Copyright
by
Lisha Zhou
2015
The Report Committee for Lisha Zhou Certifies that this is the approved version
of the following report:
A Meta-Analysis: The Effects of Parental Involvement on Asian
American Children’s Academic Achievement
APPROVED BY
SUPERVISING COMMITTEE:
Supervisor:
_________________________________________
Jennifer K. Adair
————————————————————
Christopher P. Brown
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A Meta-Analysis: The Effects of Parental Involvement on Asian
American Children’s Academic Achievement
by
Lisha Zhou, B.A.
Report
Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of
The University of Texas at Austin
in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Arts
The University of Texas at Austin
May 2015
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Abstract
A Meta-Analysis: The Effects of Parental Involvement on Asian
American Children’s Academic Achievement
by
Lisha Zhou, M.A.
The University of Texas at Austin, 2015
SUPERVISOR: Jennifer K. Adair
A meta-analysis, based on 13 empirical studies, was conducted to investigate
the relation between parental involvement and Asian American students’ academic
achievement. Parental involvement was divided into three types: school-based
involvement,
home-based
involvement
Home-based
involvement
was
divided
and
into
community-based
three
subtypes:
involvement.
parent-child
communication, educational aspiration, and home supervision. The results showed that
parental involvement had only slight positive effects on Asian American students’
academic achievement. For the types or subtypes of parental involvement, only
community-based involvement and educational aspiration consistently demonstrated
slight positive effects. Home-based involvement and home supervision tended to exert
a positive influence, while school-based involvement and parent-child communication
!
iv!
tended to exert a negative influence. The reasons for the results are discussed, and the
limitations for this study are also noted.
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v!!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction.................................................................................................................1
II. Literature Review......................................................................................................3
a.
Definitions of Parental Involvement...........................................................3
b.
Dimensions of Parental Involvement..........................................................3
c.
Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement....................................6
d.
The Need to Conduct This Meta-Analysis..................................................7
e.
Research Questions.....................................................................................8
III. Method.....................................................................................................................9
a.
Literature Search.........................................................................................9
b.
Information About Study Features..............................................................9
c.
Meta-Analysis Plan....................................................................................10
IV. Results....................................................................................................................13
a.
Overall Relation Between Parental Involvement
and Asian Americans’ Academic Achievement........................................13
b.
Relation Between Three Types of Parental
Involvement and Asian Americans’ Academic Achievement...................13
c.
Relation Between The Subtypes of Home-Based Involvement
and Asian Americans’ Academic Achievement........................................14
d.
Summary of Results...................................................................................16
V. Discussion................................................................................................................17
a.
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Prevalent Weak Relation and Inconsistency..............................................17
vi!
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b.
Higher Educational Aspiration.................................................................17
c.
More Out-Of-School Activities................................................................19
d.
Limitations................................................................................................20
Tables...........................................................................................................................22
References....................................................................................................................28
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vii!
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Studies Including Correlations and Regression Coefficients for the
Relationship Between Parental Involvement and Asian Americans’ Academic
Achievement (13 studies)..............................................................................................22
Table 2 Meta-Analysis Results: the Relation Between Parental Involvement and Asian
Americans' Academic Achievement.............................................................................27
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viii!
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I. Introduction
Asian Americans, or Americans of Asian descent, are “the highest-income,
best-educated and fastest-growing racial group in the United States” (Paul et al., 2012,
p.1), according to a 2012 nationwide survey by the Pew Research Center. Numerous
studies have found that, compared to other ethnic groups, Asian American students
have higher GPA (grade point average), and higher scores on standardized tests like
the SAT (Scholastic Aptitude Test) (e.g.,!Jose & Huntsinger, 2005; Reglin & Adams,
1990; Rojas-LeBouef & Slate, 2011; Sue & Abe, 1995). What led to this academic
success? To answer this question, studies (e.g., Chao, 2000; Chen & Stevenson, 1995;
Kao, 1995) have been conducted in the field of education, many of which have
focused on the role that family plays in Asian Americans’ high academic achievement
(e.g., Cooper, 2006; Jeong, 2009; Sibley & Dearing, 2014). In these studies, one
aspect that was frequently included was parental involvement.
Since Epstein (1987) put forward a theory of parental involvement, the
relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement has been a
highly visible topic in research. Referring to work in developmental theory, Epstein
assumed that parental involvement exerts a positive influence on children’s
educational achievement. However, this assumption has been controversial, because
later empirical studies have provided both supportive (e.g., Garcia Bacete & Ramirez,
2001; Gutman & Eccles, 1999) and unsupportive findings (e.g., Balli, Wedman &
!
1!
Demo, 1997; Xu & Corno, 2003).
Does parental involvement contribute to Asian American students’
academic achievement? If so, what strategies of parental involvement promote Asian
American students’ academic achievement best? To answer these questions, I
conducted a meta-analysis to understand better the relation between parental
involvement and Asian Americans’ academic achievement.! Due to the fact that the
number of empirical studies included in this meta-analysis is relatively small, I didn’t
limit parental involvement to a specific time in children’s schooling. Instead, I
included students from preschools, elementary schools, middle schools and high
schools.
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2!
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II. Literature Review
a. Definitions of Parental Involvement
There are many definitions of parental involvement in education. NCLB
defined parental involvement as “the participation of parents in regular, two-way, and
meaningful communication involving student academic learning and other school
activities” (No Child Left Behind Act, 2002, p. 9101). Grolnick and Slowiaczek
(1994, p. 238) defined parental involvement as “the dedication of resources by the
parent to the child within a given domain.” Jeynes (2003, p.83) defined parental
involvement as “ parental participation in the educational process and experiences of
their children,” which is broader and encompasses more parenting practices. Based on
the definition of Jeynes, I defined parental involvement as parental participation in
children’s learning at home, at school and in the community. This definition is as
inclusive as Jeynes’. Considering the fact that specific types of parental involvement
vary across different families and studies, this more inclusive definition will provide a
more comprehensive perspective. Moreover, this definition is unambiguous, based on
which I can easily tell if a parenting practice belongs to parental involvement. Last
but not least, according to this definition, I can easily categorize parental involvement
into three non-overlapping dimensions: parental involvement at home, at school and
in the community.
b. Dimensions of Parental Involvement
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3!
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!
Parental involvement is a complex construct encompassing many practices
and attitudes (Kohl, Lengua & McMahon, 2000). With regard to specific dimensions
of parental involvement, no consensus has been achieved. Categorizations of parental
involvement vary from researcher to researcher. For example, Grolnick and
Slowiaczek (1994) categorized parental involvement into three types: behavior (e.g.
going to school, participating in school activities, helping with homework), personal
(e.g., caring about children’s school experience), and cognitive/intellectual (e.g.,
exposing children to cognitively stimulating activities and materials). Epstein (1995)
introduced six types of parental involvement, including parenting, communicating,
volunteering, learning at home, decision making, and collaboration with the
community. This typology was based on the idea that schools, families and
communities should collaborate to facilitate children’s development. Although these
dimensions are about school-initiated practices, they offer guidelines for constructing
corresponding
parent-initiated
practices.
Among
the
numerous
categories,
home-based involvement and school-based involvement are consistently included in
research (e.g., Moon & Lee, 2009; Seginer 2006
Sibley & Dearing, 2014; Wang,
2009). According to Hill and Tyson (2009, p. 741), “such distinction is useful as it
distinguishes policy-relevant realms-- home and school.” However, specific strategies
of home-based involvement and school-based involvement also vary in research. For
example, for Sibley and Dearing (2014), home-based involvement meant parent-child
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activities at home, while for Hill and Tyson (2009), besides parent-child activities,
practices like creating learning environment at home were also included in
home-based involvement.
In this meta-analysis, based on my definition of parental involvement,
parental involvement is divided into three dimensions according to the location where
parental practices occur: home-based involvement, school-based involvement and
community-based
involvement.
Strategies
in
home-based
involvement
and
school-based involvement are based on the summarization of commonly used
indicator variables of parental involvement from Fan and Chen’s (2001)
meta-analysis, and strategies in community-based involvement are based on Sohn’s
(2007) study, which defined and investigated community-based involvement as an
independent category. To specify, home-based involvement includes educational
aspiration (e.g., parental expectations for education, valuing academic achievement),
parent-child communication (e.g., help with homework, discuss school progress), and
home supervision (e.g., family television rules, home surroundings conducive to
studying). School-based involvement includes parent-school communication,
participation
in
school
events
(e.g.,
PTA
meetings)
and
volunteering.
Community-based involvement is mainly about using community resources to
enhance children’s development (e.g. taking children to the library, extracurricular
activities, dance lessons). I add community-based involvement as the third dimension,
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5!
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because many researchers (e.g., Sohn, 2007; Weiss, Coffman, Post, Bouffard & Little,
2005) have argued that existing research ignores the important role that the
community plays in parental involvement.
c. Parental Involvement And Academic Achievement
Inconsistent findings. Empirical studies’ findings on the effects of parental
involvement on academic achievement are inconsistent. Some studies have shown
that parental involvement promotes children’s academic achievement (e.g., Garcia
Bacete & Ramirez, 2001; Gutman & Eccles, 1999; Hawes & Plourde, 2005; Reynolds
& Grill, 1994). Some studies have not demonstrated measurable effects (e.g., Ford,
1989; Storer, 1995). Others have even found that parental involvement exerts a
negative influence on academic achievement (e.g., Balli, Wedman & Demo, 1997; Xu
& Corno, 2003).
Due to the fact that the empirical findings are inconsistent in this area, many
researchers have conducted meta-analyses to synthesize the empirical findings (e.g.,
Fan & Chen, 2001; Hill & Tyson, 2009; Jeynes, 2003, 2005, 2007, 2012). These
meta-analyses offered insights that could not be obtained from individual studies.
The effects of ethnicity. Does the relationship between parental involvement
and academic achievement vary across different ethnic groups? The answer is still
unknown. Fan and Chen’s (2001) meta-analysis showed that ethnicity’s effect on this
relationship is negligible. Hill and Tyson’s (2009) meta-analysis demonstrated that
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the relationship for European Americans is stronger than that for African Americans.
To solve this problem, more relative studies focusing on different ethnic groups
should be conducted.
d. The Need to Conduct This Meta-Analysis
When we focus on one specific ethnic group, Asian Americans, the findings
are still inconsistent. There are researchers who have found that parental involvement
enhances Asian American students’ academic achievement. For example, Crowyn and
Bradley (2008) have found that parental aspirations are the strongest predictor of
academic performance of Chinese American students in the eighth grade. Eng et al.
(2008) have found that parents’ school involvement predicts Chinese American and
Filipino American high school students’ academic achievement. However,
contradictory findings also exist. For example, Mau (1997) claimed that parental
involvement is not predictive of Asian American high school students’ academic
achievement. To address this inconsistency, a meta-analysis will be helpful.
Meta-analysis is a statistical technique, through which researchers combine data from
different studies to gain a quantitative summary of research addressing a common
question (Anderman
2009). By using meta-analysis, the precision and accuracy of
the relation between parental involvement and Asian American students’ academic
achievement will be increased, because firstly meta-analysis will give us quantitative
results, which are more accurate compared to non quantitative, narrative studies; and
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secondly, by combining results from multiple studies, meta-analysis can show us the
landscape of a research enterprise and reduce possible bias from a small proportion of
studies (Rosenthal & DiMatteo, 2001). Among recent meta-analyses, only one from
Jeynes (2003) mentioned Asian Americans. However, she mixed Asian Americans
with Latinos, and thus we cannot conclude much about Asian Americans from it.
Under such circumstances, conducting a meta-analysis about the relationship
between parental involvement and academic achievement for Asian Americans is
meaningful. It could address the inconsistency of relative empirical findings.
Furthermore, it could offer knowledge about which aspects of parental involvement
are most important for Asian Americans. In addition, it could contribute to answering
the question that whether ethnicity matters in the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement.
e. Research Questions
This meta-analysis aims to answer two questions. First, for Asian Americans,
what is the relation between parental involvement and academic achievement?
Second, which type of involvement promotes academic achievement best?
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III. Method
a. Literature Search
Four major databases were searched: Education Source, Eric, PsycINFO, and
PsycArticles. Keywords used for the search were parent* involvement or parent* or
family, achievement or performance or outcome, and Asian. To reduce the potential
cohort effects, I limited the publication date between 2004 and 2015. Under such
circumstances, 1665 possible articles were identified.
In order to find articles that might not be included in these databases, the
following journals were also searched: American Educational Research Journal,
Review of Education Research, Child Development, and Journal of Family
Psychology. The former two journals were searched with the same keywords, while
the latter two journals were searched issue by issue.
To be included in this meta-analysis, articles had to meet the following
requirements. First, they had to be empirical studies that measured both parental
involvement and academic achievement. Second, Asian Americans had to be included
and investigated as an independent group. Third, sufficient information had to be
offered to calculate an estimate of the effect size.
In total, only 13 studies met all of the requirements. Thus, this meta-analysis
was based on these 13 studies (see Table 1).
b. Information About Study Features
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For further analysis, relative information was retrieved from each study.
Publication features. Authors’ names and publication dates were recorded.
Besides, the type of publication, including journal articles and dissertations, was also
included.
Sample features. Sample size and the children’s school grade were recorded.
Furthermore, specific information about Asian American identity, like generation,
was also included. In addition, if nationally representative databases, like NESL (the
National Education Longitudinal Study), were used, they were signified.
Variables features. Specific strategies of parental involvement in the studies
were recorded. Then, they were categorized into three types: home-based involvement,
school-based involvement, and community-based involvement. Information about
academic achievement, like GPA and test scores, was identified.
Effect sizes features. Effect sizes for each relation between a specific
strategy of parental involvement and the corresponding achievement, including the
correlation and regression coefficients, were identified in each study. The modeling
technique was also recorded.
c. Meta-Analysis Plan
Hill and Tyson (2009) conducted a meta-analysis to investigate how parental
involvement affects academic achievement of middle school students. Here, I adopted
the same approach used by Hill and Tyson, which is the standard procedure how
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researchers carry out meta-analysis. To ensure the reliability of this meta-analysis,
after summarizing and combining effect sizes from each individual study, I conducted
statistical analysis, which gave me both the p-value and the 95% confidence interval
of each study. Since I only selected and included studies that satisfy my criteria, the
validity was also ensured.
Here I used both correlation coefficients and regression coefficients as effect
sizes for further analysis. There were two reasons for this. First, for the meta-analysis,
the more studies that are included, the more accurate and persuasive the conclusion
will be. Second, although the correlation coefficients and regression coefficients were
calculated by different approaches, they both represented the relation between
parental involvement and academic achievement. It is worth noting that regression
coefficients must be standardized so that they can be compatible with correlation
coefficients. Considering the fact that there were different types of parental
involvement and academic achievement in each study, I combined them and
calculated the weighted average effect size per study. Based on the distribution of
weighted average effect size across all of the studies, I calculated the effect size of
overall parental involvement and academic achievement, as well as its 95%
confidence interval (CI).
To make sure that the weighted average effect size I got
was due to the intrinsic pattern instead of the random pattern, I used the Q statistic to
calculate Qw.
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For the relation between types or subtypes of parental involvement and Asian
Americans’ academic achievement, the method was similar. Corresponding effect
sizes and the 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated. By calculating Qb, the
heterogeneity of the distribution of effect sizes was measured, which could tell us
how significant different types or subtypes of parental involvement were
distinguished from each other.
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IV. Results
a. Overall Relation Between Parental Involvement and Asian Americans’
Academic Achievement
Overall, this meta-analysis demonstrated a slightly positive relation between
parental involvement and Asian Americans’ academic achievement. However, the
relation was not strong (see Table 2). The effect sizes across the 13 independent
studies ranged from -0.42 to 0.437; the average weighted effect size was 0.016, which
was almost zero. 95% confidence interval (CI) =-0.0035, 0.035, Qw(12)=25.53,
p<0.025. Considering the fact that zero was included in the 95%CI and the average
effect size was positive, I concluded that the relation between parental involvement
and Asian Americans’ academic achievement was slightly positive.
b. Relation Between Three Types of Parental Involvement and Asian Americans’
Academic Achievement
As mentioned before, parental involvement was divided into three
dimensions in this study: school-based involvement, home-based involvement and
community-based involvement. Do the three types of parental involvement effect
Asian American students’ academic achievement equally? To answer this question,
for each study, I calculated one effect size per category. In total, I calculated 11 effect
sizes for school-based involvement, 12 effect sizes for home-based involvement and 3
effect sizes for community-based involvement. Then I calculated the Q statistics
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Qb(2)=20.91, p<0.001, which indicated that these three types of parental involvement
were significantly different from each other. Following this, I looked at each type
individually. The weighted average effect size for school-based involvement was
-0.00395, 95% CI= -0.0242, 0.0153.
For home-based involvement, the weighted
average effect size was 0.0068, 95% CI= -0.01304, 0.0267. For community-based
involvement, the weighted average effect size was 0.0322, 95% CI= 0.00288, 0.0615.
From the data, I could easily see that community-based involvement had the most
positive average effect size; it was also the only type of involvement that did not
include zero in the 95% CI, which meant that its positive effects were consistent.
Home-based involvement had a slightly positive average effect size, but the 95% CI
included zero. School-based involvement had a slightly negative average effect size
and the 95% CI also included zero.
To sum up, for Asian Americans, community-based involvement promoted
academic achievement best. Home-based involvement’s positive effects were much
less, while school-based involvement showed a slightly negative influence.
c. Relation Between The Subtypes of Home-Based Involvement and Asian
Americans’ Academic Achievement
Numerous researchers have found that parental expectation strongly
promotes academic achievement (e.g. Jeynes 2005, 2007). And thus, I wanted to see
if this kind of promotion existed for Asian Americans. Since parental expectation was
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included in one subtype of home-based involvement in this study, I decided to
investigate each subtype of home-based involvement. In this study, home-based
involvement was divided into three subtypes: parent-child communication,
educational aspiration and home supervision. Using the same approach as mentioned
above, I found 9 effect sizes for parent-child communication, 5 effect sizes for
educational aspiration and 6 effect sizes for home supervision. When I looked at them
overall, I found that Qb(2)=29.9, q<0.001, which indicated that these three subtypes of
home-based involvement were significantly different from each other. Then I looked
at each subtype individually. Parent-child communication’s weighted average effect
size was -0.0105, 95% CI= -0.0308, 0.00979.
Educational aspiration’s weighted
average effect size was 0.1037, 95% CI= 0.0682, 0.1393. Home supervision’s
weighted average effect size was 0.0193, 95% CI= -0.005031, 0.0435. From the data,
I found that educational aspiration had the strongest effect size with achievement and
zero was not included in the 95% CI. Home supervision came second with the
weighted average effect size, but zero was included in the 95% CI. Parent-child
communication had a negative weighted average effect size with achievement, and
zero was included in the 95% CI.
In summary, among the subtypes of home-based involvement, educational
aspiration promoted Asian American students’ academic achievement best. The
influence of home supervision was much less and tended to be positive. Parent-child
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communication tended to exert a negative influence.
d. Summary of Results
From my analysis, the overall relation between parental involvement and
Asian American students’ achievement was slightly positive, but not consistent. Only
community-based involvement and educational aspiration consistently demonstrated
positive relations with Asian American students’ academic achievement, and
educational aspiration’s influence was much stronger. Home-based involvement and
home supervision tended to exert a positive influence, while school-based
involvement and parent-child communication tended to exert a negative influence.
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V. Discussion
a. Prevalent Weak Relation and Inconsistency
In this meta-analysis, all but one of average weighted effect sizes’ numerical
values were below 0.1. This indicates that relations between general parental
involvement, as well as most types or subtypes of parental involvement and Asian
American children’s academic achievement are extraordinarily weak. This reminded
me of Chao’s (2000) assertion that parents of Asian American students demonstrate
the lowest parental involvement level as defined by prevailing theories. This might
explain the prevalence of weak relations found in this study.
Except for community-based involvement and educational aspiration, other
types or subtypes of parental involvement did not show consistent relations with
Asian American’s academic achievement. Such kinds of inconsistency might be
caused by the heterogeneity in the measurement of variables across different studies.
The consistent positive effects of community-based involvement and
educational aspiration might be explained by Asian American’s higher educational
aspiration and the encouragement of out-of-school activities.
b. Higher Educational Aspiration
In this study, educational aspiration, referring to parental expectation and
parents’ appreciation of academic achievement, was found to have the strongest
positive effects on Asian American students’ academic achievement. This result is in
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17!
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!
accord with findings of numerous studies focusing on the general population. In
meta-analyses from Jeynes (2005, 2007), and Hill and Tyson (2009), parents’
expectation for achievement and value for education were found to be strongest
predictors. The reason is that educational aspiration motivates parents to structure the
home and education environment, and to initiate achievement-related activities
(Davis-Kean, 2005). Furthermore, educational aspiration is ubiquitous and consistent,
and thus it has a pervasive effect (Kaplan, Liu & Kaplan, 2001).
Compared to other ethnic groups, Asian American parents tend to have
higher educational expectations for their children. For example, C.Chen and
Stevenson (1995) asked both Asian American and Caucasian American students to
answer the question, what score will their parents be satisfied with for a math test in
which there are 100 points. The average scores for Asian Americans and Caucasian
Americans were 90 and 85 respectively; this reflects that Asian American parents
have higher standards for school performance. Besides, Asian American parents
usually expect children to put forth more of an effort and accept further education
(C.Chen & Stevenson, 1995; Kao, 1995). Asian Americans appreciate academic
achievement. For example, Chao (1996) interviewed both Chinese immigrant and
European American mothers about the role that parenting plays in their children’s
school success. From the conversations, Chinese mothers were found to stress the
great degree of value they place on education, while European American mothers
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!
were found to negate the importance of academic skills. Leong, Chao and Hardlin
(1999) argued that for Asian Americans, education is a route to overcome prejudice
and gain success. Sue and Okazaki (1999) even claimed that Asian Americans tend to
view education as the only reliable way to gain success. Similarly, Steinberg,
Dombusch, and Brown (1992) asserted that besides believing in the positive effects of
education, Asian Americans also hold the idea that one cannot be successful without
education.
c. More Out-Of-School Activities
Community-based involvement, compared to home-based involvement and
school-based involvement, was investigated less in empirical studies about the
relation between parental involvement and academic achievement. In this
meta-analysis, only three studies mentioned community-based involvement. However,
numerous researchers have studied activities included in community-based
involvement, like visiting the museum, attending music lessons, and participating in
sports-teams. These studies paid attention to the effects of out-of-school activities on
children’s development and proved that out-of-school activities are beneficial for the
youth. For example, Gambone, Klem and Connell (2002) argued that children’s
participation in quality out-of-school activities promotes outcomes, both currently and
longitudinally. Weiss et al. (2005) claimed that out-of-school activities could
complement school-day learning and bring about much more effective and sustainable
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19!
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!
educational efforts.
Research has shown that Asian American children spend much more time in
out-of-school activities, compared to other ethnic groups (Kao, 1995; Peng & Wright,
1994). Besides, parents of Asian Americans tend to encourage children to develop a
special talent (Chao, 1996). To gain a special talent, relative lessons would be taken.
d. Limitations
This meta-analysis has several limitations. First, compared to recent
meta-analyses, the number of empirical studies used for analyzing was relatively
small. For a more persuasive conclusion, more databases or journals should be
searched to get more studies. Second, considering the fact that the number of usable
articles was small, I integrated correlation coefficients and regression coefficients.
This is different from other meta-analyses, which only included the correlation
coefficients. Since these two types of coefficients were based on different
mathematical approaches, the results might be influenced by other factors. When
calculating the correlation coefficient, researchers only paid attention to two variables:
parental involvement and academic achievement; however, when regression
coefficients were calculated, due to different regression modeling techniques, factors
like SES (social economic status), and parents’ education level might have influenced
the target relation I investigated. Third, due to insufficient information provided by
the studies, I could not investigate the role SES played here. In the future, when we
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20!
!
!
find more relative empirical studies, we may overcome these shortcomings.
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21!
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Table 1
Studies Including Correlations and Regression Coefficients for the Relationship Between Parental
Involvement and Asian Americans’ Academic Achievement (13 studies)
Author (year)
and
publication
type
Outcome Measure
Race
Modeling
technique
Grade
Size
Strategies of
parental
involvement
Kindergarten 1083
1st Grade
3rd Grade
Begun, N. N.
(2007)
Dissertation
!
Asian
American
from
NELS:88
Multiple
Regression
5th Grade
1068
951
785
!
22!
Parent
Involvement at
school
Home
Resources
Home Cognitive
Stimulation
Use Community
Resources
Extra Curricular
Activities
Parent
Involvement at
school
Home
Resources
Home Cognitive
Stimulation
Use Community
Resources
Extra Curricular
Activities
Parent
Involvement at
school
Home
Resources
Home Cognitive
Stimulation
Use Community
Resources
Extra Curricular
Activities
Parent
Involvement at
school
Home
Resources
Home Cognitive
Stimulation
Use Community
Resources
Extra Curricular
Activities
Category
for metaanalysis
SchoolBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
Community
-Based
Community
-Based
SchoolBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
Community
-Based
Community
-Based
SchoolBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
Community
-Based
Community
-Based
SchoolBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
Community
-Based
Community
-Based
Reading
Math
-.01
-.033
.006
-.032
-.025
-.002
.123
.111
.08
.038
-.038
-.039
-.014
-.013
-.047
.009
-.01
-.047
.084
.053
-.059
-.087
-.026
-.023
-.045
-.154
0
.057
.001
.011
-.056
-.136
.033
.036
-.089
-.142
.03
.069
.029
.031
GPA
!
Table 1 (Continued)
Author (year)
and
publication
type
Cooper, C. E.
(2006)
Dissertation
Outcome Measure
Race
Asian
American
from
ECLS-K
Modeling
technique
Multiple
Regression
Grade
3rd Grade
Size
744
Strategies of
parental
involvement
Category
for metaanalysis
Parental
involvement at
school
SchoolBased
Parental
aspirations
Parental rules
Chinese
238
Filipino
Southeast
Aisan
Eng et al
(2008) Journal
article
Asian
American
From Add
Health
Jiang et al
(2011) Journal
article
!
Asian
American
Parental
discussions
Parental
aspirations
Parental rules
211
Korean
Corwyn and
Bradley (2008)
Journal article
Parental
discussions
Parental
aspirations
Parental rules
Parental
discussions
Parental
aspirations
Parental rules
156
Ordinary
Least
Squares
Correlation
Correlation
8th Grade
16.5 Years
Old
High
School
Parental
discussions
174
Parent-adolescent
attachment
Parents' school
involvement
Perceived parental
academic
autonomy support
(the amount of
freedom granted
for children to
make a decision)
Perceived parental
academic planning
control (children
need to abide with
parents' wishes)
973
271
!
23!
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
SchoolBased
Reading
.076
Math
GPA
-.059
.335
.131
.078
.059
.101
.021
.175
.065
.074
.147
.124
.076
.03
.16
HomeBased
.22
HomeBased
-.06
!
Table 1 (Continued)
Author
(year) and
publication
type
Liew et al
(2014)
Journal
Article
Moon, S. S.
(2009)
Journal
article
Pearce, R.
R. (2005)
Journal
article
Sibley and
Dearing
(2014)
Journal
article
!
Outcome Measure
Race
Chinese
American
Adolescents
Asian
American
from ECLSK
Chinese
American
from
NELS:2000
Children of
US-Born
Asians from
ECLS-K
Children of
Asian
Immigrants
from ECLSK
Children of
US-Born
Asians from
ECLS-K
Children of
Asian
Immigrants
from ECLS-K
Modeling
technique
Correlation
Correlation
Multiple
Regression
Grade
16 Years
Old
Elementary
8th and
12th
Grades
1st Grade
Size
92
1100
202
78
493
78
3rd Grade
Correlation
493
!
24!
Strategies of
parental
involvement
Parental
autonomy
support
Parent school
involvement
Parent-child
home activities
Educational
Expectations
Discuss school
Activities
Parents attend
school
meetings
Parents speak
with teacher
Parent visit
classroom
Parents attend
school events
Parents check
homework
Parents
counted on to
solve problems
School-Based
Home-Based
Educational
Expectations
School-Based
Category for
meta-analysis
Reading
Math
GPA
Home-Based
.07
School-Based
.02
.01
Home-Based
-.02
-.08
Home-Based
.149
Home-Based
-.038
School-Based
-.046
School-Based
-.076
School-Based
.235
School-Based
-.116
Home-Based
.098
Home-Based
School-Based
Home-Based
.09
.05
.05
-.04
.054
Home-Based
School-Based
.03
-.02
-.05
-.09
Home-Based
Educational
Expectations
Home-Based
-.01
.01
Home-Based
.02
.02
School-Based
Home-Based
Educational
Expectations
School-Based
Home-Based
Educational
Expectations
School-Based
Home-Based
.09
.04
-.05
.13
Home-Based
School-Based
Home-Based
.04
.08
.08
.14
-.03
-.10
Home-Based
.08
.07
!
Table 1 (Continued)
Author
(year) and
publication
type
Outcome Measure
Race
Modeling
technique
Grade
Size
Strategies of parental
involvement
Category for
meta-analysis
Parent expectations
Home-Based
.02
-.03
Home-Based
-.11
-.13
Home-Based
Home-Based
.08
.06
.01
-.06
CommunityBased
School-Based
.04
.03
.01
-.06
Parent belief (about
the importance of
early academic skills)
Home literacy
involvement (e.g.,
reading or telling
stories to children)
Family television rules
Sy and
Schulenberg
(2005)
Journal
article
Tan, E. T.
(2010)
Dissertation
!
Asian
American
from ECLSK
Asian
American
children
whose
fathers have
Asian
heritage
Correlation
Correlation
Elementa
ry
Elementa
ry
514
Educational activities
(non-school and nonhome activities, e.g.,
visiting museums,
libraries and the zoo)
School participation
64
Direct School
(Behaviors that
involved parents on
the school site)
Extracurricular
(Engage with children
in activities outside of
the home and the
school)
Homework (active
participation at home
with children and
homework)
Interpersonal
(spending time with
children in activities
like playing games,
talking about
problems, sharing
stories and jokes)
!
25!
Reading
Math
GPA
School-Based
-.18
CommunityBased
-.42
Home-Based
.01
Home-Based
.14
!
Table 1 (Continued)
Author
(year) and
publication
type
Wang, X.
(2009)
Dissertation
Yan and Lin
(2005)
Journal
article
Outcome Measure
Race
Asian
American
from ECLSK
Asian
American
from
NELS:88
Modeling
technique
Correlation
Ordinary
Least
Squares
Grade
Elementary
12th grade
Size
311
969
Strategies of parental
involvement
Maternal
involvement in home
activities
Maternal
involvement in
school activities
Participation in
parent-teacher
organization
activities
Attendance at school
programs
Discussions about
school topics
Contact with school
about teenager's
performance
Knowledge of
teenager's
schoolwork
Knowledge of
parents of teenager's
friend
Family rules
Educational
expectations
Parent teenager
relationship
Category
for metaanalysis
Reading
Math
HomeBased
.01
0
SchoolBased
.21
.18
SchoolBased
SchoolBased
SchoolBased
-.07
.04
-.03
SchoolBased
-.12
HomeBased
-.01
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
HomeBased
GPA
-.01
0
.15
.10
Note. NELS= National Education Longitudinal Study; ECLS-K= Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten Class; Add
Health= Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health.
!
!
26!
!
Table!2!
Meta-Analysis Results: the Relation Between Parental Involvement and Asian Americans' Academic
Achievement
!
Analysis!
Size!
Effect!Size!
95%!CI!
Qw!
p!value!
Low!
High!
!
!
Overall!
13!
.016!
I.0035!
.035!
25.53!
<.025!
!
!
Type!of!parental!
involvement!
!!!!!!!!!!!SchoolIBased!
!!!!!!!!!!!!HomeIBased!
!CommunityIBased!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Qb!
20.91!
!
p!value!
<.0001!
!
11!
12!
3!
I.00395!
.0068!
.0322!
I.0242!
I.0130!
.00288!
.0163!
.0267!
.0615!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Qb !
29.90!
!
p!value!
<.0001!
!
!
9!
!
5!
6!
!
I.0105!
!
.1037!
.0193!
!
I.0308!
!
.0682!
I.00503!
!
.00979!
!
.1393!
.0435!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Type!of!homeI
based!involvement!
!!!!!!!!!!!!ParentIchild!
Communication!
Educational!
Aspiration!
Home!Supervision!
!
!
!
27!
!
!
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