Definitions of Literary Terms
Allegory--a narrative, either in verse or prose, in which characters, action, and sometimes
settings represent abstract concepts apart from the literal meaning of a story. The underlying
meaning usually has moral, social, religious, or political significance, and the characters are
often personifications of abstract ideas such as charity, hope, greed, and so on.
Alliteration--the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginnings of words or within words,
particularly in accented syllables. It can be used to reinforce meaning, unify thought, or to create
a musical effect.
Allusion--a brief reference to a person, event, or place, real or fictitious, or to a work of art.
Analogy--a literal comparison made between two items, situations, or ideas that are somewhat
alike but unlike in most respects. Frequently an unfamiliar or complex object or idea will be
compared to a familiar or simpler one in order to explain the first.
Anapest--a three-syllable metrical foot consisting of two unaccented syllables followed by an
accented syllable.
Anastrophe--inversion of the usual order of the parts of a sentence, primarily for emphasis or to
achieve a ‘ certain rhythm or rhyme. “Wrecked is the ship of pearl” is a reversal or inversion of
the normal order of subject-verb-object (complement), “The ship of pearl is wrecked.”
Antagonist--a character in a story or play who opposes the chief character, or protagonist.
Assonance--the repetition of similar vowel sounds followed by different consonant sounds in
stressed syllables or words. It is used instead of rhyme. Fade and stayed are examples of rhyme;
fade and pale, examples of assonance.
Blank verse--unrhymed iambic (-/) pentameter, a line of five feet.
Characterization--the method an author uses to acquaint a reader with his or her characters. A
character’s physical traits and personality may be described, a character’s speech and behavior
may be presented, the thoughts and feelings of a character, or the reactions of other characters to
an individual may be shown. Any or all of these methods may be used in the same story or
novel.
Cliché--an expression or phrase that is so overused as to become trite and meaningless: cool as a
cucumber, wrack and ruin, and tried and true are examples.
Climax--the decisive point in a story or play when the problem must be resolved in one way or
another. Sometimes a character may simply resolve a problem in his or her mind. At times there
is no resolution of the plot; the climax then comes when a character realizes that a resolution is
impossible.
Connotation-- the emotional associations surrounding a word or phrase, as opposed to its literal
meaning or denotation.
Consonance--the repetition of consonant sounds that are preceded by different vowel sounds.
The autumn-time has come.
On woods that dream of bloom...
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Consonance is an effective device for reinforcing mood and meaning. In the lines above, the m
sounds contribute to the drowsy, end-of-summer feeling.
Couplet--a pair of rhyming lines with identical meter.
Dactyl--a three-syllable metrical foot, consisting of one accented syllable followed by two
unaccented syllables, as in the word merrily.
Denotation--the strict, literal meaning of a word.
Denouement--the resolution of the plot. The word is derived from a French word meaning
literally "the untying." The climax and the denouement may come very close together, or, in a
novel, several chapters may intervene.
End rhyme--the rhyming of words at the ends of lines of poetry.
End-stopped line--a line of poetry that contains a complete thought, thus necessitating the use of
a semicolon or period at the end.
The ship, becalmed, at length stands still;
The steed must rest beneath the hill;
--Thoreau, Though All the Fates
Exposition--the beginning of a work of fiction, particularly a play, in which the author sets the
atmosphere and tone, explains the setting, introduces the characters, and provides the reader with
any other information needed in order to understand the plot.
Extended metaphor--a figure of speech that is used throughout an entire work, or a great part of
it. It is common in poetry, but it is often used in prose, as well.
Flashback--interruption of the narrative to show an episode that happened before that particular
point in the story.
Foil--a character whose traits are the opposite of those of another character and who thus points
out the strengths or weaknesses of that other character.
Foot--in verse, a group of syllables usually consisting of one accented syllable and all
unaccented syllables associated with it. (A foot may occasionally, for variety, have two accented
syllables. It is probable that this use of the word foot refers to the movement of the foot in
beating time. The most common line lengths are five feet (pentameter), four feet (tetrameter),
and three feet (trimeter). See rhythm, also.
Foreshadowing--a hint given to the reader of what is to come.
Free verse--a type of poetry that differs from conventional verse forms in being “free” from a
fixed pattern of meter and rhyme, but uses rhythm and other poetic devices.
Gothic novel--a type of novel that aims at evoking terror through a gloomy setting and
sensational, sometimes supernatural, action.
Hexameter--a metrical verse line of six feet.
Hyperbole--a figure of speech involving great exaggeration. The effect may be satiric,
sentimental, or comic. American folklore abounds with hyperbole, such as the story about the
man who was so stingy that he stood on one foot at a time to avoid wearing out his shoes.
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Iamb--a two-syllable metrical foot consisting of one unaccented syllable followed by one
accented syllable.
Internal rhyme--rhyming words within lines that may or may not also rhyme at the end: “I spy a
fly upon the rye.”
Irony--the term used to describe a contrast between what appears to be and what really is.
Local color--a detailed representation in fiction of the setting, dialect, dress, climate, manners,
customs, etc., of a particular area.
Metaphor--a figure of speech involving an implied comparison that does not make use of “like”
or “as”. An example of this is: “It is raining cats and dogs.” This use of metaphor implies a
very severe rainstorm.
Meter--the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry. Also, see rhythm and foot.
Monologue--an extended speech given by one speaker. Sometimes a distinction is made
between a soliloquy and a monologue, with the term soliloquy describing the extended speech of
a character on stage who is, in effect, talking to him or herself and expressing inner thoughts
aloud. These musings are supposed to be known only to the audience and not to other
characters. The term monologue is usually used to express any rather long speech given by one
person, either a character in a story or a real person.
Mood--the overall atmosphere of a work.
Moral-- the lesson taught in a work. A moral generally directs that the reader should act in a
certain way.
Motif--a character, incident, or idea that recurs in various works or in various parts of the same
work.
Motivation--the portrayal of circumstances and aspects of personality that make a character’s
actions and reactions believable.
Narrative--a story or account of an event or a series of events. It may be told either in poetry or
prose, and it may be either fictional or true.
Narrator--the teller of a story rather than the author. The teller may be a character in the story,
or an anonymous voice outside the story.
Naturalism--writing that depicts events as rigidly determined by the forces of heredity and
environment.
Parable--a brief fictional work that illustrates an abstract idea or teaches some lesson or truth. It
differs from a fable in that the characters in it are generally people rather than animals; it differs
from an allegory in that its characters do not necessarily represent abstract qualities.
Parody--the humorous imitation of something serious, for the sake of being humorous.
Pentameter--a metrical line of five feet. (See also foot.)
Persona--the mask or voice that a writer assumes in a particular work.
Personification--the representation of abstractions, ideas, animals, or inanimate objects as
human beings by endowing them with human qualities. (See figurative language.)
Plot--the series of happenings in a literary work.
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Point of view-- the relationship assumed between the teller of a story and the characters in it.
The teller, or narrator, may be a character, in which case the story is told from the first-person
point of view. A writer who describes, in the third person, both the thoughts and actions of one
or all of the characters is said to use the omniscient point of view. A writer who confines
himself, in the third person, to describing thoughts and actions of a single character is sometimes
said to use the limited point of view. An author who describes only what can be seen, like a
newspaper reporter, is said to use the dramatic point of view. In this case, the narrator may be a
minor character in the story, who plays the roles of eyewitness and confidant.
Prologue--the section of a work preceding the main plot and serving as an introduction.
Protagonist-- the leading character in a literary work.
Quatrain--a verse stanza of four lines.
Refrain--the repetition of one or more lines in each stanza of a poem.
Rhyme--exact repetition of sounds in at least the final accented syllable of two or more words.
(See also internal rhyme, end rhyme, and slant rhyme.)
Rhyme scheme--any pattern of end rhyme in a stanza. For purposes of study, the pattern is
labeled as shown below, with the first rhyme labeled a, as are all the words rhyming with it; the
second rhyme labeled b, the third rhyme labeled c, and so on.
Rhythm-- the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables in speech or writing. Rhythm,
or meter, may be regular, or it may vary within a line or work. The four most common meters
are iamb, trochee, anapest, and dactyl.
Rising action--the building of tension between opposing characters or forces toward a climax.
Satire--the technique that employs wit to ridicule a subject, usually some social institution or
human foible, with the intention of inspiring reform.
Scansion--the marking off of lines of poetry into feet. (See also rhythm and foot.)
Setting--the time (both time of day or season, and period in history) and place in which the
action of a narrative occurs.
Simile--a figure of speech involving a comparison using like or as.
Slant rhyme--rhyme in which the vowel sounds are not quite identical, as in the first and third
lines below.
By the rude bridge that arched the flood,
Their flag to April’s breeze unfurled,
Here once the embattled farmers stood
And fired the shot heard round the world.
--Emerson, Concord Hymn
Soliloquy--a dramatic convention which allows a character to speak his or her thoughts aloud.
If another character is on stage, a soliloquy becomes an aside. (See monologue.)
Sonnet--a lyric poem with a traditional form of fourteen iambic pentameter lines and one of
several fixed rhyme schemes.
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Spondee--a metrical foot consisting of two accented syllables ( / / ). It serves occasionally as a
substitute foot to vary the meter.
Stanza--a group of lines which are set off and form a division in a poem.
Stereotype-- a conventional character, plot, or setting that possesses little or no individuality.
Stream of consciousness-- the recording or re-creation of a character’s flow, of thought without
any attempt at explanation, as in “The Jilting of Granny Weatherall,” page 395.
Symbolism--the use in literature of objects or events to represent something other than
themselves; frequently abstract ideas or concepts.
Tetrameter--a metrical line of four feet.
Tone--the author’s attitude toward his or her subject matter.
Trimeter--a metrical line of three feet.
Trochee—a metrical foot made up of one accented syllable followed by an unaccented syllable.
Литература и культура Великобритании (проф. Е.И.Волкова)
Список литературы
1. Caedmon’s Hymn
2. Life of Saint Cuthbert (and/or Saint Hilda)
3. Beowulf
4. The Pearl
5. William Langland (?1330-1386) Piers Plowman.
6. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight
7. Geoffrey Chaucer (1343?-1400). Canterbury Tales.
8. Everyman
9. Christopher Marlowe (1564-1593). Dr. Faustus
10. William Shakespeare (1564-1616). Sonnets. Hamlet. Othello. King Lear. Measure for
Measure. («Анджело» А.С.Пушкина). The Winter’s Tale.
11. John Donne.(1572-1631) The Good Morrow. Good Friday. Holy Sonnets: This is my
play's last scene, Batter my heart, three-person'd God. Death be not proud.
12. George Herbert (1593-1633). Easter Wings. The Collar.
13. Robert Herrick (1591-1674) To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time.
14. Andrew Marvell (1621-1678) To His Coy Mistress. The Definition of Love.
15. John Milton. (1608-1674). On His Blindness. Paradise Lost.
16. John Bunyan. (1628-1688). The Pilgrim’s Progress.
17. John Dryden (1631-1700) Absalom and Achitophel.
18. Daniel Defoe (1660-1731). The Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe.
19. Jonathan Swift.(1667-1745). A Tale of a Tub . Gulliver’s Travels .
20. Henry Fielding (1707-1754). Tom Jones.
21. Laurence Sterne (1713-1768). A Sentimental Journey through France and Italy.
22. Alexander Pope (1688-1744). The Rape of the Lock. Ode on Solitude. The Universal
Prayer.
23. William Blake (1757-1827). Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. The
Marriage of Heaven and Hell.
24. William Wordsworth (1770-1850) Preface to Lyrical Ballads.(1798) We are Seven. The
World is Too Much With Us.
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25. Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834). The Rime of the Ancient Mariner. Christabel.
Kubla Khan. (1798) The Epitaph.
26. George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824). Cain. They say that Hope is Happiness.
Darkness.
27. Percy Bysshe Shelly (1792-1822) Men of England. Ode to the West Wind.
28. John Keats (1795-1821) On a Grecian Urn.
29. Charlotte Brontë (1816-1855) Jane Eyre.
30. Charles Dickens (1812-1870) Christmas Carol. Great Expectations .
31. Oscar Wilde (1854-1900). The Picture of Dorian Gray. De Profundis.
32. Lord Alfred Tennyson (1809-1892) The Lady of Shalott.
33. Robert Browning (1812-1889). My Last Duchess.
34. Gerald M. Hopkins (1844-1889) Pied Beauty.
35. William B. Yeats (1865-1939) Easter 1916. The Circus Animal Desertion.
36. T. S. Eliot (1888-1965). Murder in the Cathedral. The Waste Land.
37. George Bernard Shaw (1856-1950). Pygmalion.
38. Joseph Conrad (1857-1924) Heart of Darkness.
39. D.H.Lawrence. (1885-1930). Sons and Lovers.
40. James Joyce (1882-1941). Dubliners. Ulysses.
41. George Orwell (1902-1950). Animal Farm.
42. J. R. R. Tolkien (1892-1973). Leaf by Niggle.
43. C. S. Lewis (1898-1963) The Great Divorce.
44. Evelyn Waugh (1903-1966). Brideshead Revisited:the Sacred and Profane Memories of
Captain Charles Ryder (1945). Helena (1950).
45. Aldous Leonard Huxley (1894-1963) On the Road to Rome.
46. Graham Green (1904-1990) End of the Affair
47. William G. Golding (1911- 1993) Free Fall. Darkness Visible.
48. Samuel Becket (1906-1989) Waiting for Godot.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Kenneth Brodey. Fabio Malgaretti. Focus on English and American Literature.
The Norton Anthology of English Literature.
The Oxford Anthology of English Literature.
The New Pelican Guide to English Literature.
The Cambridge Guide to English Literature.
Life Conquers Death: Religion and Literature.
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