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Teacher Resource Bank
GCE Government and Politics
Unit Guidance:
• GOV3B Ideologies
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Teacher Resource Bank / GCE Government and Politics / Unit Guidance: GOV3B / Version 1.0
GOV3B IDEOLOGIES
This unit requires candidates to appreciate how political ideologies have evolved
since the Enlightenment, recognising the core beliefs and values associated with the
four ‘isms’ which are to be covered: •
•
•
•
Liberalism
Socialism
Conservatism
Fascism
Candidates will also need to be familiar with how these particular ideologies have
influenced party thinking since the inception of modern party systems to the current
day. Whilst most teachers will naturally focus on the United Kingdom in delivering
this unit, evidence from other countries may also be used, where appropriate, to
illustrate points and to support or refute claims and propositions.
Liberalism
Teachers are expected to provide candidates with the information which will enable
them to appreciate and understand how positive views of human nature underpin
the liberal belief that man is rational and considerate and endowed with the common
sense to decide which types of political organisations, institutions and power
structures can best protect individual needs and promote individualism – essentially
the nation state. Such states need to exist to facilitate the creation and operation of a
political culture which is both tolerant and pluralistic. The general discussion of
these core values should lead into a consideration of why, in practice, liberals have
favoured private property and the market economy, not just because of efficiency
but also because they were/are seen to provide the bedrock upon which a civil
society can exist and flourish.
Candidates should also recognise that capitalism may actually undermine certain
liberties, hence the emergence of New/Progressive Liberalism as a challenge to
traditional Classical Liberalism and the promotion of welfare provision to redress
the divisions and problems created by and arising from the undeserved social and
natural inequalities which are unchecked in unrestricted free enterprise systems.
In focusing on the importance of individual liberty to liberals candidates need to
appreciate that this can only be achieved and protected within a framework of law to
settle potential disputes between individuals. They also need to recognise the need
for and importance of a social contract whereby citizens would be prepared to
sacrifice some of their natural rights to government.
Thus, whilst authority would be conferred on government by the consent of the
governed (to maintain order and justice and to uphold essential rights, eg property),
citizens would also have the right to rebel if the state was to abuse the rights of the
citizen as outlined in the Social Contract.
In teaching liberalism, teachers would also need to ensure that candidates appreciate
the significance of utilitarianism (satisfaction/happiness) and the view that
governments could/can add to the total sum of utility by taking specific actions.
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Teacher Resource Bank / GCE Government and Politics / Unit Guidance: GOV3B / Version 1.0
Having studied these core concepts and values candidates ought to be able to
appreciate how the Classicial Liberal School evolved out of the writings and
teachings of philosophers such as Mill, Locke and Bentham and how this brand of
liberalism essentially advocated negative freedoms such as freedom from coercion.
They would also be expected to recognise how in economics classical liberals
championed completely free markets (Adam Smith) except in the case of
monopolies.
Given that liberalism is, in many ways, an organic political philosophy candidates
need to be made aware of how the unforeseen social and political changes brought
about by industrialisation modified classical liberalism and led to the emergence of
New/Progressive liberalism. In discussing this variant teachers need to focus on the
desire for greater state intervention, not only to allow people to develop their abilities
but also to secure such basic rights as a living wage. They should also be aware of
key concepts such as ‘equality of opportunity’ and of the need for state
administered welfare policies to combat poverty and ignorance and to reduce social
divisions within society.
When establishing the links between political philosophy and political practice
candidates ought to be able to point out how Classical Liberal thinking influenced the
policies and actions of the Liberal Party in the 19th century and how Progressive
liberal values impacted upon the Liberal Party in the early twentieth century.
Furthermore, connections also need to be made between Progressive Liberalism and
the policies and programmes practiced by Labour and Conservative governments in
the first three decades after World War Two. The works and ideas of J M Keynes
and W Beveridge are obviously significant here. Coverage of New Right ideas and of
Thatcherite programmes and policies should also lead to a recognition of liberalism’s
continued impact on parties and movements beyond the Liberal Party itself – in this
case classical liberalism. New Labour’s debt to Progressive liberal thinking should
also be recognised.
It goes without saying that candidates should also show an awareness and
appreciation of how these ideas – both classical and progressive – have influenced
the Liberal Democrats since the party’s inception in the late 1980’s.
Many pundits, commentators and scholars have recently argued that ‘we are all
liberals now’ and that liberalism has triumphed over rival ideologies. Candidates
need to be aware of the texts and individuals associated with such claims (eg
F Fukuyama) and of the criticisms of such assertions which have appeared in the
early 21st century.
Socialism
In this unit candidates need to be familiar with the criticisms of industrial society
based on free market capitalism which emerged at the end of the 18th century. At the
centre of this ideology is the belief in the innate goodness and sociability of
humans and their preference for collective action over individual activity. As with
liberalism, candidates need to be made aware of how the structure of society altered
as a consequence of industrialisation with wealthy, property-owning elites at the apex
of the social structure and a large working class populating its base. A crucial point
to emphasise is that without a collective or class doctrine socialism would have
amounted to little more than an ideological wing of radical liberalism. It is this class
based analysis of society that distinguishes socialism from the other dominant
ideologies of the period (liberalism and conservatism) as does socialism’s critical
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Teacher Resource Bank / GCE Government and Politics / Unit Guidance: GOV3B / Version 1.0
attitude towards private property and its desire to achieve the redistribution of
wealth derived from private ownership to some form of communal or collective
ownership. In covering socialism’s core values emphasis also needs to be placed
on the commitment to equality, albeit of outcome rather than opportunity.
Whilst this critique of capitalist economics and the unjust society built upon this
productive base lies at the heart of socialism, candidates also need to be aware of
the bitter ideological arguments which have served to divide the socialist camp,
principally between the ‘utopian’ and ‘revolutionary’ socialists in the early 19th
century (eg Robert Owen and Charles Fourier v Marx) and the ‘revisionists’
(Bernstein and Luxemburg) and ‘revolutionaries’ (Engels and Marx) in the late 19th
century. In covering these divisions emphasis needs to be placed on Marx’s class
analysis of society, particularly with regard to class conflict and his rejection of the
assertion that socialism could be achieved through peaceful, democratic means.
Candidates should be clear that British Socialism basically rejected Marxism in
favour of the revisionist approach associated with the likes of Sidney and Beatrice
Webb and the Fabians. It should be noted that this gradualist, incremental
parliamentary route essentially abandons radical political goals for the sake of a
more pragmatic and more limited reform of social, political and economic processes
and structures. In essence, this British variant of socialism was a relatively modest
movement which pursued social justice without totally jeopardising market
capitalism. An awareness of ethical socialism and the close links between the
British Labour Movement and liberalism in the first half of the 20th century needs to
be established here, as does the role and impact of the Trade Union movement on
the Labour Party in the same period.
Having discussed why and how democratic socialism was embraced by the early
Labour Party at the expense of Marxism teachers also need to make their students
aware of the continuing impact and influence of this variant of socialism on the
Labour Party’s values, actions and policies throughout the post-war period. Probably
the most suitable means for doing so is by examining the links between the principles
and actions in three eras:
(i) 1945-1979: from the first Labour Government with an overall majority to when the
traditional party lost power for the last time. In covering this period teachers should
focus on the Party’s commitment to
•
•
•
Equal rights and equality of opportunity
State control of key industries and utilities within a mixed economy
Welfare policies to support those in need and social policies to improve health,
education, housing, etc
• The partial redistribution of income through taxation and the welfare system.
• The promotion of social justice in the workplace.
Labour also flirted with the idea of centralised planning but without a great deal of
success.
Teachers should also point out that the historic division between traditional socialists
and revisionists remained in this era. The schism between the left wing Bevanites
and the right wing Gaitskellites should be addressed as should the battles which
ensued in the 1970s between the likes of Callaghan and Healy and Foot and Benn.
(ii) An ‘aberrant period’ 1979-1983: when the British Labour Party lurched to the left
and presented its most left wing manifests ever in 1983.
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Teacher Resource Bank / GCE Government and Politics / Unit Guidance: GOV3B / Version 1.0
(iii) 1983 to the present day: Focus on how, after Labour’s disastrous performance in
the 1983 General Election, Kinnock set out to modernise the Labour party to make it
more electable in an age where socialist values appeared to be out of step with the
Thatcherite hegemony. Note how this process led to the creation of ‘New’ Labour. It
goes without saying that teachers need to inform their students not only about new
Labour’s debt to its predecessors but also to other value systems and political
philosophies, most notably aspects of Progressive Liberalism and Thatcherism. In
doing so teachers should make clear where socialism continues to influence policies
and programmes, particularly with regard social inclusion, the reduction of poverty
and the continued commitment to the Welfare State. They could also discuss the
party’s support for the European Social Charter and the minimum wage. There are
aspects of New Labour’s programme which owe little to the party’s ideological
tradition and these too should be made evident. Themes to be covered here would
include the revised Clause iv, the acceptance of some degree of economic inequality,
the move away from the fundamental redistribution of wealth and the growing
emphasis on individual responsibility. Some commentators have indeed argued
that such policy shifts indicate that in reality there is little real distinction between
New Labour’s ‘mild’ socialism and liberalism. Given the impact of the credit crunch in
late 2008 and the recession which has followed, teachers should also attempt to
show how Gordon Brown’s party has responded to these economic difficulties and
the social problems created in their wake. At the time of writing there are no
available texts on these themes but press articles and information gleaned from
periodicals and journals should suffice in providing teachers without adequate
information and materials.
Conservatism
In delivering this unit, teachers need to emphasise that conservatism is essentially a
reactionary political philosophy and that it emerged in the 19th century against the
background of the Industrial Revolution and French Revolution. It is also important
that students appreciate that the nature of conservative thinking depends on the
ideas which emerge from the political climate of the time and that its principles are
therefore variable. Indeed many scholars would contend that the doctrine of
conservatism is difficult to pin down when compared with the clear aims and
objectives of socialism for example. Nevertheless, certain broad themes can and
should be emphasised as core conservative beliefs and values. These should
include:
•
•
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Conservatism as ‘a policy of imperfection which views man as fundamentally
flawed; a pessimistic view which contrasts sharply with the optimistic position
held by socialists and liberals. This leads directly to the need for firm
government to oversee the behaviour of selfish, untrustworthy and feckless
individuals. Such firm government is best provided by benevolent rulers who
basically view the masses as little more than children. The key concepts here are
paternalism, hierarchy and authority. Power ought to rest with dominant
elites who are believed to possess the skills, knowledge and mindsets to
manage systems which might otherwise collapse into chaos. Indeed, many
conservatives would contend that good social order and security are the most
basic of human needs, more important even than freedom and equality. There is
nothing wrong in hierarchies based on birth and wealth as long as their authority
is founded on traditions which reflect the accumulated wisdom of the past.
An understanding of the desire to maintain the status quo as far as possible
whilst recognising that when change is necessary it should come about
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Teacher Resource Bank / GCE Government and Politics / Unit Guidance: GOV3B / Version 1.0
•
•
•
organically and should not be forced by individuals and movements with fixed
ideological agendas.
This eschewing of ideology highlights the pragmatic nature of conservatism and
a flexible approach to politics reflecting an understanding of what is best for
people in the quest to preserve a stable society.
In addition to statecraft as a means of achieving such stability, the need for
limited government to ensure the preservation of private property and to
promote and safeguard individualism should also be emphasised. This
commitment to private property can be seen as particularly important as a private
property reduces the individuals dependence on the state as well as giving dignity
and encouraging initiative. This right to private property should be guaranteed by
law.
Devotion to country/nation reflecting the significance of history and culture as
definers of national identity. Perceiving the nation state as being second only to
the family as the natural unit of human society.
Students should be able to explain the impact of these core value on party policy and
programmes from the original Tory Party to the Conservative party of the modern
day. It is also important that teachers focus on the political pragmatism of
Conservatives in their quest for and desire to maintain power. Such an approach
would recognise the Peelite decision to embrace competition and a modicum of the
free trade for example, as well as the party’s willingness to accommodate the
expanding business sector alongside its landowning supporters as the 19th century
progressed. Disraeli’s wooing of the newly enfranchised working class through his
unique brand of One Nation Conservatism serves as further evidence of the party’s
adaptability and pragmatism. In discussing the 20th century Conservative Party such
pragmatism is particularly evident in the party’s acceptance of many of the Attlee
Government’s social and economic policies during the era of consensus.
For many scholars and commentators Thatcher’s brand of Conservatism owes little
to these traditions. Her economic policies in particular would appear to owe far more
to Classical Liberalism than they do to Conservatism and her New Right Social
policies differed markedly from the paternalistic approach evident in Disraeli’s One
Nation Conservatism. Teachers should also point out however that Thatcher did not
complete eschew pragmatism in favour of ideology; she rejected rail and Post Office
privatisation and asserted that the NHS ‘is safe in our hands’. Elements of traditional
Conservative thinking could be seen in her championing of the family as a key social
institution and her tough defence and law and order policies. In covering the postThatcher era teachers should examine Thatcher’s enduring legacy and the difficulties
which this creates for those ‘modernisers’ who seek to create a caring and inclusive
party more in keeping with Disraeli, Butler and MacMillan. Responses to the
recession and to environmental concerns will further highlight the ongoing battle
between pragmatism and ideology.
Fascism
Students might find this a confusing ideology to understand given that early ‘fascists’
in the late 19th century saw themselves as revolutionary socialists. However, by the
early 1920s fascism had become associated with radical right wing politics. To
simplify matters teachers should initially focus on the usage of the term by Mussolini
in the 1920s when a clearer set of values and beliefs became associated with this
political philosophy. In doing so they should concentrate upon:
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Teacher Resource Bank / GCE Government and Politics / Unit Guidance: GOV3B / Version 1.0
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ultra-nationalism and race. For fascists the nation represents the collective
identity of the people acquired over time and based on unique political, social
and economic cultures. Such states possess the ultimate source of political and
legal legitimacy and they demand total allegiance from ‘their people’. Such a
stance precludes support for any rival body or organisation particularly those
which advocate an ‘internationalist’ approach to political activity. Views on race
follow on logically from such a mindset; the racial superiority of Europeans is a
consequence of their cultural, scientific and economic sophistication, particularly
when compared with the less advanced inhabitants of Slavic, Arabic and African
nations.
Irrationality - the rejection of rational logical analysis as the basis of a political
philosophy. Instead, Fascists champion intuition and action at the expense of
reasoned reflection. This emotional positioning can be seen in concepts such as
‘triumph of the will’ or the command to ‘think in blood’ – viewpoints which run
counter to the beliefs and values associated with the European Enlightenment.
Mythology – basically the extensive use of myths to justify the state’s actions.
Mussolini emphasised modern Italy’s descendance from the Roman Empire and
more insidiously Hitler advocated a Germanic ‘Aryan’ identity threatened by
Semites (Jews) and other lesser races.
The emphasis on conflict, struggle and war whereby war is seen as the
ultimate sacrifice of the individual to a more noble cause. Likewise, human
struggle is viewed as a Darwinian ‘survival of the fittest’ in which only warrior
‘master’ races will survive and whose strength and nobility accords them a
natural right to conquer and rule inferior beings.
The needs for clear leaders and strong elites to embody the collective will of
the organic state, characterised by fascist belief in the need for authoritative and
charismatic leaders supported by committed elites who can lead nations to
renewal and glory.
Hostility to free market capitalism and the desire for strong national
stewardship of the productive and distributive processes through a ‘corporate
state’ in which key industries and economic organisations are state directed by
not necessarily state-owned, thus eliminating the potential conflict between
labour/workers and capital/owners.
In covering these core fascist beliefs and values students need to be particularly
aware of how the German National Socialist variant placed for more emphasis on
race than was the case with Italian Fascism.
In teaching post-war fascism (neo-fascism) teachers ought to focus on the far right’s
continued criticisms of and opposition to liberal democratic states and pluralistic
societies. Students need to recognise that the continuing, if somewhat limited,
appeal of fascism lies largely in disaffected groups who feel politically marginalised
and economically and socially vulnerable as a result of global factors which appear to
be beyond national control.
Whilst teachers are likely to study contemporary fascism via British movements and
parties such as the British National Party and the National Front there is more scope
here for studying this part of the specification beyond the UK situation.
Indeed, teachers could well find that they draw materials and information from fascist
groups and movements such as the NPD in Germany, the National Front in France
and various extreme right white supremacist groups in the USA as well as the quasifascist organisations which have become more prominent in Eastern Europe since
the collapse of the Soviet Union.
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