is the process that produces all the
substances in the world.
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
These two ideas, the constant motion of atoms and their combinations,
and the reorganization of atoms to form new substances, provide
us with a vision of an orderly universe in which atoms behave in
predictable ways guided by rules of engagement. These core ideas are
deep, requiring years to understand thoroughly.
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Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
This brings us to the third question, which is perhaps the most
important one Contemplating your own mental constructs that
constitute knowing and understanding is an important metacognitive
process that flourishes in the middle school years. Internal questioning,
reviewing, revising, confirming, and explaining is part of the healthy,
responsible processing of complex ideas. Students are often reluctant to
devote intellectual energy to issues of chemical interactions, although
they do so endlessly and enthusiastically around issues of social
interactions. The challenge: make chemical interactions as appealing as
social interactions.
The teacher’s case. Middle-school teachers know that middle-school
students are in a universe of turmoil. Bodies, emotions, and social
relationships are at odds. One day (or minute) they will be composed
and ready to learn—actually quite mature—and the next they will
be hopelessly distracted and sensitive. On the settled days students
will engage in analytical problem solving, dealing effectively with
abstractions. But on the less-focused days students will have better
success with concrete experiences. Middle-school students need both,
and successful teachers know how to manage the balance of learning
modalities to maximize student success.
The Chemical Interactions Course provides variety to keep both
students and teachers interested. At different times students work alone,
in pairs, in groups of four, and as a class. Sometimes the activities are
rigorous, and other times the atmosphere is more social. The tempo
will vary (students shouldn’t be allowed to fall into predictable patterns),
the other students with whom they work will vary, and the place where
inquiry happens will vary.
Less is more. For middle-school students it is much more important
for them to know a lot about a few things than it is to know a little
about a lot of things. By engaging a subject in depth, students learn
how to learn while they are learning. They learn how to answer not
only “What do I know?” but also “How do I know that?” This second
question requires the kind of analytical thinking and logical discourse
that helps students develop thinking skills that will serve them well in
all endeavors.
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Chemical Interactions in Middle School
Can I Teach This? I’m Not a Chemist
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
FOSS assumes that teachers using this course possess no more than
a minimal level of content knowledge in the field of chemistry. The
investigations introduce the vocabulary used to communicate about
chemical interactions and the core math ideas needed to engage
basic chemical processes. The specific content dealt with in each
investigation is covered in the Scientific and Historical Background
section of each investigation. The most important thing to remember is
that the investigations are designed to support a classroom environment
in which teachers and students learn together.
The Chemical Interactions Course introduces students to a handful
of big ideas in chemistry. Foremost is the kinetic particle theory
of matter. That is, matter is made of minute bits, called atoms and
compounds, that are in constant motion. This is a profoundly abstract
concept, requiring students to construct functional models that are
compatible with conventional understanding of the behaviors of atoms.
This is why the course advances through this terrain slowly, using
repetition, practice, and multiple strategies to access and confirm the
learning. This idea serves to explain a lot of the real-world occurrences
and transformations of matter in students’ lives.
We have found that students struggle with the nomenclature of atomic
relationships. There are 90 elements occurring naturally on Earth, each
represented by a unique atom. Atoms can combine with other atoms
to form particles that define a substance. If the combination has only
one kind of atom, the substance is an element. If the combination
has two or more kinds of atoms, the substance is a compound. If two
or more atoms (same kind or different) that define a substance are
connected with covalent bonds, the particle is called a molecule. If
the combination of atoms includes an ionic bond, there is no particle
defining the substance, and the substance is an ionic compound. Get
the picture? Very complicated for the neophyte.
The nomenclature is simplified in the Chemical Interactions
Course. We introduce the elements first, and students get to know
them as a family of fundamental substances. The periodic table of the
elements is the family tree used to develop familiarity. Much later
the atom is introduced as the basic and unique representative of each
element. Atoms combine to form compounds, which define most of
the substances on Earth. We do not develop the ideas of bonds, ions,
or molecules in great depth. The basic formulaic unit of a substance,
such as H2O (water), NaCl (sodium chloride), and O2 (oxygen gas), is
generally referred to as the basic particle of the substance.
Chemical Interactions Course, Second Edition
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Chemical Interactions
INVESTIGATIONS GUIDE
Chemical
Interactions
Second Edition
– Overview
FOSS Middle School
Components
Teacher Toolkit
The Teacher Toolkit is the most important part of the FOSS Program. It
is here that all the wisdom and experience contributed by hundreds of
educators has been assembled. Everything we know about the content
of the course and how to teach the subject in a middle school classroom
is presented here, along with the resources that will assist the effort. Each middle school Teacher Toolkit has three parts.
Developed at the Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley
Published and Distributed by Delta Education
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Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
TEACHER RESOURCES
Chemical
Interactions
Second Edition
Developed at the Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley
Published and Distributed by Delta Education
Investigations Guide. This spiral-bound document contains these
chapters.
• Overview
• Materials
• Investigations (ten in this course)
Teacher Resources. This collection of resources contains these chapters.
• FOSS Middle School Introduction
• Assessment
• Science Notebooks in Middle School
• Science-Centered Language Development in Middle School
• FOSSweb and Technology
• Taking Middle School FOSS Outdoors
• Science Notebook Masters
• Teacher Masters
• Assessment Masters
• Notebook Answers
The chapters in Teacher Resources can also be found on FOSSweb as
PDFs. FOSS Science Resources. This is the student book of readings, images,
and data that are integrated into the instruction.
Equipment Kit
The FOSS Program provides the materials needed for the investigations
in sturdy, front-opening drawer-and-sleeve cabinets. Inside, you
will find high-quality materials packaged for a class of 32 students. Consumable materials are supplied for five sequential uses (five periods
in one day) before you need to restock. You will be asked to supply
small quantities of common classroom items.
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FOSS Middle School Components
FOSS Science Resources Books
FOSS Science Resources: Chemical Interactions is a book of original
readings developed to accompany this course, along with images and
data to analyze during investigations. The readings are referred to as
articles in the Investigations Guide. Students read the articles in the
book as they progress through the course, sometimes during class and
sometimes as homework. The articles cover a specific concept, usually
after that concept has been introduced in an active investigation.
FOSS Science Resources
Chemical
Interactions
Second Edition
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
The articles in FOSS Science Resources and the discussion questions in
the Investigations Guide help students make connections to the science
concepts introduced and explored during the active investigations.
Concept development is most effective when students are allowed
to experience organisms, objects, and phenomena firsthand before
engaging the concepts in text. The text and illustrations help make
connections between what students experience concretely and the ideas
that explain their observations.
Published and Distributed by
FOSSweb and Technology
The FOSS website opens new horizons for educators, students, and
families, in the classroom or at home. Each course has an interactive
site where students can find instructional activities, interactive
simulations, virtual investigations, and other resources. FOSSweb
provides resources for materials management, general teaching tools for
FOSS, purchasing links, contact information for the FOSS Program,
and technical support. You do not need an account to view this general
FOSS Program information. In addition to the general information,
FOSSweb provides digital access to PDF versions of Teacher Resources
and digital-only resources that supplement the print and kit materials.
NOTE
To access all the teacher
resources and to set up
customized pages for using
FOSS, log in to
www.FOSSweb.com
through an educator account.
Additional resources are available to support FOSS teachers. With an
educator account, you can customize your homepage, set up easy access
to the digital components of the courses you teach, and create class
pages for your students with access to tutorials and online assessments.
Ongoing Professional Development
The Lawrence Hall of Science and Delta Education strive to develop
long-term partnerships with districts and teachers through thoughtful
planning, effective implementation, and ongoing teacher support. FOSS
has a strong network of consultants who have rich and experienced
backgrounds in diverse educational settings using FOSS. Put our
experience to work in your classroom, and see how easy it is to engage
students in active learning.
Chemical Interactions Course, Second Edition
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NOTE
Look for professional
development opportunities
and online teaching resources
on www.FOSSweb.com.
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
FOSS Instructional Design
Each FOSS investigation follows a similar cycle to provide multiple
exposures to science concepts. The cycle includes these pedagogies.
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Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
• Active investigation, firsthand experiences with objects,
organisms, and materials in the natural and designed worlds
• Recording in science notebooks to answer the focus question
• Reading in FOSS Science Resources
• Online activities to review or extend the investigation
• Outdoor experiences to collect data from the local environment
or apply knowledge
• Assessment to monitor progress and motivate student reflection
on learning
In practice, these components are seamlessly integrated into a
continuum designed to maximize every student’s opportunity to learn. An instructional sequence may move from one pedagogy to another
and back again to ensure adequate coverage of a concept.
FOSS Investigation Organization
F oc u s
Q u estio n
What is the relationship between
particles in matter?
Courses are subdivided into investigations (eight to ten).
Investigations are further subdivided into two to four parts. Each
part of each investigation is driven by a focus question. The focus
question, presented as the part begins, signals the challenge to be met,
mystery to be solved, or principle to be uncovered. The focus question
guides students’ inquiry and makes the goal of each part explicit for
teachers. Each part concludes with students preparing a written answer
to the focus question in their notebooks.
Investigation-specific scientific and historical background
information for the teacher is presented in each investigation chapter.
The content discussion is divided into sections, each of which relates
directly to one of the focus questions. This facilitates finding the exact
information you need for each part of the investigation.
TEACHING NOTE
Teaching notes appear in this
location as needed throughout the
investigation.
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The Getting Ready and Guiding the Investigation sections have
several features that are flagged or presented in the sidebar. These
include several icons to remind you when a particular pedagogical
method is suggested, as well as concise bits of information in several
categories.
Teaching notes appear in blue boxes in the sidebar. An arrow
points to the place in the lesson where the note applies. These notes
constitute a second voice in the curriculum—an educative element.
The first (traditional) voice is the message you deliver to students. It
Full Option Science System
1/6/16 11:34 AM
FOSS Instructional Design
supports your work teaching students at all levels, from management to
inquiry. The second educative voice is designed to help you understand
the science content and pedagogical reasoning at work behind the
instructional scene.
The small-group discussion icon asks you to pause while students
discuss data or construct explanations in their groups.
The vocabulary icon indicates where students should record
vocabulary in their science notebooks.
The recording icon points out where students should make a science
notebook entry. Students can record on prepared notebook sheets or
on plain sheets in a bound notebook.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
The engineering icon indicates opportunities for an experience
incorporating science and engineering practices.
The reading icon signals when the class should read a specific article
or refer to data in FOSS Science Resources. Some readings are critical to
instruction and should take place in class. A reading guide is provided
for each such reading.
The safety icon alerts you to potential safety issues related to chemicals,
allergic reactions, and the use of safety goggles.
The assessment icon appears when there is an opportunity to assess
student progress by using embedded or benchmark assessments.
Assessments focusing on students’ conceptual development are indicated
by the paper icon, and assessments focusing on science and engineering
practices are indicated by the beaker and ruler icon.
The technology icon signals when the class should use a digital
resource on FOSSweb.
The homework icon indicates science learning experiences that extend
beyond the classroom.
The outdoor icon indicates science learning experiences that extend
into the schoolyard.
To help with scheduling, you will see icons for breakpoints. Some
breakpoints are essential, and others are optional.
POSsIBLE BREAKPOINT
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
Active Investigation
Active investigation is a master pedagogy. Embedded within active
learning are a number of pedagogical elements and practices that keep
active investigation vigorous and productive. The enterprise of active
investigation includes
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
• context: questioning and planning;
• activity: doing and observing;
• data management: recording, organizing, and processing;
• analysis: discussing and writing explanations.
Context: questioning and planning. Active investigation requires
focus. The context of an inquiry can be established with a focus
question or challenge from you, or in some cases, from students. What
makes up all the substances on Earth? At other times, students are asked
to plan a method for investigation. This might include determining
the important data to gather and the necessary tools. In either case, the
field available for thought and interaction is limited. This clarification
of context and purpose results in a more productive investigation.
Activity: doing and observing. In the practice of science, scientists
put things together and take things apart, they observe systems and
interactions, and they conduct experiments. This is the core of
science—active, firsthand experience with objects, organisms, materials,
and systems in the natural world. In FOSS, students engage in the same
processes. Students often conduct investigations in collaborative groups
of four, with each student taking a role to contribute to the effort.
The active investigations in FOSS are cohesive, and build on each other
and the readings to lead students to a comprehensive understanding of
concepts. Through the investigations, students gather meaningful data.
Online activities throughout the course provide students with
opportunities to collect data, manipulate variables, and explore models
and simulations beyond what can be done in the classroom. Seamless
integration of the online activities forms an integral part of students’
active investigations in FOSS.
Data management: recording, organizing, and processing. Data
accrue from observation, both direct (through the senses) and indirect
(mediated by instrumentation). Data are the raw material from which
scientific knowledge and meaning are synthesized. During and after
work with materials, students record data in their notebooks. Data
recording is the first of several kinds of student writing.
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FOSS Instructional Design
Students then organize data so that they will be easier to think about. Tables allow efficient comparison. Organizing data in a sequence (time)
or series (size) can reveal patterns. Students process some data into
graphs, providing visual display of numerical data. They also organize
data and process them in the science notebook.
Analysis: discussing and writing explanations. The most
important part of an active investigation is extracting its meaning.
This constructive process involves logic, discourse, and existing
knowledge. Students share their explanations for phenomena, using
evidence generated during the investigation to support their ideas.
They conclude the active investigation by writing in their notebooks a
summary of their learning as well as questions raised during the activity.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
Science Notebooks
Research and best practice have led us to place more emphasis on the
student science notebook. Keeping a notebook helps students organize
their observations and data, process their data, and maintain a record of
their learning for future reference. The process of writing about their
science experiences and communicating their thinking is a powerful
learning device for students. And the student notebook entries stand
as a credible and useful expression of learning. The artifacts in the
notebooks form one of the core elements of the assessment system.
You will find the duplication masters for middle school presented in a
notebook format. They are reduced in size (two copies to a standard
sheet) for placement (glue or tape) in a bound composition book.
Student work is entered partly in spaces provided on the notebook
sheets and partly on adjacent blank sheets. Full-sized masters that can
be filled in electronically and are suitable for projection are available on
FOSSweb.
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TEACHING NOTE
The Science Notebooks in
Middle School chapter includes
guidance on how to structure a
student-centered notebook in
terms of organization, content,
and classroom logistics. Reading
this chapter will help you consider
your instructional practices for
notebooks and incorporate new
techniques supported by research
about student learning.
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
Reading in Science Resources
TEACHING NOTE
For more information on
scaffolding literacy in FOSS, see
the Science-Centered Language
Development in Middle School
chapter in Teacher Resources.
Reading is a vital component of the FOSS Program. Reading enhances
and extends information and concepts acquired through direct
experience.
Readings are included in FOSS Science Resources: Chemical
Interactions. Students read articles on elements, particles, phase changes,
energy transfers, engineering applications, historical contributors to the
body of chemical knowledge, and current chemistry-related careers, as
well as accessing data and information for use in investigations.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
Some readings can be assigned as homework or extension activities,
whereas other readings have been deemed important for all students to
complete with a teacher’s support in class.
Each in-class reading has a reading guide embedded in Guiding the
Investigation. The reading guide suggests breakpoints with questions to
help students connect the reading to their experiences from class, and
recommends notebook entries. Each of these readings also includes
one or more prompts that ask students to make additional notebook
entries. These prompts should help students who missed the in-class
reading to process the article in a more meaningful way. Some of the
most essential articles are provided as notebook masters. Students can
highlight the article as they read, add notes or questions, and add the
article to their science notebooks.
Engaging in Online Activities through FOSSweb
The simulations and online activities on FOSSweb are designed to
support students’ learning at specific times during instruction. Digital
resources include streaming videos that can be viewed by the class or
small groups.
The FOSSweb and Technology chapter provides details about the
online activities for students and the tools and resources for teachers
to support and enrich instruction. There are many ways for students
to engage with the digital resources—in class as individuals, in small
groups, or as a whole class, and at home with family and friends.
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FOSS Instructional Design
Assessing Progress
The FOSS assessment system includes both formative and summative
assessments. Formative assessment monitors learning during instruction.
It measures progress, provides information about learning, and is
generally diagnostic. Summative assessment looks at the learning after
instruction is completed, and it measures achievement.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
Formative assessment in FOSS, called embedded assessment, occurs
on a daily basis. You observe action during class or review notebooks
after class. Embedded assessment provides continuous monitoring
of students’ learning and helps you make decisions about whether to
review, extend, or move on to the next idea to be covered.
Benchmark assessments are short summative assessments given after
one or two investigations. These I-Checks are actually hybrid tools:
they provide summative information about students’ achievement, and
because they occur soon after teaching an investigation, they can be
used diagnostically as well. Reviewing a specific item on an I-Check
with the class provides another opportunity for students to clarify their
thinking.
The embedded assessments are based on authentic work produced
by students during the course of participating in the FOSS activities.
Students do their science, and you look at their notebook entries.
Within the instructional sequence, you will see the heading What
to Look For in red letters. Under that, you will see bullet points
telling you specifically what students should know and be able to
communicate.
If student work is incorrect or incomplete, you know that there has
been a breakdown in the learning/communicating process. The
assessment system then provides a menu of next-step strategies to
resolve the situation. Embedded assessment is assessment for learning,
not assessment of learning.
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
18.Assess progress: notebook entry
After students have finished updating their Air in a Syringe
notebook sheets, collect a sample from each class, and assess
students’ progress. The sample you select should give you a
snapshot of the range of student understanding at this point in
time.
What to Look For
• Students draw 20 particles in each syringe, closer together in
syringe D, and farther apart in syringe E.
• Students use the particulate model to explain the behavior of air.
• Students include the terms expansion and compression to
explain their drawings.
• Students explain that the space between particles expands or
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
compresses, not the particles themselves.
Plan to spend 15 minutes reviewing the selected sample of
student responses. Using Embedded Assessment Notes as a tool,
review the student responses, and tally the number of students
who got or didn’t get the one or two concepts that you chose
from the What to Look For list. Record any misconceptions
that are evident from student responses.
Assessment of learning is the domain of the benchmark assessments. Benchmark assessments are delivered at the beginning of the course
(survey), at the end of the course (posttest), and after one or two
investigations (I-Checks). The benchmark tools are carefully crafted and
thoroughly tested assessments.
The assessment items do not simply identify whether a student knows
a piece of science content. They also identify the depth to which
students understand science concepts and principles and the extent to
which they can apply that understanding. Since the output from the
benchmark assessments is descriptive and complex, it can be used for
formative as well as summative assessment.
Completely incorporating the assessment system into your teaching
practice involves realigning your perception of the interplay between
good teaching and good learning, and usually leads to a considerably
different social order in the classroom, with redefined student–student
and teacher–student relationships.
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FOSS Instructional Design
Science-Centered Language Development
The FOSS active investigations, science notebooks, FOSS Science
Resources articles, and formative assessments provide rich contexts in
which students develop and exercise thinking and communication.
These elements are essential for effective instruction in both science
and language arts—students experience the natural world in real and
authentic ways and use language to inquire, process information, and
communicate their thinking about scientific phenomena. FOSS refers
to this development of language process and skills within the context of
science as science-centered language development.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
In the Science-Centered Language Development in Middle School
chapter in Teacher Resources, we explore the intersection of science
and language and the implications for effective science teaching and
language development. We identify best practices in language-arts
instruction that support science learning and examine how learning
science content and engaging in scientific practices support language
development.
Language plays two crucial roles in science learning: (1) it facilitates
the communication of conceptual and procedural knowledge,
questions, and propositions, and (2) it mediates thinking—a process
necessary for understanding. Science provides a real and engaging
context for developing literacy, and language-arts skills and strategies
to support conceptual development and scientific practices. The skills
and strategies used for enhancing reading comprehension, writing
expository text, and exercising oral discourse are applied when students
are recording their observations, making sense of science content, and
communicating their ideas.
TEACHING NOTE
Embedded even deeper in the
FOSS pedagogical practice is
a bolder philosophical stance.
Because language arts commands
the greatest amount of the
instructional day’s time, FOSS
has devoted a lot of creative
energy defining and exploring
the relationship between science
learning and the development
of language-arts skills. FOSS
elucidates its position in the
Science-Centered Language
Development in Middle School
chapter.
The chapter describes how literacy strategies are integrated purposefully
into the FOSS investigations, and gives suggestions for additional
literacy strategies. The Science-Centered Language Development in
Middle School chapter is a library of resources and strategies for you to
use.
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
Managing the classroom
FOSS has tried to anticipate the most likely learning environments
in which science will be taught and designed the curriculum to be
effective in those settings. The most common setting is the 1-hour
period (45–55 minutes) every day, one teacher, in the science room. Students come in wave after wave, and they all learn the same thing.
Some teachers may have two preps because they teach seventh-grade
and eighth-grade classes. The Chemical Interactions Course was
designed to work effectively in this traditional hour-a-day format.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
The 1-hour subdivisions of the course adapt nicely to the blockscheduling model. It is usually possible to conduct two of the 1-hour
sessions in a 90-minute block because of the uninterrupted instructional
period. A block allows students to set up an experiment and collect,
organize, and process the data all in one sequence. Block scheduling
is great for FOSS; students learn more, and teachers are responsible for
fewer preps.
Interdisciplinary teams of teachers provide even more learning
opportunities. Students will be using mathematics frequently and
in complex ways to extract meaning from their inquiries. It has
been our experience, however, that middle school students are not
skilled at applying mathematics in science because they have had few
opportunities to use these skills in context. In an interdisciplinary team,
the math teacher can use student-generated data to teach and enhance
math skills and application.
The integration of other subject areas, such as language arts, into the
science curriculum is also enhanced when interdisciplinary teams are
used.
Managing Time
Time is a precious commodity. It must be managed wisely in order to
realize the full potential of your FOSS curriculum. The right amount
of time should be allocated for preparation, instruction, discussion,
assessment, research, and current events. Start from the premise that
there will not be enough time to do everything, so you will have to
budget selectively. Don’t scrimp on the prep time, particularly the first
time you use the curriculum. Spend enough time with the Investigations
Guide to become completely familiar with the lesson plans. Take extra
time at the start of the course to set up your space efficiently; you will
be repaid many times over later. As you become more familiar with the
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Managing the Classroom
FOSS Program and the handling of the materials, the proportion of time
devoted to each aspect of the program may shift, so that you are spending
more and more time on instruction and enrichment activities.
Effective use of time during the instructional period is one of the keys
to a great experience with this course. The Investigations Guide offers
suggestions for keeping the activities moving along at a good pace, but
our proposed timing will rarely exactly match yours. The best way we
know for getting in stride with the curriculum is to start teaching it.
Soon you will be able to judge where to break an activity or push in a
little enrichment to fill your instructional period.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
Managing Space
The Chemical Interactions Course will work in the ideal setting:
flat-topped tables where students work with materials in groups of four;
theater seating for viewing multimedia (darkened); eight computers
networked and linked to the Internet along the far wall; and a library
at the back. But we don’t expect many teachers to have the privilege
of working in such a space. So we designed FOSS courses to work
effectively in a number of typical settings, including the science lab and
regular classroom. We have described, however, the minimum space and
resources needed to use FOSS. Here’s the list, in order of importance.
• A computer with Internet access, and a large-screen display
monitor or projector.
• Flat tables or desks appropriate for students to work in groups of
four.
• Standard metric measuring tools and classroom supplies.
• A whiteboard, blackboard, overhead, or chart paper and marking
pens.
• A surface for materials distribution.
• A place to clean and organize equipment.
• A place to store safety goggles that students can get to easily.
• A convenient place to store the kit.
• A computer lab or multiple computers.
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
Once the minimum resources are at hand, take a little time to set up
your science area. This investment will pay handsome dividends later
because everyone will be familiar with the learning setup.
• Organize your computer and be sure the online activities are
•
•
•
•
running smoothly.
Position your LCD and/or overhead projector(s) where
everyone can see comfortably.
Think about the best organization of furniture. This may
change from investigation to investigation.
Plan where to set up your materials stations.
Know how students will keep notes and record data, and plan
where students will keep their notebooks.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
Managing Materials
The Materials chapter lists the items in the equipment kit and any
teacher-supplied materials. It also describes things to do to
prepare a new kit and how to check and prepare the kit for your
classroom. Individual photos of each piece of FOSS equipment are
available for printing from FOSSweb, and can help students and you
identify each item.
The FOSS Program designers suggest using a central materials
distribution system. You organize all the materials for an investigation
at a single location called the materials station. As the investigation
progresses, one member of each group gets materials as they are needed,
and another returns the materials when the investigation is complete.
You place the equipment and resources at the station, and students do
the rest. Students can also be involved in cleaning and organizing the
materials at the end of a session.
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Managing the Classroom
Managing Technology
The Chemical Interactions Course includes an online component.
The online activities and materials are not optional. For this reason, it
is essential that you have in your classroom at minimum one computer,
a large-screen display monitor or projection system, and a connection
to the Internet. Sometimes you will use online materials to make
presentations to the entire class. Sometimes small groups or individuals
will use the online program to work simulations and representations.
The important attribute of the online component is that it is interactive.
Students can manipulate variables to see what happens. They can ask
the important question What would happen if . . . , and then find out,
using the online simulations.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
Option 1: The computer lab. If you have access to a lab where
all students can work simultaneously as individuals, pairs, or small
groups, schedule time in the lab for your classes. Plan on sessions in the
computer lab for Investigations 2 and 5.
Option 2: Classroom computers. With four to eight computers
in the science classroom, you can set up a multitasking environment
with half the students working online and half engaged in reading or
small-group discussions. Then swap roles. This could take one or two
periods, depending on the activity.
Option 3: Learning centers. If you have access to only one
computer system, plan to use it with the whole class with a projection
system for large-group viewing, followed by opportunities for small
groups of students to explore the simulations. Try to organize your
classroom for several activities, one of which will be a computer station.
Option 4: Home access. Students can access FOSSweb from home
by visiting www.FOSSweb.com and accessing the class pages with the
account information you provide for student use.
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
Managing Students
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
A typical class of middle school students is a wonderfully complex
collection of personalities, including the clown, the athlete, the fashion
statement, the worrier, the achiever, the pencil sharpener, the show-off,
the reader, and the question-answerer. Notice there is no mention of
the astrophysicist, but she could be in there, too. Management requires
delicate coordination and flexibility—some days students take their
places in an orderly fashion and sit up straight in their chairs, fully
prepared to learn. Later in the week, they are just as likely to have the
appearance of migrating waterfowl, unable to find their place, talkative,
and constantly moving.
FOSS employs a number of strategies for managing students. Often a
warm-up activity is a suitable transition from lunch or the excitement
of changing rooms to the focused intellectual activities of the
Chemical Interactions Course. Warm-ups tend to be individual
exercises that review what transpired yesterday with a segue to the next
development in the curriculum. This gives students time to get out
their notebooks, grind points on their pencils, settle into their space,
and focus.
Students most often work in groups in this course. Groups of four are
generally used, but at other times, students work in pairs.
Suggestions for guiding students’ work in collaborative groups are
described later in this chapter.
When Students Are Absent
When a student is absent for a session, give him or her a chance to
spend some time with the materials at a center. Another student might
act as a peer tutor and share the science notebook entries made for that
day. The science notebooks should be a valuable tool for students to
share in order to catch up on missed classes.
Allow the student to bring home FOSS Science Resources to read with
a family member. Each article has a few review items that the student
can respond to verbally or in writing.
And finally, encourage the student to use the resources on FOSSweb at
school or at home for the missed class.
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Differentiated Instruction
Differentiated Instruction
The roots of FOSS extend back to the mid-1970s and the Science
Activities for the Visually Impaired and Science Enrichment for
Learners with Physical Handicaps projects (SAVI/SELPH). As those
special-education science programs expanded into fully integrated
settings in the 1980s, hands-on science proved to be a powerful medium
for bringing all students together. The subject matter is universally
interesting, and the joy and satisfaction of discovery are shared by
everyone. Active science by itself provides part of the solution to full
inclusion and provides many opportunities at one time for differentiated
instruction.
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
Many years later, FOSS began a collaboration with educators and
researchers at the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST),
where principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) had been
developed and applied. FOSS continues to learn from our colleagues
about ways to use new media and technologies to improve instruction.
Here are the UDL principles.
Principle 1. Provide multiple means of representation. Give learners
various ways to acquire information and knowledge.
Principle 2. Provide multiple means of action and expression. Offer
students alternatives for demonstrating what they know.
Principle 3. Provide multiple means of engagement. Help learners
get interested, be challenged, and stay motivated.
The FOSS Program has been designed to maximize the science
learning opportunities for students with special needs and students from
culturally and linguistically diverse origins. FOSS is rooted in a 30-year
tradition of multisensory science education and informed by recent
research on UDL. Procedures found effective with students with special
needs and students who are learning English are incorporated into the
materials and strategies used with all students.
FOSS instruction allows students to express their understanding
through a variety of modalities. Each student has multiple opportunities
to demonstrate his or her strengths and needs. The challenge is then
to provide appropriate follow-up experiences for each student. For
some students, appropriate experience might mean more time with the
active investigations or online activities. For other students, it might
mean more experience building explanations of the science concepts
orally or in writing or drawing. For some students, it might mean
making vocabulary more explicit through new concrete experiences or
through reading to students. For some students, it may be scaffolding
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
their thinking through graphic organizers. For other students, it might
be designing individual projects or small-group investigations. For
some students, it might be more opportunities for experiencing science
outside the classroom in more natural, outdoor environments.
The next-step strategies used during the self-assessment sessions after
I-Checks provide many opportunities for differentiated instruction. For
more on next-step strategies, see the Assessment chapter.
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Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
There are additional strategies for providing differentiated instruction. The FOSS Program provides tools and strategies so that you know
what students are thinking throughout the module. Based on that
knowledge, read through the extension activities for experiences that
might be appropriate for students who need additional practice with
the basic concepts as well as those ready for more advanced projects.
Interdisciplinary extensions are listed at the end of each investigation.
Use these ideas to meet the individual needs and interests of your
students. In addition, online activities including tutorials and virtual
investigations are effective tools to provide differentiated instruction.
English Learners
The FOSS multisensory program provides a rich laboratory for
language development for English learners. The program uses a variety
of techniques to make science concepts clear and concrete, including
modeling, visuals, and active investigations in small groups at centers.
Key vocabulary is usually developed within an activity context with
frequent opportunities for interaction and discussion between teacher
and student and among students. This provides practice and application
of the new vocabulary. Instruction is guided and scaffolded through
carefully designed lesson plans, and students are supported throughout.
The learning is active and engaging for all students, including English
learners.
Science vocabulary is introduced in authentic contexts while students
engage in active learning. Strategies for helping all students read, write,
speak, and listen are described in the Science-Centered Language
Development in Middle School chapter. There is a section on sciencevocabulary development with scaffolding strategies for supporting
English learners. These strategies are essential for English learners, and
they are good teaching strategies for all learners.
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Safety in the Classroom and Outdoors
Safety in the Classroom
and Outdoors
Following the procedures described in each investigation will make for
a very safe experience in the classroom. You should also review your
district safety guidelines and make sure that everything that you do is
consistent with those guidelines. Two posters are included in the kit,
Science Safety and Outdoor Safety, for classroom use.
Look for the safety icon in the Getting Ready and Guiding the
Investigation sections, which will alert you to safety considerations
throughout the course.
Safety Data Sheets (SDS) for materials used in the FOSS Program can
be found on FOSSweb. If you have questions regarding any SDS, call
Delta Education at 800-258-1302 (Monday–Friday
8 a.m. to 6 p.m. EST).
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
General classroom safety rules to share with students are listed here.
Science Safety
1 Always follow the safety procedures outlined by your teacher.
Follow directions, and ask questions if you’re unsure of what to do.
2 Never put any material in your mouth. Do not taste any material
or chemical unless your teacher specifically tells you to do so.
3 Do not smell any unknown material. If your teacher tells you to smell
a material, wave a hand over it to bring the scent toward your nose.
4 Avoid touching your face, mouth, ears, eyes, or nose while working
1. Always follow the safety procedures outlined by your teacher. Follow directions, and ask questions if you’re unsure of what
to do.
2. Never put any material in your mouth. Do not taste any material or chemical unless your teacher specifically tells you to do so.
3. Do not smell any unknown material. If your teacher tells you to smell a material, wave a hand over it to bring the scent toward your nose.
4. Avoid touching your face, mouth, ears, eyes, or nose while working with chemicals, plants, or animals. Tell your teacher if you have any allergies.
5. Always wash your hands with soap and warm water immediately after using chemicals (including common chemicals, such as salt and dyes) and handling natural materials or organisms.
6. Do not mix unknown chemicals just to see what might happen.
7. Always wear safety goggles when working with liquids, chemicals, and sharp or pointed tools. Tell your teacher if you wear contact lenses.
8. Clean up spills immediately. Report all spills, accidents, and injuries to your teacher.
9. Treat animals with respect, caution, and consideration.
10. Never use the mirror of a microscope to reflect direct sunlight. The bright light can cause permanent eye damage.
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with chemicals, plants, or animals. Tell your teacher if you have
any allergies.
5 Always wash your hands with soap and warm water immediately
after using chemicals (including common chemicals, such as salt and
dyes) and handling natural materials or organisms.
6 Do not mix unknown chemicals just to see what might happen.
7 Always wear safety goggles when working with liquids, chemicals,
and sharp or pointed tools. Tell your teacher if you wear contact lenses.
8 Clean up spills immediately. Report
all spills, accidents, and injuries to
your teacher.
9 Treat animals with respect,
caution, and consideration.
10 Never use the mirror of
a microscope to reflect
direct sunlight. The bright
light can cause permanent
eye damage.
1391354
Outdoor Safety
1 Listen carefully to your teacher’s instructions. Follow all directions.
Ask questions if you don’t know what to do.
2 Tell your teacher if you have any allergies. Let your teacher know
if you have never been stung by a bee.
3 Never put any materials in your mouth.
4 Dress appropriately for the weather and the outdoor experience.
5 Stay within the designated study area and with your partner or
group. When you hear the “freeze” signal, stop and listen to your
teacher.
6 Never look directly at the Sun or at the sunlight being reflected
off a shiny object.
7 Know if there are any skin-irritating plants in your schoolyard, and
do not touch them. Most plants in the schoolyard are harmless.
8 Respect all living things. When looking under a stone or log, lift
the side away from you so that any living thing can escape.
9 If a stinging insect is near you, stay calm and
slowly walk away from it. Tell your teacher
right away if you are stung or bitten.
10 Never release any living things
into the environment unless you
collected them there.
11 Always wash your hands with
soap and warm water after
handling plants, animals, and soil.
12 Return to the classroom with all of
the materials you brought outside.
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Chemical Interactions
– Overview
FOSS Next Generation K–8
Scope and Sequence
Grade
Physical Science
Life Science
Planetary Science
Human Brain and Senses
Chemical Interactions
Earth History
Populations and Ecosystems
Force and Motion
Weather and Water
Diversity of Life
5
Mixtures and Solutions
Earth and Sun
Living Systems
4
Energy
Soils, Rocks, and
Landforms
Environments
3
Motion and Matter
Water and Climate
Structures of Life
2
Solids and Liquids
Pebbles, Sand, and Silt
Insects and Plants
1
Sound and Light
Air and Weather
Plants and Animals
K
Materials and Motion
Trees and Weather
Animals Two by Two
Electronics
6–8
© Copyright The Regents of the University of California Berkeley
Not for resale, redistribution, or use other than classroom use without further permission. www.fossweb.com
Earth Science
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