Abstract
International
and Domestic
Tourist Road
Safety in Hawaii
Volcanoes
National Park
Motor vehicle accidents have
been identified as a major
cause of injury and death
among tourist populations.
Popular tourist destinations
such as Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park provide an
excellent setting for studying
international and domestic
tourist road safety. Thus, the
present study examines the
causes of all reported motor
vehicle accidents involving
tourists in Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park between 1993
and 2001 and identifies the risk
factors associated with
international and domestic
tourist groups. The results
indicate that nearly one-third
of all tourist accidents in the
park require emergency
transport. Exterior distractions
such as scenery and an
unfamiliarity with the road
and traffic rules were found to
be a common cause of accidents
for both international and
domestic tourists. Speed and a
lack of familiarity with rental
vehicles were found to be a
frequent cause of international
tourist accidents and
inattention was frequently
associated with domestic
tourist accidents. No link
between tourist accidents,
alcohol consumption, or driving
on the opposite side of the road
than one is accustomed is
identified in this study. Drivers
from Japan, Germany, South
Korea, California, New York,
and U.S. military personnel
based in Hawaii were
determined to be the most atrisk driving groups.
Tourist safety concerns are playing a more prominent role in
the selection of holiday destinations (Bentley & Page, 2001).
Likewise, within the tourism literature, tourist health and safety
issues have started to attract more attention by researchers Wilks &
Page, 2003; Page, Bentley, Meyer & Chalmers, 2001). Much of the
concern with tourist health and safety has focused on travel medicine
and disease despite the identification of motor vehicle accidents as a
major cause of injury and death among tourist populations (Guptill &
Hargarten, 1991; Hargarten & Bouc, 1993; McInnes, Williamson &
Morrison, 2002; Prociv, 1995; Wilks & Watson, 1998; Wilks, Watson &
Hansen, 2000).
Travis and Tracey Heggie are PhD
candidates, Department of
Recreation, Parks, and Tourism
Sciences, Texas A&M University,
U.S.A.
The primary causes of tourist road accidents are difficult to
determine because literature on the causes of tourist accidents is just
beginning to emerge. Nonetheless, tourists are considered at an
increased risk to motor vehicle accidents than non-tourist populations
because they generally tend to spend more time in cars and are
exposed to conditions they do not normally encounter (Hargarten &
Bouc, 1993; Wilks & Watson, 1998). For example, tourists driving
unfamiliar rental vehicles in areas where they face unfamiliar roads
Travis W. Heggie
and
Tracey M. Heggie
Introduction
THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 15, No. 1, MAY ‘04
51
52
THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 15, No. 1, MAY ‘04
and traffic r ules have been
identified as major causes of
tourist road accidents (Waller &
Brink, 1987; Wilks, 1999). As
well, Petridou et al. (1997) and
Wilks, Watson, and Faulks (1999)
identified the transition to
driving on the opposite side of the
road than one is accustomed to as
a significant cause of tourist road
accidents. Other contributing
factors that have been recognised
are fatigue (Page, Bentley, Meyer
& Chalmers, 2001; Wilks et al.,
2000), alcohol and speed
(Petridou et al., 1997), international status (Leviakangas,
1998; Petridou, Dessypris,
Skalkidou & Trichopoulos, 1999),
and gender (Petridou et al., 1997).
Much of the existing research on
tourist road safety has focused on
accidents involving international
tourists in unfamiliar settings
and comparing these accidents
with those involving local
residents. Apart from Petridou et
a l. (1999), research contrasting
international and domestic
tourist road accidents is lacking.
National parks within the United
States are popular tourist
destinations and units such as
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
provide an ideal setting to study
international and domestic
tourist road safety. Geographically situated in a popular tourist
destination, Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park reports between
1.5 - 2 million recreation-based
visits a year and attracts both
international and domestic
tourists. Additionally, Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park is the
most frequented tourist attraction
on the Island of Hawaii. In order
to contribute to the growing
knowledge base on tourist road
accidents, the purpose of this
paper is to:
Methods
Data for this study were
extracted from case incident
report (CIR) files and other log
records at the headquarters of
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park.
Files reporting motor vehicle
accidents caused by tourists from
January 1, 1993, to December 31,
2001, were identified. Using the
driver at fault as the unit of
analysis, nationality, state of
residence, age, gender, the date
and time of the accident, the
degree of injury, and the probable
cause of the ac cident as
determined by law enforcement
rangers were collected. Because
the reports did not categorise the
level of injury and did not
consistently report the number of
injuries and fatalities in their
respective
accidents,
the
accidents were coded as fatal
(accidents where at least one
fatality was reported), serious
(accidents where at least one
person required transport to the
hospital by emergency medical
services), minor (accidents where
injuries were reported but were
either treated on site or required
no transport to the hospital) and
no injury (accidents where no
injuries were reported). The
cause of each accident as
determined by law enforcement
rangers were classified as:
1) Alcohol: when drivers had
consumed enough alcohol to
inhibit their driving ability
and rangers determined
alcohol inhibition to be the
cause of the accident.
2) Animal hazards: when vehicles
hit animals such as wild pigs.
cell phones and insects inside
the car.
6) Environmental: when factors
such as rain or fog were
determined as the primary
cause of the accident.
7) Fatigue: when drivers reported
falling asleep at the wheel or
were suffering from jet lag.
8) Inattention: when drivers were
considered careless despite
being familiar with traffic
rules and not being distracted.
9) Mechanical: when mechanical
factors and vehicle fires were
determined to cause the
accident.
10)
Road conditions: when
narrow roads with no
shoulders,
engineering
problems, and unsealed
surfaces were determined the
cause of the accident.
11)
Speed: when drivers
exceeded the speed limit or
were driving too fast for the
present conditions.
12)
Unfamiliarity with the
road and traffic rules.
13)
Unfamiliarity with the
vehicle such as rental vehicles.
All calculations and tabulations
of the data were performed using
SPSS (v. 11.0). As well, while the
data was collected from national
park records, the authors claim
sole responsibility for the analysis
and interpretations presented in
this study.
Results
3) Disorientation: when drivers
reported becoming confused,
lost, or dizzy on winding roads.
(1) identify the predominant
factors contributing to motor
vehicle accidents involving
tourists in Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park, and
4) Exterior distraction: when
drivers
reported
being
distracted by factors such as
scenery.
(2) determine the risk factors
associated with international
and domestic tourists.
5) Interior distraction: when
drivers
reported
being
distracted by factors such as
Between 1993-2001 there were
285 motor vehicle accidents
caused by tourists in Hawaii
Volcanoes
National
Park.
International tourists were
involved in 154 of the accidents
and domestic tourists were
involved in 131 of the accidents.
Table 1 summarises the level of
injury sustained by international
and domestic tourists in each of
THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 15, No. 1, MAY ‘04
53
Table 1: Level of Injury Sustained in Motor Vehicle Accidents by International
and Domestic Tourists in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 19932001.
International
Domestic
Level of Injury
No.
%
No.
%
Fatal1
Serious Injury2
Minor Injury
No Injury
3
46
75
30
2
30
48
20
4
35
64
28
3
27
49
21
Total
154
131
1 Represents the number of accidents with fatalities and not the total number
of fatalities.
2 Serious injuries are those requiring transportation to hospital by emergency
medical services.
Table 2: Distribution of Tourist Motor Vehicle Accidents in Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park, 1993-2001, by time of day. N=285.
International
Domestic
Total
Time of Day
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
Percent (%)
0000-0100
0100-0200
0200-0300
0300-0400
0400-0500
0500-0600
0600-0700
0700-0800
0800-0900
0900-1000
1000-1100
1100-1200
1200-1300
1300-1400
1400-1500
1500-1600
1600-1700
1700-1800
1800-1900
1900-2000
2000-2100
2100-2200
2200-2300
2300-2400
5
1
1
1
1
0
3
3
2
2
12
17
11
30
15
14
10
7
6
7
1
1
2
2
3
<1
<1
<1
<1
0
2
2
<1
<1
8
11
7
20
10
9
7
5
4
5
<1
<1
3
3
0
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
8
8
6
11
12
18
13
17
6
5
2
2
8
4
3
0
0
<1
2
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
6
6
5
8
9
14
10
13
5
4
2
2
6
3
2
0
5
2
3
2
2
1
4
4
10
10
18
28
23
48
28
31
16
12
8
9
9
5
5
2
2
<1
1
<1
<1
<1
1
1
4
4
6
10
8
17
10
11
6
4
3
3
3
2
2
<1
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
Month
International Tourist
Domestic Tourists
Figure 1: Percent of international and domestic motor vehicle accidents by
month
54
THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 15, No. 1, MAY ‘04
the accidents. In accidents
involving international visitors,
2% were classified as fatalities,
30% were considered serious and
required emergency transport to
the hospital, 48% were classified
as minor injuries, and 20% were
classified as receiving no injury.
For accidents involving domestic
tourists, 3% were classified as
fatalities, 27% were considered
serious and required emergency
transport, 49% were considered
minor, and 21% were recorded as
receiving no injury. July and
December were the months with
the highest frequency of motor
vehicle accidents involving
international tourists while July
had the highest frequency for
domestic tourists (Figure 1).
Sunday had the highest
frequency of any weekday for
both international and domestic
tourists (Figure 2). Accidents
involving international tourists
were most frequent between 1000
and 1500 hours while accidents
involving domestic tour ists
peaked between 1100 and 1500
hours (Table 2).
Male drivers were more
frequently involved in accidents
than female drivers and
accounted for 82% of the
accidents involving international
tourists and 78% of the accidents
involving domestic tourists
(Figure 3). Drivers aged 25-29
years were responsible for 26% of
international accidents and 20%
involved drivers between 60-64
years of age (Table 3). For
accid ents involving domestic
drivers, 19% were between 55-59
years and 15% were between 5054 years. As displayed in Table
4, The most common place of
residence for international
drivers involved in accidents
were Japan (34%), Germany
(21%), South Korea (10%), China
(7%), Taiwan (6%), Austria (5%),
and the United Kingdom (5%).
The most common place of
residenc e for accidents with
domestic drivers were tourists
from California (23%), U.S.
military personnel based on
Hawaii’s Island of Oahu (15%),
New York (11%), New Jersey
(9%), Illinois (6%), Oregon (6%),
and Washington (5%).
25
Percent (%)
20
15
10
5
0
S
M
Many national parks worldwide
are popular tourist destinations
due in part to their scenic value.
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park
is no exception as the park offers
visitors the opportunity to view
active lava flows along with a
landscape that alters between
rainforest, coastal, and deserts
environments, deep calderas and
craters, mountain peaks, and
numerous volcanic substrates.
However, the findings of this
study indicate that a landscape
with high scenic value can be
hazardous for motorised tourists.
For instance, exterior distractions were found to be a frequent
cause of accidents for both
international and domestic
tourists with the scenery being
listed as the primary distraction.
Just as hazardous as exterior
distractions, an unfamiliarity
with the roads being driven and
with existing traffic rules proved
to be a frequent cause of
W
International Tourist
T
F
S
Domestic Tourists
Figure 2: Percent of international and domestic motor vehicle accidents by the
day of the week
100
90
82
78
80
70
60
50
40
30
22
18
20
Discussion
T
Day
Percent (%)
The causes for the motor vehicle
accidents displayed in Table 5
indicate that an unfamiliarity
with local roads and traffic rules,
exterior distractions, inattention,
a lack of familiarity with the
vehicle being driven, and speed
are the most common causes of
tourist motor vehicle accidents in
the park. For accidents involving
international drivers, 36% were
the result of the driver being
unfamiliar with the road and
local traffic rules, 28% were the
result of exterior distractions,
17% were the result of the driver
being unfamiliar with the vehicle
being driven, and 10% were the
result of drivers speeding and
driving too fast for the present
conditions. Inattention was the
cause of 28% of the accidents
involving domestic drivers,
unfamiliarity with local roads
and traffic rules was the cause of
26%, and 15% of the domestic
accidents were caused by exterior
distractions.
10
0
International Tourist
Domestic Tourists
Male
Female
Figure 3: Gender of international and domestic tourists involved in motor
vehicle accidents in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 1993-2001
Table 3: Distribution of Motor Vehicle Accidents by Age and Nationality in
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 1993-2001.
International
Domestic
Total
Age
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
15-19
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
50-54
55-59
60-64
65-69
70-74
75-79
80-84
2
4
40
22
3
5
14
14
16
30
4
0
0
0
Total
154
1
3
26
14
2
3
9
9
10
20
3
0
0
0
3
9
11
17
6
6
13
13
27
19
2
2
2
1
131
2
7
8
13
5
5
10
10
21
15
1
1
1
1
5
13
51
39
9
11
27
27
43
49
6
2
2
1
2
5
18
14
3
4
9
9
15
17
2
1
1
0
285
THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 15, No. 1, MAY ‘04
55
accidents for international and
domestic drivers.
Such
unfamiliarity has been noted as a
frequent cause of tourist road
accidents in other studies and
many of the drivers in the
present investigation indicated
they were not expecting the road
to curve, were not sure which
direction to turn, and did not
understand the existing road
signs. As well, inattention was
found to be a frequent cause of
accidents involving domestic
tourists and were primarily the
result of drivers not looking
behind them while reversing and
drivers failing to look for
oncoming traffic when pulling
onto major roadways.
Public transportation on the
Island of Hawaii is poorly
developed and tourists rely
heavily upon rental vehicles for
transportation. Hence, a high
level of unfamiliarity with rental
vehicles can be expected and was
found to be a frequent cause of
accidents involving international
tourists. Wilks (1999) points out
that to some degree the
involvement of tourists from any
one country in motor vehicle
accidents will be determined by
the overall number of tourists
from that country visiting a
particular destination. However,
Wilks (1999) also points out that
visitor numbers by themselves do
not necessarily explain crash
involvement. A large majority of
the
accidents
where
an
unfamiliarity with the vehicle
was determined as the cause of
the accident involved tourists
from Asia driving large sport
utility vehicles and other 4-wheel
drive vehicles they would most
likely not be accustomed to
driving in their home countries.
Conversely, a familiarity with
such vehicles could explain the
low frequency of this cause
assigned to domestic tourist
accidents.
No link between alcohol
consumption and the risk for
motor vehicle accidents involving
tourists was identified in this
study. Likewise, no problems
56
Table 4: Most Frequent Residence of International and Domestic Drivers
Involved in Motor Vehicle Accidents in Hawaii Volcanoes National
Park, 1993-2001.
International Accidents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Japan
Germany
South Korea
China
Taiwan
United Kingdom
Austria
Domestic Accidents
1. California
2. Island of Oahu
(military based personnel)
3. New York
4. New Jersey
5. Illinois
6. Oregon
7. Washington
were identified for tourists
making the transition from
countries accustomed to driving
on the left-hand side of the road
to driving on the right-hand side
of the road in Hawaii. While no
No.
(%)
53
33
16
11
9
8
8
34%
21%
10%
7%
6%
5%
5%
No.
(%)
30
16
23%
12%
14
12
8
8
7
11%
9%
6%
6%
5%
distinct seasonal pattern of
accidents involving domestic
drivers was identified, the high
frequency of international
accidents in July and December
corresponds with peak visitation
Table 5:
Causes of Motor Vehicle Accidents Involving International and
Domestic Tourists in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, 1993-2001,
Ascertained from Law Enforcement Reports. N=285.
International
Domestic
Total
Cause of Accident
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
Alcohol
0
0
1
<1
1
<1
Animal hazard
0
0
3
2
3
<1
Disorientation
3
2
10
8
13
5
Distraction (exterior)
43
28
20
15
63
22
Distraction (interior)
0
0
5
4
5
2
Environmental factors
2
1
2
2
4
1
Fatigue
1
<1
1
<1
2
<1
Inattention
5
3
36
28
41
14
Mechanical factors
0
0
1
<1
1
<1
Road conditions
4
3
4
3
8
3
Speed
15
10
11
8
27
10
Unfamiliar with road
and traffic rules
55
36
33
26
88
31
Unfamiliar with vehicle
26
17
4
3
30
11
THE JOURNAL OF TOURISM STUDIES Vol. 15, No. 1, MAY ‘04
periods for the park. As well, the
time distribution of accidents for
international and domestic
tourists coincides with peak park
visitation between 1000-1400
hours. The excess of accidents
among male drivers combined
with the age distribution reflects
a change in risk with age for
male drivers with the exception
of international drivers aged 2529. With 80% of all vacation
dollars in the United States spent
by those older than 55 years
(Javalgi, Thomas & Rao, 1992),
the age distribution may also be
reflective of the number of
visitors in the park older than 55.
With the absence of baseline
numbers indicating the number
of tourists driving into the park,
it is difficult to establish the
exact risk posed to tourists when
driving in Hawaii Volcanoes
National Park. Nevertheless, the
present study establishes that
one-third of international and
domestic tourist road accidents
result in serious injury. In
addition, those most at risk are
tourists from Japan, Germany,
South Korea, California, New
York, and U.S. military personnel
based in Hawaii. With only one
entrance for motorised vehicles
leading into the park, special
warnings with information about
the different roads, traffic
patterns, and subsequent driving
risks could be handed to these atrisk groups as they enter the
park. Such information could be
presented in the form of
brochures and pamphlets, be
translated into international
languages, and also made
available inside the park visitor
centre and hotel. As well, a
collaborative effort with rental
agencies on the island requiring
all tourists to watch a short
driver safety video prior to
renting could help reduce the
motor vehicle accident risk to all
tourists.
Conclusions
Prior to this study, very little was
known about tourist road safety
issues in Hawaii. The results
provide an insight into motor
vehicle accidents caused by
international and domestic
tourists in a popular tour ist
destination as well as inside a
national park. Driving in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park can
pose challenges for international
and domestic tourists who are
prone to distrac tions from
scenery, are unfamiliar with the
road they are driving and local
traffic rules, are unfamiliar with
the vehicle they are driving, and
are of a holiday mindset and
inattentive to their driving.
While the findings of this study
contribute to the growing
knowledge base of tourist road
accidents, the fact that one-third
of all international and domestic
tourist road accidents in Hawaii
Volcanoes National Park are
serious accidents should be
motivation for park managers
and other tourist-related agencies
on the island to undertake
initiatives to reduce the serious
nature of these accidents.
Likewise, further investigation
into related medical costs and
insurance claims would be most
beneficial
to
dev eloping
strategies aimed at increasing
tourist road safety and improving
the overall tourist experience in
Hawaii.
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