REVIEW AND SURVEY OF MASS MEMORIES
L. C. Hobbs
Hobbs Associates
Corona del Mar, California
INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY
ity and Jower costs per bit, but at the expense
of significantly longer access times.
Prior to the advent of electronic digital comput-ers, large files of data and records were
stored primarily in printed form or in punched
cards for use with standard tabulating and
business machine equipment. The introduction
of electronic digital computers in the late 1940's,
and their commercial applications in the early
1950's, led to the requirement for storing (in a
machine readable code and media) large volumes of data generated by computers that were
expected to be used again by the computer.
These large external files were stored primarily
in punched cards and on magnetic tapes. Until
approximately 1955, these serial off-line storage
devices provided the only method of storing
large volume files of computer records that were
to be used by the computer again at a later time.
Their applications suffered from the inherent
disadvantages of serial access and lack of online availability, under computer control, of all
records in the file.
The shortcomings of both techniques turned
the industry's attention to stacks of magnetic
discs as a means of combining capacities in
excess of 20 million bits with access times of a
few hundred milliseconds at a reasonable cost
per bit. The first disc unit constructed by the
Bureau of Standards consisted of a donut
shaped array of stationary discs with a head
mechanism moving around the center of the
donut (through a gap in each disc) and stopping at the selected disc. This disc was then
accelerated and spun past the head for reading.
After the demonstration of this unit in 1952,
a number of organizations worked on various
types of multiple magnetic disc arrays.
The first one introduced commercially was
the RAMAC by IBM in 1956. This unit consisted of a stack of 50 discs rigidly mounted to
a shaft rotated at 1200 rpm and providing a
capacity of 5 million alphanumeric characters.
Two heads were mounted on an arm that moved
up and down on a post parallel to the shaft of
the rotating disc stack. After this arm was
positioned opposite the selected disc, the arm
holding the heads was inserted into the disc
stack straddling the selected disc so that one
head could read a track on the upper surface,
and the other head could read the corresponding
track on the lower surface. In this way, it was
possible to position the pair of heads up and
down to one of 50 discs and in and out to one
of 100 pairs of tracks on the selected disc.
The recognition of these shortcomings and
the need for a large capacity, semi-random
access, on-line file storage under computer control led to the development of large magnetic
drums, devices utilizing multiple ,short loops of
magnetic tape, and early efforts in the development of magnetic discs. The large magnetic
drums offered relatively fast access times in the
milliseconds, but they had limited capacities in
the order of one or two million bits per unit
and relatively high costs per bit of storage.
The magnetic tape loops offered larger capac295
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
296
PROCEEDINGS-FALL JOINT COMPUTER CONFERENCE, 1963
The next unit made commercially available
in 1958 was the RANDEX drum by Remington
Rand. This unit, which was a derivative of the
large drum developed for the LARC System,
stored seven million alphanumeric characters
on two large drums rotating on parallel shafts.
A head mechanism moved laterally between and
along the surface of the two drums positioning
the heads to read a set of tracks on each drum.
It is unlikely that large drums and disc files
would have progressed farther than the large
fixed-head drum with its limited capacity and
high cost per bit had it not been for the development of the floating head. Different versions of the floating head were developed somewhat independently by several organizations,
but most of them basically involved mounting
and positioning the head very close to the surface by a loading force so that it effectively floats
on an air slider bearing. I, 2 This maintains a relatively constant and close spacing between the
head and the disc. Since the head to surface
spacing is self adjusting, the use of a floating
head permits three significant advantages to be
realized in mass memories:
1. The necessity for close mechanical tolerances is greatly alleviated. Thus, it becomes feasible to move the head without
worrying about mechanically repositioning it within microinches with respect
to the surface.
2. The head will follow eccentricities in the
surface of reasonable magnitudes. Thus,
the requirements for maintaining surface
uniformity as the media rotates are
greatly alleviated whether these be caused
by bearings on a drum or by warpage in
a disc.
3. Much closer head to surface spacing also
results from the ability of the head to
follow surface eccentricities. Thus a significantly higher bit density can be realized in each track. This in turn permits
either an increase in the capacity of the
device or a reduction in the number of
heads, tracks, or discs to be accessed.
The use of a nickel-cobalt metallic coating has
significantly increased the reliability, life, and
capacity of some drum units. In the past, the
plating process has tended to be an art rather
than a science. As a result, this type of coating
has only recently been used on commercially
available disc files. The oxide coatings most
commonly used are perhaps easier to apply and
the techniques better known, but they are
thicker and do not have the wear characteristics
of the metallic surface. Nickel-cobalt surface
thicknesses at least an order of magnitude less
than those of oxide films can be achieved
readily. The thinner recording surface permits
higher bit densities and consequently larger
capacities. With an oxide coating, there is also
a greater likelihood of permanently damaging
the surface. Although considerable progress
has been made in developing harder oxide coatings, it appears likely that the widespread use
of nickel-cobalt metallic surfaces will further
enhance the reliability and capability of future
mass memories.
A number of magnetic drum memories have
used phase recording techniques in the past.
There now appears to be an increasing tendency
to use this type of recording in mass memories.
The combination of phase recording and selfclocking techniques may well permit significant
increases in capacities for all present types of
mass memories using moving-magnetic-surface
media for storage.
In both the RAMAC and RANDEX units,
head positioning was used to minimize the number of heads and the electrical switching of
tracks to provide a larger storage capacity at
a lower cost than would have been possible
otherwise. This general principle has been
carried forward to most of the present day
mass memories although other present day approaches involve moving individual magnetic
cards. All of the past and present commercially
available mass memories involve mechanical
motion of magnetic-surface media. For a long
time, industry has dreamed of a non-moving
static memory that would provide the, larger
capacity required of mass memories with the
faster access times and higher reliability inherent in an all electronic approach. As we will
see later, there is some work on such devices
underway at this time. Although we hope for
a long range solution to this dream, practical
commercially feasible equipments are probably
many years in the future.
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
REVIEW AND SURVEY OF MASS MEMORIES
DEFINITION OF MASS MEMORY
At this point in our discussion, we should
clarify exactly what we mean when we speak
of a mass memory. In the sense in which the
term "mass memory" is used in this paper and
in the subsequent papers in this session, we are
referring to an external storage device that can
provide a large capacity and fast semi-random
access, that is under direct on-line control of
the computer, that is addressable by the computer (although not necessarily by individual
word), and that is erasable and reusable.
The term external is used to differentiate the
mass memory from the main high-speed internal memory of the machine. To qualify as
a mass memory, we would probably expect a
device to provide a storage capacity in excess
of 10 million bits. Mass memories provide semirandom access in the sense that relatively fast
access can be made from any location to any
other randomly chosen location without directly
passing over all of the intervening records. If
the advantages of fast access are to be utilized,
it is necessary that the memory be operating
on-line and under the direct control of the computer without the. necessity for manual intervention. The concept of being directly controllable by the computer also implies that blocks
of information in the mass memory must be
addressable by the computer although it would
be permissible to have individual words or records within the block selected after transferring the block into the machine's internal
memory.
This definition represents the general usage
in the field although it is occasionally stretched
by manufacturers to cover one of their devices
that doesn't really meet these criteria. It eliminates, for different reasons, devices such as
magnetic tape units, photographic storages, and
high-speed magnetic core matrices.
THE NEED FOR MASS MEMORIES
The intensive development efforts in mass
memories have been initiated and sustained by
a definite need in business, scientific, and military applications. In addition to fulfilling these
needs, mass memories offer other advantages
that may not be generally recognized. Un-
297
doubtedly, others will appear that have not yet
been considered. A brief review of some of the
major applications and uses for mass memories
will serve to better channel our consideration
of the performance requirements and the advantages and disadvantages of the different
types of mass memories under consideration.
Figure 1 summarizes a number of applications
and uses that will be discussed as examples.
In general, the use of mass memories can be
divided into two major categories-those in
which mass memories are required by the
nature of the problem, e.g., random interrogations; and those in which mass memories serve
to facilitate the processing but in which the
requirements of the problem could be and have
been met in other ways, e.g., processing of
individual entries against two files that are
sequenced diff~rently.
A. BUSINESS APPLICATIONS
1. Random Interrogations and Look-ups
In many business applications, it is necessary to be able to locate information in large
files to answer inquiries that occur at random
relative to the file sequence. Policy files in
insurance companies are an example.
2. Processing Individual Entries Against Two
Files Sequenced by Different Criteria.
Some applications require processing each
input transaction against more than one file.
For example, in a payroll and labor cost distribution problem, it is necessary to process each
time entry for each employee first against the
payroll file sequenced by employee number and
then against the labor-cost-distribution file
sequenced by job or work order number. The
use of a serial file, such as magnetic tapes,
would require sorting the input transactions
into different sequences and making separate
processing runs for each file. With a mass
memory, the input transactions can be processed against both files in a single pass with no
sorting.
3. Random Processing (Psuedo Real-Time)
Applications such as department store customer accounts receivable or airline reservation
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
298
PROCEEDINGS-F ALL JOINT COMPUTER CONFERENCE, 1963
BUSINESS APPLICATIONS
RANDOM INTERROGATIONS AND
LOOK-UPS
PROCESSING ENTRIES AGAINST
MULTIPLE FILES
RANDOM PROCESSING
STORAGE OF LARGE TABLES
DATA STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL
INDEXES
CROSS REFERENCES
ABSTRACTS
SCIENTIFIC APPLICATIONS
DATA STORAGE
MULTIPLE PROGRAMS AND
SUBROUTINES
MEMORY DUMPS
COMMUNICATIONS
MESSAGE SWITCHING
STORE-AND-FORW ARD
PRIORITY SEQUENCING
MILITARY
INTELLIGENCE
DISPLAY GENERATION
RANDOM PROCESSING
PROGRAMMING
MULTIPLE PROGRAMS AND
SUBROUTINES
MEMORY DUMPS
STORAGE OF COMPILER AND
LIBRARY
AID IN COMPILING OPERATION
REAL-TIME
HISTORICAL DATA
ALTERNATE PROGRAMS FOR
INTERRUPTS
MEMORY DUMPS
Figure 1. Summary of Mass Memory Applications.
systems require processing individual transactions as they occur-while the customer waits
in these two examples. Storing the file records
in a mass memory eliminates the need for batching, sorting, and sequential processing and permits entries to be processed as they occur.
"~.
Storage of Large Tables
In some applications such as those found in
transportation and public utility companies, it
is necessary to store very large tables of rates
or other types of information. Somewhat related applications are the storing of catalogue
information and indexes and cross references
such as the telephone directory.
B. SCIENTIFIC
1. Data Storage
Many sophisticated and complex scientific
applications, such as the inversion of very large
matrices, require the storage of more data than
can reasonably be: handled by the machine's
internal memory. Consequently, these types of
problems are frequently segmented with the
majority of the data stored in the mass memory
and brought into the internal memory in blocks
for processing.
2. Storage of Multiple Programs and Subroutines.
Frequently~ scientific problems are handled
on a job shop basis with a large number of
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
REVIEW AND SURVEY OF MASS MEMORIES
relatively short programs being run consecutively and independently of one another. Maintaining the programs for these problems in
mass memory reduces the "turn around time"
and permits running such problems in random
sequence by eliminating the need for selecting
and sequentially accessing the programs on a
reel of magnetic tape.
3. Memory Dumps
Requirements for dumping the memory contents with the ability to recall them rapidly is
an important part of many types of applications
other than scientific applications. For example,
memory dumps play an important role in errorcorrection and in debugging new programs.
However, the requirements in high-speed scientific applications are more critical. It is
frequently necessary to be able to dump the
contents of different portions of the internal
memory at different times. In such cases, the
semi-random access capability of mass memories is very significant in permitting the rapid
recall of the information as required. Examples
are multi-programming type operations where
the computer may be working on several different programs at the same time and applications
where a long problem with a relatively low
priority may be interrupted at any time to run
shorter problems with higher priority. Under
these circumstances, a mass memory for dumping the storage contents representing the current status of the running program offers significant time savings over the use of magnetic
tapes. If the shorter program could itself be
interrupted to run a still higher priority one,
the use of a mass memory is even more advantageous.
c.
MILITARY
In certain military applications, mass memories are required to store special data, such as
intelligence information, to store data for generating displays upon call and to permit random
processing in applications such as air traffic
surveillance and control. Other military applications (e.g., personnel and logistics) involve
problems very similar to those of business data
processing or scientific applications.
299
D. REAL-TIME
Real-time applications of compr. Lers require
the ready availability of historical data and of
alternate programs and subroutines required
for handling many different interrupt conditions. When external conditions arise that
cause an interrupt of the computer's normal
program sequence, it is necessary to very
rapidly obtain the program for processing t 1rte
interrupt on a real-time basis. A memory dllnip
may also be required with a later recall to recreate the conditions prior to the interrupt. In
a large system with multiple interrupt lines, a
mass memory permits the required rapid access
to anyone of a large number of programs or
subroutines where the total is too extensive to
be stored in the internal memory. This type of
real-time operation is commonly found in military command and control systems and will
probably be found to an increasing extent in
industrial applications, such as process control,
when these become more sophisticated and all
encompassing.
E. DATA STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL
A comprehensive data storage and retrieval
system usually requires a mass !Demory even
though the great volume of information might
be stored in some other media such as printed
documents, microfilms, etc. The mass memory
permits rapid indexing, cross referencing, and,
perhaps, abstracting.
F. COMMUNICATIONS
The use of computers and data processing
equipment in large communications systems for
message switching and store-and-forward applications is increasing rapidly. These applications require mass memories to permit the system to operate on-line in controlling a multiplicity of independent communication channels
with many different sources and destinations.
With a mass memory available, messages from
the individual channels can be accepted and
stored as they are received and later routed and
forwarded in the proper sequence to the desired
destinations with a priority system superhn..
posed.
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
300
PROCEEDINGS-F ALL JOINT COMPUTER CONFERENCE, 1963
G. PROGRAMMING
There are a number of programming uses of
mass memories that overlap the different types
of applications considered previously. For example, the storage of multiple programs and
the processing of interrupt conditions have been
discussed. In addition to those types of uses,
mass memories can facilitate and speed up automatic programming operations by permitting
rapid access to the compiler program and the
library of subroutines any time a new program
is to be compiled. Their semi-random acce~s
capability can also be advantageously utilized
within the actual compiling operation-e.g.,
storing lists generated in the compiling process.
Each of the applications and uses discussed
above has characteristics that place somewhat
different requirements on the mass memory.
The relative importance and optimum combination of capacity, cost, access time, data transfer rate, and addressing and buffering techniques may be different for each of these uses.
It is unlikely that a single mass memory design
would satisfy the requirements for all of the
different types of applications and functions
discussed. In the following sections, the major
types of mass memories and their characteristics are considered and briefly related to the
requirements of some of these applications.
TYPES OF MASS MEMORIES
Mass memories can be divided into two major
categories-those that involve a moving magnetic surface and those. that do not. All of the
present commercially available mass memories
utilize a moving magnetic surface. Those that
do not utilize a moving media offer promise for
the future but are still in the development stage
at this time. The characteristics of the maj or
types of mass memories are summarized in the
table shown in Figure 2. The values shown
were chosen as being typical of each type of
unit. In some cases, certain characteristics of
an individual device may vary significantly
from the values shown. The woven screen
memory is included in Figure 2 as an example
of a type of static mass memory that may be
available in the future.
For military applications, other characteristics, such as mobility, weight, maintainability,
and ruggedness, may be more important in the
final selection between units than the characteristics summarized in Figure 2.
The characteristics with which we are primarily concerned include capacity, cost, average
access time, data transfer rate, and addressing
techniques. Some of these are difficult to compare because of the different physical characteristics of the devices. For example, a large
magnetic drum with a head for every track will
have a continuous data transfer rate equal to
the instantaneous transfer rate if the heads are
switched el~ctronically. However, the continuous data transfer rate for a disc file with moving
heads will be significantly greater than the
instantaneous transfer rate due to the necessity for interrupting data transfer while moving the head from one position to the next.
Similar differences on a more detailed level
exist between different devices of the same
type.
In comparing costs, a detailed investigation
is usually required to determine whether prices
quoted for different units include comparable
electronics (Le., controllers, buffers, switching,
amplifiers, etc.). The estimated costs shown in
Figure 2 are user's costs (rather than manufacturing costs) and assume a moderate amount
of associated electronics.
Access time offers another illustration of the
difficulties of comparing different types of mass
memories. It is difficult to compare the access
times even for different devices of the same type
-for example, different designs and makes of
disc files. It is considerably more difficult to compare the access times for completely different
types of mass memories due to differences in
the methods of making mechanical access. The
total mechanical access is usually made up of
a number of separate components. For example,
in one type of disc file mechanism it is necessary, when addressing a new location, to release
a mechanical interlock, extract the head mount
from between two disc surfaces, move it parallel to the stack of discs, insert it between another pair of discs, mechanically interlock the
mount in its new position, and then wait for
the desired location around the circumference
of the selected track. Each of these specific
mechanical motions requires a certain amount
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
REVIEW AND SURVEY OF MASS MEMORIES
of time. Some of them also depend upon the
location of the new address relative to the
previous one. If the new address is on the same
disc as the old one, two of the motions are
eliminated completely. It may even be possible
to read the new track with a different head on
the same arm without repositioning it.
Obviously, comparing the access time for this
type of unit with one that has a head for each
disc or with one that has a head for each track
would require a precise and generally accepted
definition of "access time." For practical considera tions on the part of a user, it could also
depend upon the way in which the problem is
organized or the purpose for which the unit is
to be used. Several years ago in preparing the
1956 IRE Computer Glossary, we tried to tackle
the problem of defining access time. We very
quickly came to the conclusion that the only
universally valid definition would be, "access
time-that time which is faster in our machine
than in our competitors". In the mass memory
area, this is particularly true of "average"
access time since it depends on just what is
being averaged. Theoretically, at least, it could
be the average time to access any randomly
selected location from any other random location. In practice, there is a tendency to include
the assumption that the user or programmer
would organize his problem in a way to assure
that certain disastrous times do not occur.
As a result of problems such as thes~,
comparison tables such as the one shown in
Figure 2, and more detailed comparisons that
might be made of specific manufacturers' devices of each type, present at best a gross
comparison. In selecting a device for any
specific application, it would be necessary to go
into a more detailed comparison of the specific
peculiarities and quirks of each of the leading
contenders as they relate to that application if
a proper decision is to be made. Unfortunately,
it is not possible within the time limit and scope
of this paper to go into these individual differences between the units of different manufacturers.
A. MOVING-MAGNETIC-MEDIA TYPES
OF MASS MEMORIES
The major devices in this category are those
involving short tape loops, large magnetic
301
drums, magnetic discs, and magnetic cards. 3 , 4, 5, 6
Those using short tape loops have an excessively
long access time that prevents their being serious competitors with other recent mass memories for most applications; hence, they will not
be considered further here. Each of the other
types will be discussed briefly.
1. Large Magnetic Drums
Until recently, the capacity of large magnetic
drums ranged from approximately 200,000 to
1,000,000 characters per unit for those with
fixed heads and approximately 4 to 10 million
characters for those with moving heads. However, one manufacturer recently announced a
large dual drum unit with moving heads providing a capacity of 65 million alphanumeric
characters.3 In this unit, two very long drums
(over six feet) are rota ted on parallel centers
with the surfaces close enough to one another
to permit a single access mechanism to position
sets of 64 heads-32 on each drum.
Average access times have been in the order
of 15 milliseconds for the fixed-head drums and
100 milliseconds for the larger moving-head
drums. The choice between these two types of
mass memories depends largely upon whether
access time or capacity is the more important
consideration. The fixed-head drum also implies a higher cost per bit of storage due to the
number of heads and the switching circuitry
required.
2. Magnetic Disc Files
A magnetic disc file consists of a stack of
disks (usually in the order of 5 to 100) rotating
on a common shaft. The discs are usually between 1112 and 3 feet in diameter. Magnetic
disc files can be classified as those with fixed
heads (one head per track on each disc), those
with moving heads, and those with removable
disc stacks (and moving heads). Disc files with
moving heads can further be divided into those
in which the heads move in one dimension only
(in and out among the stack of discs) and those
in which the heads move in two dimensions (up
and down the stack of discs as well as in and out
among the stack). The major effects that these
differences have on the characteristics of the
devices are indicated in Figure 2.
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
TYPE
OF
DE:VICE
ON-LINE
CAPACITY
PER-UNIT
IN CHAR.
TYPICAL
ON-LINE
COSTS IN
AVERAGE
ACCESS
TIME
¢ICHAR.
DATA
TRANSFER
RATE IN
REMOVABLE
MEDIA
CH/SEC.
MULTIPLE
ACCESS
CAPABILITY
MAJOR
ADVANTAGES
MAJOR
DISADVANTAGES
I~
~
~
0
MAGNETIC
TAPE
LOOPS
50 x 106
to
500 x 10 6
LARGE
FIXED-HEAD
MAG. DRUMS
0.2 x 106
to
1.0 x 106
MOVING-HEAD
M.AGNETIG
DRUMS
4.0 x 106
to
65, x 106
0.1
8 sec.
20,000
to
100,000
YES
NO
LOW
COST
VERY SLOW
ACCESS
(')
t:z:.:I
t:z:.:I
t:!
1-1
Z
C)
2.0
0.3
15 ms
100,0()0
to
200,000
100 ms
50,000
to
150,000
NO
NO
POSSIBLE
NO
FAST
ACCESS
HIGH COST,
LOW
CAPACITY
LARGE
CAPACITY,
LOW COST
MEDIUM
SPEED
ACCESS
00
I
>
~
I'%j
~
c..,.
01-1
Z
1-3
FIXED-HEAD
MAGNETIC
DISC FILES
10 x 106
to
25 x 106
1 DIMENSION
MOVING-HEAD
MAG. DISC~
10 x 106
to
150 x 106
2 DIMENSION
MOVING-HEAD'
MAG.
DISC
...
10 x 106
to
150 x 106
-_._ --------_.
REMOVABLESTACK
DISC FILES
2.0 x 106
MAGNETIC
CARD
FILES,
5.5 x 10 6
'" Vi/OVEN
SCREEN
MEMORY
1.0 x 106
to
10 x 106
0.6
0.2
0.15
1.2
(on-line)
0.02
(off-line)
1.0
(on-line)
0.003
(off-line)
9.0
20 ms
100 ms
500 ms
150 ms
100,000
to
350,000
100,000
to
400,000
50,000
to
100,000
80,000
NO
POSSIBLE
FAST
ACCESS
HIGH COST
(')
0
a::
~
~
NO
NO
YES
POSSIBLE
NO
POSSIBLE
200 ms
100,000
YES
NO
10 us
100,000
NO
NO
LARGE
CAPACITY,
LOW COST
MEDIUM
SPEED
ACCESS
LARGE
CAPACITY,
LOW COST
SLOW
ACCESS
LARGE
OFF-LINE
CAPACITY,
LOW COST
SMALL
ON-LINE
CAPACITY
LARGE OFFLINE CAP.,
LOW COST,
DISCRETE
CARD
SMALL
ON-LINE
CAPACITY
FAST
ACCESS,
NON-MECH.
HIGH COST,
NOT
CURRENTLY
AVAILABLE
* Note: All figures shown for Woven Screen Memory are estimates of future developments.
Figure 2. Summary of Characteristics of Mass Memories.
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
1-3
t:z:.:I
~
(')
0
Z
I'%j
t:z:.:I
~
t:z:.:I
Z
(')
t:z:.:I
....I:C
0)
CI.:I
REVIEW AND SURVEY OF MASS MEMORIES
Magnetic disc files, including fixed and moving head types, have on-line capacities ranging
from approximately 2 million to over 100
million alphanumeric characters per unit and
access times ranging from 20 milliseconds to
several hundred milliseconds. The moving-head
disc files have lower costs per bit of storage and
slower access times. The fixed-head disc files
have access times roughly comparable to those
of fixed-head magnetic drums. In general, the
larger the number of bits that can be accessed
by a single head and selection mechanism, the
lower the cost per bit and the longer the access
time.
a. Fixed-Head Magnetic Disc Files
Disc file storage units with fixed heads usually involve a limited number of discs, a maximum number of bits per track, and a fixed head
for each track. 7 This type of storage permits
a higher track density since the fixed heads
eliminate the need for mechanical positioning
of the head and the resulting allowances for
mechanical tolerances. The large multiplicity
of heads and the required electronic switching
between heads results in a significantly higher
cost per bit than for the moving-head type disc
storage.
Although this type of disc storage is somewhat similar in functions and characteristics to
fixed-head magnetic drums, the use of three
dimensions instead of two permits greater volumetric efficiency-greater storage capacity in
a more compact unit. There are, of course, also
differences in the mechanical design problems
between such disc and drum units, but these are
outside the scope of this paper.
Fixed-head magnetic disc units provide capacities in the order of 20 million alphanumeric
characters and average access times of approximately 20 milliseconds. The penalty paid for
this is a higher cost per bit of storage.
b. Moving-Head Magnetic Disc Files
The first commercially available magnetic
disc files involved a two-dimensional head movement. A single head mechanism was moved up
and down parallel to the disc stack and shaft to
select one of a number of discs and then moved
in between adjacent discs to select the desired
303
track. In this unit, the head-mount arm
straddled a disc providing a head to read the
upper surface of the disc and another head .to
read the lower surface.
Although some modern large capacity disc
files also operate on this principle, most of the
present units involve a one-dimensional movement. A head mount is inserted between each
pair of adjacent discs, usually with one head
reading the lower surface of the upper disc and
another head on the same mount reading the
upper surface of the lower disc. This type of
disc file provides a much faster access by eliminating the necessity for moving the heads in
the dimension parallel to the disc shaft. The
penalty paid for this faster access is the increase in the cost per bit of storage due to the
cost of the larger number of heads and the
electronic switching between heads compared
against the cost of a disc selector mechanism.
The one-dime:nsional movement permits two
secondary advantages that are not apparent
from the comparisons in Figure 2. Since there
is at least one head for each disk, it is possible
to provide a larger number of read and write
amplifiers to permit reading or writing multiple
tracks simultaneously with a significant increase in the effective instantaneous daht transfer rate. This is of particular significance in
some high-speed binary scientific machines. It
could permit all bits of a complete binary word
to be read or written in parallel. In practice,
the instantaneous data transfer rate could be
even higher since the number of heads is greater
than one per disc in most cases. In order to
reduce the access time, the distance that the
arm must move is reduced by spacing several
heads equidistant along the arm. Thi8 has the
effect of dividing the disc surface into several
bands. All of the tracks within one band are
accessed by a single head.
Even without simultaneous reading or writing from all heads, another advantage can be
achieved. For any given arm position, the heads
are switched electronically. This increases the
information that can be transferred without
moving the arm. With appropriate organization of the problem, this can reduce the number
of arm movements required with a consequent
increase in the effective speed of operation.
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
304
PROCEEDINGS-F ALL JOINT COMPUTER CONFERENCE, 1963
The insertion of the set of head mounts between pairs of adjacent discs can be, and has
been, accomplished in several different ways
mechanically. In one design, the head mounts
for all discs are moved together by a common
track selection mechanism. As a result, all of
the heads are moved in and out simultaneously
to corresponding tracks on each disc. This can
be pictured as a comb of head mounts moving
in and out perpendicular to the disc shaft. For
anyone position, the tracks being read or
written on each of the discs describes a cylinder
conceptually similar to a magnetic drum with
wide track spacing. Another design provides
independent head positioning mechanisms for
each disc. If utilized, the ability to independently access tracks on different discs can
permit a significant decrease in effective access
time since several accesses to different discs
can be overlapped or performed simultaneously.s
The moving-head types of disc files provide
capacities from 10 to 150 million characters
and average access times from 100 to several
hundred milliseconds. The cost per bit of storage is somewhat greater for those using a onedimensional head movement than for those
using a two-dimensional head movement. However, this is still significantly less than for fixedhead disc and drum units.
c. Removable-Stack Disc File
The newest addition to the disc storage family
is the removable-disc-stack unit. 9 In this device,
a drive mechanism is provided to handle a
small stack of discs that can be removed, replaced, and interchanged with other stacks.
Each stack of discs stores approximately 2 million alphanumeric.
This device provides a compromise between
the off-line storage capability of magnetic tape
and the on-line fast access capability of larger
mass memories. A series of disc stacks can be
stored away on a shelf and put on the drive
mechanism as required. Each disc stack has approximately one fourth the capacity of a tape
reel· with an order of magnitude higher cost.
However, all data within a stack can be on-line
and addressable by the computer to provide fast
access within blocks of two million characters at
a time. This is particularly wen suited to the
requirements of many types of business problems for large total file storage capability but
on-line fast access to only a segment of this
in any given processing operation.
The average access time of this type of unit
is in the order of 150 milliseconds with a relatively low capacity of two million characters
per unit. The cost per bit of on-line storage is
relatively expensive compared to the other types
of disc units, but the cost per bit of total storage including disc stacks stored off-line on
shelves is cheaper. The obvious question that
must be considered in using this type of unit
is the relative importance of on-line vs. off-line
storage capacity.
3. Magnetic Cards
The magnetic-card type of mass memory,
which preceded the removable-stack disc storage by over two years, is quite different physically and mechanically. However, from a systems and applications standpoint the two are
somewhat similar in that the magnetic card
memory also provides a certain amount of online storage capacity (approximately 5.5 million
characters per unit) and an almost limitless
amount of off-line storage capacity. The cost
for on-line storage capacity is roughly equivalent for the two types of devices, but the offline storage capacity is cheaper for the magnetic-card mass memory. The magnetic-card
type offers another advantage over disc files
in that individual cards can be copied, inserted,
removed, or replaced.
The only random-access magnetic-card memory available commercially at present has an
average access time of approximately 200 milliseconds and an on-line capacity of 5.5 million
characters per unit.lo In actual usage, these
access times of 200 milliseconds may be effectively reduced in many cases since, while one
card is being read or written, the next card may
be selected from a magazine and the preceding
card returned to the magazine.
In this particular unit, oxide-coated Mylar
cards, approximately 3" x 14" in size, are hung
from rods in the magazine. These rods may be
selectively turned to select the card with binarycoded notches corresponding to the rods that
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
REVIEW AND SURVEY OF MASS MEMORIES
have been turned, thus providing the ability
to select any card from the magazine at random.
The selected card is then dropped to the surface of a rotating drum and accelerated to the
surface speed af the drum so that it can be read
or written while passing under a set of heads.
The card may be held on the drum for rereading or for reading another set of tracks on the
same card. When it is released from the drum,
it is automatically returned to the magazine.
Its location in the magazine is immaterial since
the selection is by the coded notches in the card
and the combination of rods that are turnedrather than by physical location.
B. STATIC OR NON-MOVING-MEDIA
TYPES OF MASS MEMORIES
Consideration of static or non-moving-media
types of mass memories in a survey at this time
is largely conjectural since none are commercially available. It is unlikely that any -will be
available in the foreseeable future with capacities that would qualify them to be considered
mass memories. However, truly random access
times in the order of microseconds and the absence of moving parts will continue to lend an
impetus to the work on devices of this type.
Techniques that offer possible promise for nonmechanical mass memories, would include thinmagnetic-film memories, super-conductive memories, and the woven screen memory.11
It is likely in the long run that an all magnetic and/or electronic mass memory will replace those involving mechanical motion. However, there does not seem to be a strong likelihood that this-will happen within the next few
years for memories with the capacities that we
have been discussing. It may be technically
feasible to do this within the next few years,
but it is doubtful that it will be economically
feasible. From the user and the systems standpoints, the penalties paid in terms of the slower
access times of the moving-media-memories are
not sufficient to justify significantly higher
costs for faster access for large-capacity auxiliary memories. In most applications for mass
memories, reducing the access time from milliseconds to microseconds would not justify an
order of magnitude increase in the cost per bit
of storage and probably not an increase of four
or five times. It is either simply not worthwhile
!-l05
or there are cheaper ways of realizing most of
the advantages.
One way in which many of the advantages
of a large-capacity, fast-access, low-cost mass
memory can be realized is by using hierarchies
of storage. This is becoming- more widespread
and the trend will probably continue. Since the
days of UNIVAC I, we have had high-speed
one-word registers, main internal storage, and
magnetic tapes used together in a niachineeach fulfilling the role for which it is best
qualified. Similarly, small-capacity, high-speed,
random-access memories (e.g., magnetic cores) ;
medium-speed, medium-capacity, semi-randomaccess memories (e.g., fixed-head magnetic
drums or discs); and large-capacity, slower
semi-random-access mass memories (e.g., magnetic disc files) can be used in conjunction with
one another with each fulfilling the role where
its advantages are maximized and its disadvantages minimized. With proper hardware,
systems, and programming design, such memory combinations can achieve most of the advantages of large capacity, fast access, and
moderate cost.
N on-mechanical mass memories will enjoy
the advantages of faster access, and probably
higher reliability, as a result of not having to
move the magnetic media and position a head.
However, this blessing may be a curse in disguise since these mechanical motions serve a
selection function that will have to be provided
by electronic switching in the static memories.
As the memory capacities become larger and
larger, this electronic switching problem may
be all but insurmountable in the foreseeable
future. Certainly, as the cost per bit of the
memory array is decreased, the selection and
switching circuitry will become a significant,
if not dominant, part of the total cost of such
a memory.
The emphasis placed on the difficulties facing
this type of mass memory may seem out of
proportion or baised relative to the discussion
of drums, magnetic discs, and magnetic cards
where the emphasis was primarily on their
characteristics rather than their difficulties.
This is not due to a deliberate intent to discredit this type of mass memory but rather to
the fact that the moving-media memories are
commercially available whereas the static ones
are still in the laboratory development stage at
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
306
PROCEEDINGS-F ALL JOINT COMPUTER CONFERENCE, 1963
this time. There is certainly a need and a place
for this type of mass memory when the technology has evolved and the cost has dropped
to the point that they can compete on the basis
of performance vs. cost. The amount of work
being expended in this area by a number of
major organizations in the computer field attests to the interest and to the applications for
this type of mass memory.
Based on laboratory results that have been
reported to date, a static mass memory of approximately one to ten million characters with
TYPE OF MASS
MEMORY
Fixed-Head Magnetic
Drums
Moving-Head Magnetic
Drums
Fixed-Head Magnetic
Discs
Two-Dimension MovingHead Magnetic Discs
One-Dimension MovingHead Magnetic Discs
access times in the order of 10 microseconds
would seem a reasonable expectation for the
fuJure.
THE EFFECT OF THE ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF DIFFERENT MASS
MEMORIES ON THE CHOICE OF TYPES
FOR SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS
From the information in Figure 2 and the
preceding discussion, the major advantages
and disadvantages of the different types of
mass memories can be summarized as follows:
ADVANTAGES
Fast access, no mechanical head
motion, high continuous data transfer rate
Large capacity, low cost per bit,
possibility of parallel reading or
writing from multiple heads to
greatly increase instantaneous data
transfer rate
Fast access, medium capacity, no
mechanical head motion, high continuous data transfer rate
Large capacity, minimum number
of heads, low cost per bit
Large capacity, possibility of multiple simultaneous accesses if heads
are positioned independently, low
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Removable-Stack Discs
Magnetic Card Memory
units, possibility of parallel reading or writing from multiple heads
to greatly increase instantaneous
data transfer rate
Large off-line capacity, low cost
per bit of off-line storage, combines
on-line random-access capability
with large off-line capacity
Large off-line capacity, low cost
per bit of off-line storage, combines
on-line random-access capability
with large off-line capacity, individual cards can be copied, replaced, or inserted.
Fastest access, no mechanical motion
DISADV ANTAGES
Low capacity, high cost per
bit, poorer volumetric efficiency, large electronic switching
matrix, large number of heads
Poorer volumetric efficiency,
relatively large number of
heads for medium speed access
or slower access if fewer heads
High cost per bit of storage,
large electronic switching matrix, large number of heads
More complex positioning mechanism, slowest access, slow
continuous data transfer rate
Relatively large number of
heads, somewhat higher cost
per bit compared to two-dimension disc unit, medium
speed access
Limited on-line capacity,
higher cost per bit of on-line
storage
Limited on-line capaci ty,
higher cost per bit of on-line
storage
Lower capacity; higher cost
per bit, not currently available
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
REVIEW AND SURVEY OF MASS MEMORIES
In selecting a mass memory for a particular
application, it would first be necessary to use
the advantages and disadvantages listed above
to select the types of mass memory best suited
to the particular application. It would then be
necessary to compare the detailed characteristics of those types and relate these detailed
characteristics to the specific requirements of
the problem.
The relative importance of the different advantages and disadvantages may vary greatly
from one application to another. In the use of
a mass memory for dumping the contents of
the internal memory of a large scientific computer, fast access time and the effective data
transfer rate for continuous transfer of large
blocks of data would be more important than
extremely large capacities. Therefore, this type
of application would favor large drums or disc
units with fixed heads for each track; certainly
not the type of disc file that positions the head
from disc to disc. On the other hand, in a large
inventory control application (or applications
involving large files requiring relatively infrequent random interrogations) large capacity
and low cost would be more important than data
transfer rate and access time. Hence, disc files
with a single head mount moving from disc to
disc as well as from track to track might be
chosen. For other types of business problems
(e.g., payroll and labor cost distribution applications) where it is necessary to prqcess each
transaction against two or more different files,
a mass memory with the ability to independently access two or more locations wculd be
more advantageous.
These few examples serve to illustrate the
point that we have to compare the individual
requirements of the problem against the detailed characteristics of each type of mass memory to determine the one best suited for each
specific application. A mass memory with a
fast random-access time, a high data transfer
rate, a large capacity, and a very low cost per
bit would meet the requirements for most mass
memory applications. Unfortunately, this device is not available at present and is not likely
to be in the near future. Since the user must
continue to select the best available device for
his particular application, there is a place and
307
a need for almost all of the types of mass memories discussed here.
This emphasizes the need indicated earlier
for combinations of different types of internal
and external memories. Instead of waiting and
longing for the millennium, the system designer
must learn to use a hierarchy of storage to
achieve a compromise between capacity, access
time, data transfer rate, and cost. Kilburn,
Edwards, Lanigan, and Sumner have described
one such system in use today· in which a combination of storage devices with different characteristics are made to appear to the programmer as a single large internal memory.1 2 This
concept can and should be extended to mass
memories.
PROGRAMMING AND APPLICATION
CONSIDERATIONS
Most of the problems of mass memories discussed so far have been concerned with the
hardware aspects-mechanical, electrical, and
magnetic. At least a passing mention should
be made of several significant problems involved in the use and application of mass memories that are common to most types. In some
cases, it is possible to provide hardware features to alleviate problems such as those involved in programming, addressing, formatting, organization, and the protection of stored
information.
The programming of systems involving a
mass memory is directly influenced by the characteristics of the individual mass memory being
used-e.g., the access time, availability of interrupt signals, error control techniques, block
or record size, and addressing techniques. The
format and file organization is affected by the
number of bits or characters per track, the
number of tracks and heads per arm position,
and the addressing and buffering techniques
used. The protection of critical information
stored in the mass memory is a difficult problem. The possibility of the operator, the programmer, or machine errors causing a writing
operation in a particular location containing
vital information must be avoided. A combination of programming and. hardware techniques
appears to be the best answer but there is still
much work remaining in this area before a
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
308
PROCEEDINGS-F ALL JOINT COMPUTER CONFERENCE, 1963
good solution is achieved. Most of these problems, of course, are different for magnetic card
memories or non-moving-media mass memories
than for drums and disc files, but they still
exist to a greater or lesser degree.
The actual programming and application of
a mass memory can be simplified by hardware
features if adequate attention is given to this
in the design of the mass memory. We would
like to design standardized mass memories that
can be used with any computer, but it becomes
difficult to provide hardware features to facilitate (the use of the memory with one machine
without their becoming an unusable and uneconomic burden for another machine. Fortunately, some hardware techniques have been
developed that offer advantages for use with
most computers. An example of this is the
provision, in some disc files, of one or more
discs having fixed heads in addition to the bulk
of the disc file that is served by moving heads.
The fixed-head tracks permit faster access and
synchronized storage that can be used for addressing, indexing, and buffering purposes.
FUTURE MASS MEMORY CAP ABILITIES
AND LIMITS OF PERFORMANCE FOR
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MASS MEMORIES
Since we must live with existing types of
mass memories-largely moving-magneticmedia types-for the foreseeable future, we
should consider what potential capabilities
might be realized with these devices, when we
might expect to reach these limitations, and
when non-moving-media mass memories might
reasonably be expected to be practical, feasible,
and commercially available on a competitive
basis.
In 1962, A. S. Hoagland pointed out that the
storage density of one manufacturer's commercial disc files increased from 2000 bits per
square inch in 1956 to 25,000 bits per square
inch in 1961. 13 He then predicted that storage
densities of "one million bits per square inch
(e.g., approximately 5000 bpi, 200 tpi) will
become the state of the art" within the next
few years. A few months earlier M. Jacoby
predicted densities of 3000 bpi and 500 tpi (1.5
million bits per square inch) would "become
common-place in a few years".4 He then indi-
cated that these densities could provide storage
capacities of 10 to 100 billion bits if a possible
increase in the physical size is also considered.
Thus, increases in capacity of one to two orders
of magnitude over the largest present mass
memories can be anticipated.
The cost per unit can be expected to decrease
even with the larger capacities as the technology is improved and more manufacturing
experience is obtained. Hence, the cost per bit
of storage can also be expected to decrease by
one to two orders of magnitude-possibly to
0.0001 cents per bit for the mass memory itself
(not including control and buffering electronics). Although the picture for the future
of capacity and cost appear bright, there is
little hope for significant improvements in
average access times for moving-media mass
memories. Due to inherent mechanical motions
involved we cannot expect improvements of as
much as an order of magnitude over presently
available devices. For significant improvements
in access time we must turn to the non-movingmedia type devices.
With respect to non-moving memories J. A.
Rajchman wrote in 1962, "Capacities of several
million bits are the maximum attainable with
reasonable economy by any magnetic technique."14 He held somewhat greater hopes for
superconductive memories stating that they
"may have storage capacities of billions of
bits". An idea of the cost of such memories
was given by his estimate that a one billion bit
coincident-current magnetic matrix memory
would require about 20 million semiconductor
devices. He then drew the conclusion that
batch fabrication techniques would be essential
for both the storage elements and the semiconductor devices. A diagram that he presented
to summarize the limits of speed and storage
capacity indicated approximate limits of less
than 10 million bits capacity at 10 us access
time for magnetics and less than 10 billion bits
at 100 us for superconductive memories. The
availability of devices of these types, with capacities approaching these limits, at reasonable
costs is certainly many years away.
It is this speaker's firm conviction that moving-magnetic-media mass memories such as
drums, disc files, and magnetic-card files will
From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
REVIEW AND SURVEY OF MASS MEMORIES
be around for a long time to come. Although
these devices may ultimately be replaced by
new techniques, it appears unlikely that these
other techniques will provide generally competitive devices before 1970 at the earliest. The
moving-media types· will be used in the great
majority of mass memory applications through
1970 with newer techniques, such as the woven
screen memory, coming gradually into wider
usage in applications where fast access time is
more important than capacity and cost. It is
difficult to believe that such devices will compete with moving-media mass memories on a
cost and capacity basis until the post 1970 era.
It is likely that continued improvements and
innovations in moving-media mass memories
will provide ultimate capacities, access times,
data transfer rates, and costs superior to those
indicated above. Just as the development of
the floating head permitted densities and rates
in excess of those previously anticipated for
fixed heads, presently unforeseen developments
may well serve to push the limits of these devices beyond present expectations. An example
of work on one such development has been described by Hoagland. I5 This is a disc unit in
which the head is positioned on a track under
control of a servo system with the signal read
from the track being part of the control loop
to permit far greater track density and multiple
access arms.
Ultimately, the non-moving-media types of
mass memories will have to prove themselves
on a basis of purely competitive costs if they
are to supplant the majority of moving-media
mass memories. Although there are certain
applications in which a premium will be paid
for the faster random-access capability of devices such as the woven screen memory, their
widespread use will be limited until the cost
per bit reaches a competitive point. The hard
cold fact is that despite such talk of fast access,
the advantages in most applications do not
justify significantly higher costs per bit. The
use of hierarchies of memories, discussed previously, will help t<;> assure that this is the case.
One area in which the moving-media mass
memory will be at a disadvantage compared to
devices such as the woven screen memory is in
military applications requiring ruggedness and
309
high reliability under conditions of mobility
and adverse environment. Inherently, the mechanical motions involved in moving-media devices put them at a disadvantage. As a result,
military applications of this type may be among
the first large scale users of non-moving-media
mass memories since relatively standard military packaging techniques can be utilized to
meet the requirements for ruggedness, mobility,
reliability, and operating conditions such as
temperature, humidity, dust, shock, and vibration. This is an area to which insufficient attention has been given in the past. There have
been a number of efforts to militarize essentially commercial type devices, but it is doubtful whether this is the proper approach and
whether it will be fruitful in the long run when
compared to the development of new types of
mass memories that are inherently more suitable to these adverse conditions. This is an
example of the type of application in which a
cost premium could be paid for improvements
in performance and operating conditions.
CONCLUSION
This paper has briefly discussed some of the
major requirements for mass memories, the
major categories and types presently available,
and the significant advantages and djsadvantages of each. It has been predicted that the
moving-media type devices will continue to
dominate the mass memory field at least
through 1970, but that non-mechanical techniques providing faster access times will gradually come into wider spread usage as the cost
is decreased and the capacity increased. The
remaining papers in this session will discuss
four specific types of mass memories. I t is
hoped that this discussion will serve to present
a basis and framework for a better understanding of the significance of the points raised in
the subsequent papers.
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A Gas Film Lubrication
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From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)
310
PROCEEDINGS-F ALL JOINT COMPUTER CONFERENCE, 1963
2. HAUGHTON, K. E.: Air-Lubricated Slider
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OTS, Dept. Commerce: Information Storage and Retrieval, U.S. Government Re""" ......,.h
;:,caL '-'u
n"...,. ...... i-...v.,., ..... i-co
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January, 1962.
19. LENNON, W. T. JR., and JORDON, W. F.:
Auxiliary Memory Speeds Information Retrieval, Computer Control Company, Electronics, Vol. 35, pp. 102-104, May 11, 1962.
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From the collection of the Computer History Museum (www.computerhistory.org)