The Role of Pedagogical Translation in Second Language Acquisition
From Theory to Practice
Bearbeitet von
Vanessa Leonardi
1. Auflage 2010. Taschenbuch. 178 S. Paperback
ISBN 978 3 0343 0087 2
Format (B x L): 15 x 22 cm
Gewicht: 270 g
Weitere Fachgebiete > Literatur, Sprache > Angewandte Sprachwissenschaft >
Fremdsprachenerwerb und -didaktik
schnell und portofrei erhältlich bei
Die Online-Fachbuchhandlung beck-shop.de ist spezialisiert auf Fachbücher, insbesondere Recht, Steuern und Wirtschaft.
Im Sortiment finden Sie alle Medien (Bücher, Zeitschriften, CDs, eBooks, etc.) aller Verlage. Ergänzt wird das Programm
durch Services wie Neuerscheinungsdienst oder Zusammenstellungen von Büchern zu Sonderpreisen. Der Shop führt mehr
als 8 Millionen Produkte.
1 Introduction
1.1 Aim and hypothesis of the present study
This book is about the use of translation for pedagogical purposes in
Second Language Acquisition (SLA). Translation seems to be perceived
differently by people and its use in foreign language (FL) teaching is
surrounded by a great deal of controversy and criticism. This work
stresses that there is a strong relationship between translation and foreign
language teaching because, whereas translators tend to be viewed as
good bilinguals and life-long language learners, language learners are
meant to be natural translators who face this activity everyday as students and workers. The use of translation in language classes is not a
means aimed at training professional translators but rather a means to
help learners acquire, develop and further strengthen their knowledge
and competence in a foreign language. In other words, translation in
SLA should be thought of as a means rather than an end in itself.
González-Davies (2002a: 65) also makes a clear-cut distinction between
translation to be used as a means in FL classes ‘as a communicative
learning activity’ and translation as an end ‘to prepare students who wish
to follow Translation and Interpreting Studies at University’.
Translation plays a very important role in an increasingly globalised
world and in an increasingly multilingual Europe where it is used on a
daily basis. From a European perspective, in particular, more and more
emphasis is laid upon the role of learning foreign languages in order to
overcome language barriers and facilitate mobility across all the Member
States. This significant concern about the way foreign languages should
be taught led to the creation of the Common European Framework of
Reference for Languages (CEFR) that is, a series of descriptions of
abilities which can be applied to any language and can be used to set
clear targets for achievements within language learning. It was developed by the Council of Europe as the main part of the project ‘Language
Learning for European Citizenship’ between 1989 and 1996. The system
17
includes six reference levels ranging from A1 to C2 according to proficiency abilities. The CEFR is undoubtedly a valid pedagogical tool as it
takes into account different modalities to determine proficiency levels.
However, tests are based on the four traditional skills, namely, writing,
reading, listening and speaking and translation is not included. This exclusion of the translation activity from the CEFR seems to strengthen
and prove the unwillingness to include it in language testing modalities
due to its negative association with the previously taught ‘GrammarTranslation’ method.
Throughout the years, there have been many studies carried out on
the topic of language acquisition drawing on several different theories
which have either favoured or completely ignored the use of translation.
The traditional ‘Grammar-Translation’ method, which made its appearance into the FL classroom in 1880s, was heavily criticised in favour of
other methods that banished the use of translation and advocated the use
of a more ‘natural’ and ‘communicative’ approach to language learning.
Translation activities were, indeed, viewed as being unsuitable within the
context of foreign language learning (Lado 1964; Beardsmore 1982;
Faerch and Kasper 1983; Brown 2002).
There are, nevertheless, significant and visible signs of a revival of
translation in language teaching according to recent literature on applied
linguistics (Malmkjaer 1998: 1). Translation is no longer seen as a harmful tool in language learning and its interference tends to be positively
evaluated as a way to enrich rather than harm learners’ competence and
performance. The use of translation in language classes might, of course,
have some limitations but its benefits should also be explored and taken
into consideration.
Much research carried out on the role of translation in language
teaching has mainly focused on translation into L1 with only a few
references to L2 (Lavault 1985; Duff 1989; Keith and Mason 1987;
Sewell and Higgins 1996; Malmkjaer 1998). This is mainly due to the
fact that translation into L1 is viewed as a much more realistic activity as
compared to translation into L2. The argument is that language learners
and users, indeed, will encounter this activity sooner or later in their professional life whereas the translation into L2 is thought of as a totally
unrealistic activity and thus useless and pointless. It is interesting to note,
however, that translation into L2 is an inevitable practice in multicultural
contexts and in an increasingly multilingual world this practice may
18
become a necessary and ordinary activity in people’s everyday life. In
this respect, Campbell (1998) refers to the case of Australia where there
seems to be a real need to find translators able to work into the second
language.
Although translation has long been banned from FL classes it
remained a valid pedagogical tool in many countries’ education systems
as it was viewed as a legitimate pedagogical tool in the field of EFL.
Several studies have acknowledged this position of translation insisting
upon its rehabilitation (Widdowson 1978: 18, Harmer 1991: 62, Ellis
1992: 46, Ur 1996: 40). These studies, however, do not seem to provide
useful guidance as to how fully integrate translation into language
teaching. Other studies have focused more carefully on the role of
translation as a very useful tool in language learning (Duff 1989;
Atkinson 1993; Edge 1986; Ulrych 1986; Nadstroga 1988; Urgese 1989;
Eadie 1999).
The problem is that translation has always been viewed as one of
the main causes of language interference or, more precisely, negative
transfer from L1 to L2. Although some kind of interference naturally
occurs in any foreign language course, this interference should be treated
rather as a way to enrich students’ competence in FL acquisition. Nigel
J. Ross, for instance, claims that ‘the real usefulness of translation in the
EFL classroom lies in exploiting it in order to compare grammar,
vocabulary, word order and other language points in English and the
students’ mother tongue. The areas where differences occur range from
relatively small points such as ‘false friends’, through sizeable areas such
as tense systems, to more complex fields such as contrastive rhetoric. If
students are aware of the differences, interference is likely to be reduced’
(2000: 61). Interference, however, is not the only problem associated to
the use of translation in the FL classes, as can be seen in the following
section dealing with criticisms in this respect.
One of the main assumptions of this work is that translation is an
innate and natural occurring activity and, as such, it is impossible to
learn a foreign language without even mentally comparing it to one’s
mother tongue, especially at beginner stages (Duff 1989; Malmkjaer
1998; Macaro 2003). The underlying hypothesis of this work is that
translation is totally dependent on and inclusive of all the four language
skills normally used in order to test learners’ competence and performance. Moreover, translation is related, although not restricted to lan19
guage matters and could be employed in FL classes and activities to
improve learners’ abilities. This hypothesis takes into consideration the
fact that the traditional ‘Grammar-Translation’ method was not efficient
and reliable and had significant limitations in that it only consisted in the
translation of isolated sentences out of context. The failure of this language teaching method led to the negative idea that the use of the mother
tongue in language learning had to be avoided, just like the use of
translation. This work, instead, focuses on and makes use of translation
in context, that is, passages taken from authentic material (according to
the class specialization needs) giving learners the opportunity to relate
the translated text to a larger framework of reference in order to
stimulate further conversation on the topic as it normally occurs in FL
classes. The assumption is that if authentic texts are used, on the basis of
students’ specialty field, and, at the same time, if students are provided
with the full text then they can have both a conceptual frame and a specific context to rely on when deciding upon lexico-semantic and cultural
strategies. Translation is a productive activity that focuses on decontextualization and re-contextualization. Thanks to this process,
translation becomes a purposeful activity and an important communication tool which is bound to the context in which it occurs. As Nord
(1997: 1) correctly asserts ‘Communication takes place through a medium and in situations that are limited in time and place [...] Situations
are not universal but are embedded in a cultural habitat, which in turn
conditions the situation. Language is thus to be regarded as part of
culture. And communication is conditioned by the constraints of the
situation-in-culture’.
In order to test this hypothesis it is my intention to establish an
analytical framework to be employed in the practical analyses. This
framework includes skills related to critical reading, grammatical
explanations, lexical or word guessing strategies, writing skills, cultural
references and conversation prompts which will, in turn, stimulate and
increase listening skills too.
The aim of the present study, therefore, is to show how the use of
translation in foreign language classes can help enhance and further
improve reading, writing, speaking and listening skills. In order to
achieve this goal, this investigation embraces both a theoretical and an
empirical purpose. The theoretical purpose is to present a general overview of the field of Second Language Acquisition and Translation
Studies (TS) so as to provide readers with a clear picture of how these
20
apparently distinct disciplines indeed share many common elements in
terms of pedagogy. Theory without empirical data does not seem to be
very useful so practical evidence is needed in order to support my
methodology, and the purpose of Chapter 4 of this work is to test my
hypothesis through some practical examples of how to use translation in
FL classes.
Translation activities should be learner-centred and process-based in
order to be successful and meaningful in foreign language classes. This
work has solid foundations in Applied Linguistics, Translation Studies
and Second Language Acquisition.
1.2 Criticisms to the use of translation in FL classes
There are several significant objections which have been addressed to
the use of translation in FL classes. The major criticism, however, seems
to stem from the traditional ‘Grammar-Translation’ method which was
adopted in western society and developed over centuries of teaching not
only the classical languages such as Latin and Greek, but also foreign
languages. The main focus was on studying grammatical rules and
morphology through written exercises, memorizing vocabulary, translating texts from and prose passages into the language. This method was
highly criticised due to a number of reasons: firstly, it mainly dealt with
the translation of isolated sentences out of context which made it
difficult for students to select the most suitable words without having
access to the whole text. Secondly, since the mother tongue was used as
the medium of instruction, this did not help students acquire any form of
listening and speaking skills, thus resulting in a general inability to use
the language for communication purposes.
Criticisms toward the ‘Grammar-Translation’ method led to the
development of the Direct Method based on natural language learning
principles in which the target language is used exclusively as the
instruction language. Thanks to this method, students have the
opportunity to learn and practise language skills in realistic situations
and, more importantly, they are encouraged to think in the target lan-
21
guage. Nevertheless, criticism was also directed to this method for several reasons:
a)
b)
c)
It required native or near-native teachers
It relied upon the teacher’s skills rather than on a textbook
It did not account for the fact that not all teachers were proficient
enough in teaching foreign languages
Malmkjaer (1998: 6) briefly summarises the objections to the use of
translation in FL classes as follows:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
Translation is independent of the four skills which define language
competence: reading, writing, speaking and listening
Translation is radically different from the four skills
Translation takes up valuable time which could be used to teach
these four skills
Translation is unnatural
Translation misleads students into thinking that expressions in two
languages correspond one-to-one
Translation prevents students from thinking in the foreign language
Translation produces interference
Translation is a bad test of language skills
Translation is only appropriate for the training of translators
Some or most of these arguments are still voiced nowadays in order to
justify any refusal to use translation in FL classes.
1.3 Counterarguments in favour of the use of translation
In response to the above-mentioned objections, some interesting
counterarguments could be raised in support of the role of translation in
FL classes:
a)
22
Translation is independent of the four skills which define language
competence: reading, writing, speaking and listening
Translation tends to be wrongly seen as a merely mechanic activity in
which a text is translated from one language into another. This is not,
though, entirely true. The translation process is much more complex than
it may seem and it involves a series of activities which, indeed, include
reading, writing, speaking and listening. Translation is not completely
different from them and if we take a closer look at the translation process
we will see how translation is inclusive of them:
Reading
In terms of reading, the source text (ST) should be read carefully and
analysed in detail before the translation can take place. In other words,
translation allows students to apply a kind of textual analysis, which is
very important in reading comprehension (Chellapan 1982). It is worth
noting that the only difference between translation and reading is the
degree of attention paid by the reader or translator. In the latter case,
more attention should be paid to the text to translate in order to avoid
misinterpretation of the message.
Nevertheless, within the field of FL teaching a distinction should be
made between an ordinary language lesson and a reading lesson.
Although it is inevitably true that there are several strategies which can
be employed when teaching reading in FL classes, in a ‘reading lesson’
texts are chosen not to teach language but rather for their function, be it
informative, expressive or directive. The aim of a text is to convey a
message which needs to be understood and eventually related to the
readers’ knowledge. Furthermore, the ultimate goal of teaching reading
skills should be to allow learners to read any kind of text and not only
specifically designed or simplified texts for language purposes. It is,
therefore, important to use authentic texts to gain a wider knowledge of
the different uses of a language in terms of structure, function and
idiomaticity.
It is not surprising that students tend to translate mentally into their
mother tongue when reading texts in the TL. If their thoughts and mental
translations are externalised through co-operative translation activities
with both teachers and peers in the classroom, then comprehension can
be enhanced. Syntax and lexis can be approached from a contrastive analysis where differences between the SL and TL can help learners better
23
understand the use, function and meaning of words and, ultima-tely, of
the whole text.
Writing
A translation, by its very definition, is a transposition of a text or speech
from one language (the source language or SL) into another (the target
language or TL). A distinction is indeed made between translators who
work with the written word and interpreters who work with the spoken
word. Translators need good writing skills to perform well in their jobs.
Good writing skills are needed in each of the three main stages of a
translation, namely, decoding the ST, transferring linguistic and cultural
elements and meanings into the TL and encoding the text into the new
language and context. Translation, just like any other piece of writing,
has a flow and a rhythm. It should reproduce both the style and the
context of the original text and respect the TL writing conventions. For
instance, many Romance languages are characterised by very long sentences and paragraphs which, inevitably, need to be shortened in English
without losing or changing the style, the context or the ‘flavour’ of the
original text. Writing skills are generally taught in most foreign language
courses and there is always a need to refer to focus, organization,
elaboration, style and conventions. The same applies to translation and
therefore the use of translation as a way to enhance writing skills is
perfectly justified. Moreover, if the task is approached from a contrastive
perspective, students have the opportunity to see and evaluate similarities and differences between different writing styles in different
languages. They will end up with parallel texts where a contrastive analysis can be carried out. Furthermore, writing skills can be enhanced
through the use of written commentaries where students have the opportunity to write about all the difficulties encountered when translating the
passage and the strategies used in order to deal with them.
Listening and Speaking
As far as oral skills are concerned, translation can be defined as a
communicative activity practised within a meaningful context (Nord,
1997). Thanks to translation significant interaction between the teacher
and the students is established in order to discuss rights and wrongs as
well as problems related to the translation task. This communication
24
exchange can take place in L2 before and after the translation and
therefore it strengthens students’ oral skills. There does not seem to be
much difference in the way students practise oral skills in any traditional
FL course. In both cases a topic is selected and conversation takes place
in L2 to express students’ opinions or make cultural references to different systems.
The advantage of using translation commentaries is that students
can read them aloud and a fruitful discussion on both their commentary
and their translation can be carried out in L2. This activity, in turn,
allows to practice both skills, listening and speaking, successfully and
simultaneously.
b) Translation is radically different from the four skills
It is clear from what was explained above, that translation is not radically
different from the other four skills. It can be used to test different
competences. As Malmkjaer correctly noticed, ‘It is misleading to suggest that translation is radically different from other language skills if it
depends on and includes them’ (1998: 8).
Translation should be viewed as an additional language skill aimed
at supplementing the other four skills in an attempt to provide a much
more comprehensive approach to language learning. It should not be
perceived as an end in itself but rather a means to improve and further
strengthen reading, writing, listening and speaking skills.
c) Translation takes up valuable time which could be used to teach these
four skills
As seen above, translation can be used as reading, writing, speaking and
listening activity at the same time and, therefore, it is not a waste of time
as it allows students to develop all the language skills at once. It can be
time-consuming in the sense that instead of focusing on just one skill, it
includes them all. This, however, does not make it a time-consuming
activity in a negative way.
It could be a good idea to work on a shorter version of a text in
class whereas larger texts can be done at home and later discussed in
class to maximise time. Furthermore, students can be asked to write a
commentary in the TL on the difficulties encountered in their translation
25
activity. Discussion can be carried out in the TL to further practice
listening and speaking skills. In this way, all four skills will eventually
be covered and extensively practised.
d) Translation is unnatural
As Malmkjaer (ibid.) acknowledges, translation allows people to
comfortably switch from one language to another and in an increasingly
multilingual and multicultural world it seems that this ability can be very
useful and very natural in its purpose. Translation is a naturally occurring phenomenon in all foreign language learners’ mind. Asking students
to think into the target language without using their own mother tongue
is not natural. When speaking, writing, reading or listening to a foreign
language, there is a cognitive function which immediately calls for
‘translation’ into one’s own native language. As in the case of the other
four language skills, if translation exercises are properly and carefully
planned and carried out within a FL course then they can provide ‘as
natural a focus for practice as any other classroom activity’ (ibid.).
e) Translation misleads students into thinking that expressions in two
languages correspond one-to-one
The same objection can be raised in the case of both written and oral
production in any FL class. Students always tend to refer to their mother
tongue when writing or speaking in a foreign language as if a one-to-one
correspondence exists for any situation. Translation can help students
realise that things and concepts are expressed differently by contrasting
both languages. Students can have the opportunity to see how words or
structures or idioms can be used in the foreign language and thus learn
from their mistakes. Furthermore, translation can help them better
understand how to use a dictionary which should not be viewed as the
ultimate key or a panacea for translation and comprehension difficulties.
Stress should be laid upon the role and difference between monolingual
and bilingual dictionaries. In FL classes, there seems to be little or no
emphasis upon the use of dictionaries. When dictionaries are used, they
tend to be mainly bilingual dictionaries and even in those cases no clear
instructions are given to students on how to consult them. First of all,
translation helps students understand the importance of using mono26
lingual dictionaries which can be very useful thanks to their valuable
lexical information. Secondly, translation can help students understand
how to consult bilingual dictionaries. There seems to be a widespread
belief in FL classes that all you need to do when faced with unknown
words is to look them up in a dictionary. However, no clear instructions
are always given as to how properly consult it. There is so much information generally packed into dictionaries that may be difficult for students to find what they need. Translation techniques used to deal with
problems also include useful directions on how to use dictionaries.
f) Translation prevents students from thinking in the foreign language
We cannot force students not to think into their native language since
this is a cognitive function which cannot be controlled. The same
objection, however, can be raised against any language skill used to test
students’ competence and performance. For instance, when students are
given a writing task or a conversation topic they tend to make mistakes
which are a direct reflection of their native language structures. This is
especially true in the case of lower proficiency students where the
statement ‘think in English’ (or in any other foreign language) does not
stop them from thinking into their L1. However, through translation
students can learn to think in both languages and this allows, in turn, a
kind of control over L2 production. If we approach this problem from a
behaviouristic point of view, any exercise or drill on the differences
between L1 and L2 may serve as stimuli to produce correct responses in
the future. In order to have a comparison, we need to have a tertium
comparationis and, as Carl James (1980: 178) correctly asserted, translation is indeed the best tool for comparison in contrastive analysis. The
assumption is that thanks to translation it is possible to compare sentences in a language which express the same message in another language
shifting ‘from the equivalence of message to a consideration of the form
of sentences which convey the messages’ (Di Pietro, 1971: 49).
g) Translation produces interference
This objection is not totally true because it applies to both translation as
well as language acquisition in general. In all language courses cases of
phonological, lexical, syntactic and semantic interference can be detec27
ted. It is impossible and, to a certain extent, unnatural not to make use of
one’s mother tongue in thinking, writing or speaking another language.
There is an innate translation function that activates when students are
faced with these tasks. The difference is, however, that translation skills
help noticing and controlling interference through a contrastive analysis
of both languages, that is, L1 and L2. Influential theorists in the fields of
transfer studies and Contrastive Analysis (CA), such as Weinreich
(1953), and works on interlanguage, such as Kellerman and Smith
(1986), have clearly outlined the effects that learners’ first languages
have on the languages they acquire. According to CA theories L1 interference was viewed as an obstacle to the successful mastery of L2 and as
one of the major causes of errors (Balcom in Cook, 2003: 168-192). It is
worth noting that studies on the influence of L1 over L2 started in the
late 1950s and early 1960s in the field of CA. It was Lado (1957: 57),
one of the most influential theorists, who asserted that ‘individuals tend
to transfer the forms and meanings, and the distribution of forms and
meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language
and culture’. A clear-cut distinction was then made between positive
effects (facilitation) and negative effects (interference). According to CA
theories, the greater the differences between two languages, the more
negative transfer can be expected. CA was later applied to the field of
Translation Studies allowing better analysis and evaluations of translations. In both cases, that is, translation and FL courses, the application
of CA aims at reducing negative interference and, at the same time,
increasing positive interference.
h) Translation is a bad test of language skills
Once again, translation is inclusive of the traditionally used language
skills since in order to produce a good translation all of these skills
should be employed. A translation is therefore a simultaneous application of all the four language skills and if it is included in an examination context then it can prove to be a very comprehensive test to
assess language skills. Moreover, in translation teaching, there is a significant emphasis on the use of the dictionary, an aspect which is not
always taken into account and covered in FL courses, as also discussed
in point e) above.
28
i) Translation is only appropriate for training translators
Translation can be used in any language course in order to strengthen
students’ analytical skills in reading and analysing texts and in developing creativity and problem-solving strategies which could be
applied later on in their daily activities. At the same time, writing a
commentary or orally discussing the problems encountered in the translation task is an opportunity for students to interact and further practise
language skills in the TL as would normally happen in any FL class
where they are given instructions and topics to write or speak about.
1.4 Limitations and further clarifications
The use of translation in FL classes is undoubtedly a wide topic and thus
it is fundamental to be aware of the limitations of this research. There are
many aspects that can be covered in this topic and more in detail as
compared to the present work. However, in order to avoid superficiality
and keep my work as focused as possible, I have decided to provide
readers with brief theoretical explanations which can be further researched on if interest arises, and to support these theoretical assumptions with practical applications to show both evidence and validity of
this research.
One of the most important limitations of applying this teaching
methodology is that it can be employed in monolingual classes where the
same mother tongue is shared by all the members of a group. Another
important element to consider when teaching languages through translation is that teachers are supposed to be proficient in both languages and
cultures in order to ensure quality and success in their classes. Both a
solid knowledge of the SL and TL grammatical systems along with a
good knowledge of their cultural backgrounds are needed in this respect.
As far as terminology is concerned, an important distinction is
generally made between Second Language Acquisition and Foreign
Language Learning (FLL). The latter refers to the process of learning a
non-native language in the same place where L1 was acquired, for
instance, Italian native speakers who learn English in Italy. SLA, on the
29
other hand, refers to the process of learning a non-native language in the
place where it is spoken, for instance, Italians who learn English in
America, Canada, Australia or Great Britain. However, for the purpose
of this investigation, SLA and FLL are used interchangeably.
Another important terminological distinction should be made between learning which ‘refers to conscious processes for internalising a
second language’ and acquisition which ‘refers to subconscious processes’ (Littlewood 1984: 3). These two terms are also used interchangeably to refer to ‘conscious’ and active processes involved in learning a
foreign language.
It is also important to distinguish between translation into L1
(mother tongue) and translation into L2 (second or foreign language).
These two types of activities are very different from one another.
According to Shiyab and Abdullateef (2001: 1) ‘translation facilitates
and speeds up the learner’s comprehension process’ but learners’ output
will be different according to the language direction of the translation
activities. Translation into the native language implies that the source
text (ST) is the ‘foreign’ element to work on and, in this case, ‘the translator runs into the problem of analysis’ (ibid.: 3). On the other hand,
translating into L2 means that the TT will be the foreign element to deal
with and ‘here, the translator runs into the problem of synthesis’ (ibid.).
Although many scholars, researchers and practitioners agree upon the
fact that translating from L2 into L1 is more natural, the assumption of
this work is that there is no much difference between a translation into
L2 and a written composition in L2. In both cases, indeed, students are
required to produce a piece of work in a foreign language and in a
written composition in L2 students have to mentally translate their ideas,
concepts and opinions into a language they do not fully master as in the
case of their L1. Translation into the mother tongue or L1 is believed to
be a much more reliable and natural practice due to a better linguistic
and cultural competence in L1. The basic difference between L1 and L2
is that the former is naturally acquired whereas the latter is learned and,
in this case, both the linguistic and cultural competences are in a continuous developmental stage.
There are undoubtedly many advantages in translating into the native
language as compared to translation into L2, such as better knowledge of
1) syntax, 2) morphology, 3) semantics, 4) culture, and 5) correct use of
lexis in different text types (general vs. specialised vocabulary).
30
Translation into L2, however, requires more in-depth knowledge of the
above-mentioned language features and it requires a continuous reference and use of grammar books and dictionaries (general vs. specialised
as well as monolingual vs. bilingual).
Translation into L2 is characterised by a certain degree of doubt and
uncertainty. This work, however, argues that there are common difficulties in both translation and writing activities carried out in L2. One of the
major problems is lexical choice appropriateness as in some languages,
such as English for instance, one word, be it a noun or a verb, may have
more than one meaning according to the context in which it is used.
Collocations also pose several problems in L2 production as compared to
L1 production. Syntactical difficulties should also be mentioned as
syntax may greatly differ from one language to another. Words and
sentences need a context to be correctly understood and/or translated.
For instance, a simple sentence in Italian such as Visiterò la Spagna
requires more information in English in order to be correctly translated
as one of the following options:
a)
b)
c)
I am visiting Spain
I am going to visit Spain
I will visit Spain
Idioms, fixed expressions, proverbs and puns may also be difficult for L2
learners either in translation or in a writing activity in L2. For instance, if
English people ‘knock on wood’, Italians ‘touch iron’. All these difficultties are therefore found in both translation into and writing activities
in L2. Writing in L2 implies a conscious or subconscious mental
translation on the part of students. If this mental translation activity is
externalised, then students can be taught how to control it and by
highlighting differences between L1 and L2 language features learners
can better remember mistakes and learn from them.
For the sake of convenience, the texts chosen for translation are
written in English and Italian but the exercises prepared to work on them
can be designed differently according to the direction of the translation
activities, different proficiency levels and different language pairs. The
choice of using English as L2 was based upon an important consideration, that is, targeting and reaching different people who work in the
fields of translation studies, applied linguistics and language pedagogy
31
all over the world through the medium of a common language. English
has nowadays acquired an unprecedented status of global language or
Lingua Franca and it is widely used both orally and in written form to
communicate across different countries in the world. The choices of
focusing on specific text types through the English/Italian language
combination are merely dictated by the author’s personal experience in
teaching English to Italian university students in different faculties such
as Medicine, Law, Letters and Business and Economics. The texts
chosen are only representative samples to show how theory relates to
practice and any other text typology can be used.
This book is designed for practising and trainee language teachers
as well as for researchers working in the fields of Translation Studies,
Language Pedagogy and Applied Linguistics. The focus is on nonliterary translation and it is not aimed at targeting only one language
combination but it could be perfectly applied to all language pairs. The
type of translation activities will be either literal (to compare syntax
structure in different languages) or communicative (to understand main
ideas and meaning of the text). The translation activities included in the
Pedagogical Translation Framework (PTF) are designed to be used at
any proficiency level. Differences in students’ proficiency will imply
some changes in the lesson planning and output. The classroom is clearly
intended to be either monolingual or bilingual sharing a common
language. For instance, at Italian universities there can be students from
different countries who are studying all the course subjects in the Italian
language. Italian is therefore a common language and English is the
foreign language to be learned. The PTF suggested in this work can be
adopted and adapted to different contexts and it can be used with
different age and proficiency groups. Ranging from primary to university
classes, the use of translation can prove to be significantly beneficial to
second language teaching and learning.
1.5 Breakdown and overview of chapters
Chapter 2 provides an introduction to the field of SLA and it will focus
particularly on three main approaches within it, namely the linguistic, the
32
psychological and the social approach. It will then explore some of the
best known teaching methods adopted and applied in the field of foreign
language teaching in order to provide a clearer framework about the role
and use of both L1 and translation in SLA.
Chapter 3 explores the notion of ‘translation’ which all too often tends to
be unfairly reduced to a simple linguistic activity without taking into
account all the complex extra-linguistic factors involved in it. It will
present a brief historical background of translation in order to stress its
interdisciplinary status thus emphasizing its role within the field of SLA.
It will be regarded as the ‘fifth skill’ to be included in FL testing together
with reading, writing, listening and speaking. The theory of translation is
based on an understanding of two texts, namely the ST and the TT and
the task of the translator is to establish a relationship of equivalence
between these two texts. The notion of equivalence, however, is a very
controversial concept which is approached and interpreted in different
ways by different people. A summary of the most influential theories in
this respect will be provided. Finally, a section on the role of pedagogical translation in SLA will highlight how translation permeates
language teaching and can be used in the classroom to maximise learning
and comprehension.
Chapter 4 is a practical chapter aimed at showing how to use
translation in the classroom as an efficient and valid language learning
tool. It will stress the importance of selecting texts and working with
authentic material. In the sample lesson sections there will be several
examples on how to use translation to improve reading, writing, listening
and speaking. Although the texts chosen in this respect are drawn from
several sources and genres, the same methodology can be applied to any
text type. All the practical activities presented in this chapter are based
upon the criteria included in the PTF.
Chapter 5 deals with conclusions partly based on my research and
some prospects for future research and application.
33