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WOLFNOTE SUMMARY OF…
HOMER’s
THE ODYSSEY
THE AUTHOR
It is widely believed that Homer was the author for the great epic poems
concerning The Trojan Wars, The Iliad and The Odyssey. It is believed that this
Greek poet lived in the 8th Century B.C., but nothing is known about his life and
there are some who doubt whether he actually wrote the epic poems or merely
gathered them together from other sources.
Although nothing concrete is known about Homer, certain assumptions can be made from the style of his
work and his origin can be narrowed down to the western coast of Asia Minor, now Turkey, and the offshore
islands. In this area is the island of Chois where a family lived bearing his name that did help keep his work
alive and conducted public recitations.
Another assumption is that Homer was blind, based on the portrayal of Demodocus, the blind minstrel in the
Odyssey, who performs a poem about the fall of Troy. The conjecture is that Homer is describing himself in
this scene.
It is now widely agreed that there is sufficient consistency in The Iliad and The Odyssey to safely assume
that they were written by the same poet. These works represent an everlasting testament to his work and
genius, the master of the epic poem.
It is evident that these poems were soon recognized as classics in the 8th Century B.C. for they were well
known throughout the Eastern Mediterranean and this spread to the Western Mediterranean with the
advance of the Roman Empire. This spread is attributed to the rhapsodoi (professional reciters) who
traveled extensively throughout the Greek and Roman world. These recitals were a common form of
entertainment, especially on public holidays and at festivals. Initially, these poems were handed down
verbally from generation to generation, but in the 5th Century B.C., the poems were standardized by a
committee of rhapsodists in Athens.
Homer’s work continued to influence many later writers including Virgil, a Roman author of the 1st Century
B.C.
When Christianity replaced many of the ancient religions, the poems lost their credibility so far as being
religious statements, but they were still recognized for their great poetry.
Unfortunately, throughout most of Western Europe the poems were practically forgotten during the Middle
Ages, but their power was remembered and preserved in the Byzantium Empire where ancient manuscripts
were preserved in Constantinople and later in Italy.
Aptly they were revitalized during the Renaissance Period and have always been revered by scholars since
that time.
CONTEXT
We cannot deal with The Odyssey without making reference to the work that comes before historically, The
Iliad, which is mainly concerned with the siege of Troy.
Odysseus (Ulysses – Roman) was one of the main characters in The Iliad and the central character of The
Odyssey.
Odysseus was the King of Ithaca and took part in the Trojan War, which was caused by the abduction of
Helen, Menelaus’ wife by Paris. She was taken to the fortified city of Troy. Menelaus was the brother of
Agamemnon who was the King of Sparta. It was Agamemnon who organized the Greek expedition to Troy
to regain Helen.
Odysseus was part of this expedition and he was one of Agamemnon’s chief advisors. It was his plan to use
a wooden horse to gain access to the city.
The whole campaign against the Trojans took ten years and in the end it was cunning that brought victory
to the Greeks.
The wooden horse is famous for the old saying, “Never trust a Greek bearing gifts” and “Don’t look a gift
horse in the mouth”.
The slaughter and looting of Troy offended the gods, in particular the goddess Athena who was enraged at
the rape of Cassandra within her own temple.
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When the Greek fleet returned home, they were scattered by a great storm and many ships were lost.
Odysseus was to be the last Greek to return home, and his ten-year voyage is the subject matter of The
Odyssey. Odysseus first sailed to Thrace where he lost many of his men in a battle. His next port of call
was the Land of the Lotus Eaters where those that consumed this narcotic loose all memory of family and
home.
He then landed on Sicily where lived the Cyclops, a giant race and Odysseus and his men were captured by
Polyphemus, Poseidon’s son. Polyphemus liked the taste of human flesh and it was only after Odysseus had
lost several of his companions that he managed to escape this Cyclops by putting out his single eye. This
act greatly enraged the sea god Poseidon.
They next landed on the island of Aeolus, who was the ruler of the winds. Odysseus was given a rare gift –
a sack full of the winds that would not drive him off course. With this gift, he was able to set sail for home,
and within sight of Ithaca, his men thinking the bag contained gold, opened it and they were then at the
mercy of the winds and were driven far from home.
Their next encounter was with the Laestrygones, a race of giant cannibals. Odysseus’ squadron of ships
was attacked, and only his ship survived.
Odysseus’ ship came under the spell of Circe who turned half of Odysseus’ men into swine. With the aid of
Hermes, the messenger of the gods, Odysseus was able to resist Circe’s spells, and the enchantress then
restored his men to their original form. Circe advised Odysseus that he would never be able to return home
unless he went to see the blind seer Tiresias who dwelt in the realm of Hades.
Odysseus traveled to the edge of the world and met with many ghosts of the past including Agamemnon,
and his mother. The blind seer was able to tell him what was happening back in Ithaca and Agamemnon
also warned him to be careful when he returned home. Agamemnon had been murdered by his wife and
her lover in the bathroom.
Odysseus traveled back towards Greece and he still had many challenges to face.
Firstly there were the Sirens, whose song would drive a man mad.
There was also Scylla, a six-headed monster that resided in a cave near the great whirlpool Charybdis.
His ship was wrecked and he was washed up on a wondrous island, which was home to the sea nymph
Calypso. There he remained for seven years and Calypso wished to marry him, but she was forced by the
gods to set Odysseus free.
Odysseus was shipwrecked again, in the land of the Phaeacians where he was welcomed as an honored
guest. They provided him with a magnificent ship and guided him back to Ithaca.
All this time, his wife Penelope had been waiting patiently for the return of her husband, twenty years in
total. During this time, suitors had besieged her and she had managed to repel their advances, but time
was now running short. These suitors had also squandered Odysseus’ possessions. Finally Penelope agreed
to marry the suitor who could bend and string Odysseus’ great bow and shoot an arrow through ten axes.
All who tried, failed. Then a beggar requested a turn. He succeeded and then he threw off his disguise to
reveal himself as Odysseus.
Odysseus assisted by his son Telemachus and some royal retainers slaughtered the suitors and hanged the
treacherous maidservants.
Odysseus was happily reunited with Penelope and Zeus sent a thunderbolt signaling the end of Odysseus’
trials.
THE GODS
The Odyssey also deals with the conflict amongst the gods, in particular Athena who supported Odysseus,
and Poseidon who was determined to torment Odysseus and do all in his power to prevent his return home.
Odysseus had already upset Poseidon during the siege of Troy, and this was further compounded when he
blinded Poseidon’s son, the Cyclops Polyphemus.
Poseidon was the son of Kronos and Rhea. Kronos was the son of Ouranos the sky god and the earth
mother Gaia. Poseidon was the Greek god of the sea, the Roman equivalent being Neptune. When Kronos
was overthrown, his three sons divided the world between them. Zeus took the sky, Hades the underworld,
and Poseidon the sea, although Zeus was the senior of the brothers. Out of the three, Poseidon was
regarded as the unruly god, being the source of sudden storms and earthquakes. He married a sea nymph
Anphitrite. The sea god had many offspring by other partners, one being Polyphemus whose mother was
another sea nymph called Thoosa.
Without Athena, Odysseus would never have returned home to Ithaca. She was the daughter of Zeus and
she was the Greek goddess of war and crafts. She was known for her chastity, and the city that adopted
her cult is named after her, Athens. Athena sprang from the head of her father Zeus, fully grown and
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armed, after he had swallowed the pregnant Metis. She was known to the Romans as Minerva and her
symbol was the wise owl. She delighted in walking with the mortals and assumed many disguises.
As well as Odysseus, she helped other mortals such as Jason, Heracles and Perseus. It was Athena’s
influence that persuaded Zeus to instruct Calypso to release Odysseus.
CHARACTERS
MORTALS:
AGAMEMNON
The leader of the Achaean expedition to Troy, he was the King of Mycenae. On his return from Troy he was
murdered by his wife Clytemnestra, and her lover Aegisthus. The lover was the son of Thyestes, the
brother and enemy of Atreus, Agamemnon’s father. When Odysseus voyages to Hades he meets with
Agamemnon’s ghost.
ALCINOUS
The King of the Phaeacians and husband of Arete, who had a daughter called Nausicaa. Nausicaa helps
Odysseus when he first arrives in their land. The King is a gracious ruler and is instrumental in assisting
Odysseus in returning to Ithaca.
ANTINOUS
He is the leader of the suitors that besiege Penelope, and the other suitors copy his cruelty and greed. He
mistreats Odysseus when disguised as a beggar on his return to Ithaca. He is unashamed of his behavior
and is a totally evil man. He is the first to be killed by Odysseus. He is aided by Eurymachus, another
important suitor.
EUMAEUS
Odysseus’ faithful swine-herd who plays an important part in assisting Odysseus to regain power, he is a
caring man who offers hospitality to Odysseus when he is disguised as a beggar.
EURYCLEIA
She is a devoted old nurse of Odysseus and Penelope and is first to recognize her master on his return.
HELEN
Helen was the daughter of Leda and Zeus and she became the wife of King Menelaus of Sparta,
Agamemnon’s brother. Being the daughter of Zeus, she was immortal. Zeus mated with Leda in the guise
of a swan and Helen was hatched from and egg and brought up as a member of the royal family of Sparta.
Menelaus and Helen were initially very happy, but Paris the heir of King Priam of Troy visited Sparta and
with the help of Aphrodite the goddess of love, gained Helen’s affection. Stealing part of Menelaus’
treasury, the pair eloped. Agamemnon assembled a great army to aid his brother, and they held siege to
the city of Troy for ten years. Helen’s beauty was unsurpassed and hence the saying, ‘The face that
launched a thousand ships’.
Throughout her stay in Troy, Helen was treated as a proper wife and not a mistress. After the fall of Troy,
Helen and Menelaus were reconciled and apparently lived happily ever after.
LAERTES
He is the aged father of Odysseus who leads a private life on a small farm in the hills of Ithaca. He remains
active and in good physical shape, despite his age.
MENELAUS
King of Sparta and husband of Helen, it is Menelaus’ brother Agamemnon that organizes the expedition to
Troy. He engages in single combat with Paris with a view to settling the dispute between the Greeks and
Trojans. He won the battle, but was prevented from killing his rival by the intervention of Aphrodite. She
owed Paris a debt because he judged her more beautiful than Hera and Athena. His reward was to receive
the love of Helen who was the most beautiful woman on earth. Menelaus has a similar experience to
Odysseus on his return from Troy, as he too experiences a series of misadventures on the return voyage.
When Menelaus died, he went to live in the Elysian fields with his immortal Helen.
MENTOR
He is a faithful friend of Odysseus and tutor to Telemachus, Odysseus’ son. Athena often disguised herself
as Mentor when walking among the mortals.
NAUSICAA
Daughter of King Alcinous and Queen Arete, she is a beautiful young maiden portrayed by Homer as being
innocent and virtuous. Although just in her adolescence, she is attracted to the naked Odysseus when they
first meet.
ODYSSEUS
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King of Ithaca, son of Laertes, husband of Penelope and father of Telemachus, it is his adventure that is
covered in The Odyssey.
Homer emphasizes that this hero not only has physical prowess, but also an astute brain, and it is his
cunning that helps bring about the fall of Troy and the escape from Polyphemus, the Cyclops. His
determination and quick thinking enable him to escape many dangers.
PENELOPE
The wife of Odysseus, she remains loyal to her husband for nearly twenty years and is portrayed as the
perfect wife and mother. She also demonstrates that she is intelligent for she is able to ward off over one
hundred suitors for a long period of time.
TELEMACHUS
The son of Odysseus and Penelope, he is just entering adulthood, but is reluctant to take full responsibility
for the position in his father’s household. However, we observe a quick maturing during the final passages
of the poem and he obtains the confidence to become more assertive in dealing with the suitors. It is
widely thought that he married Circe.
TIRESIAS
He is the most famous of all Greek soothsayers, who was compensated by the gods for his blindness by his
incredible visionary powers. Odysseus consults with his spirit in Hades and he provides vital information
concerning the dangers that await and how he can achieve success and a happy life.
THE GODS and SUPERNATURAL BEINGS
AEOLUS
He is the keeper of the winds and lives on a mysterious floating island with his wife and twelve sons and
daughters. He gives Odysseus a gift which is a large leather bag containing adverse winds.
ATHENA (Latin - MINERVA)
She is the daughter of Zeus and goddess of wisdom and arts. Odysseus is her favorite mortal and she is
always a guiding influence and spirit for our hero. She represents the Odyssey’s heroine and she intercedes
on Odysseus’ behalf by making representations to Zeus and the other gods. Of all the gods, she is the one
that walks with the mortals most often. She enjoys an interesting relationship with Odysseus and one feels
that only she can offer him true understanding and companionship, especially when separated from his wife
Penelope.
CALYPSO
A sea-nymph who ensnares Odysseus for nine years hoping to make him her husband, she offers him
immortality, but Odysseus resists the life of being her captured pet. Although Odysseus succumbs to
Calypso’s advances, he is never ensnared by her. He remains spiritually faithful to his wife.
CIRCE
She is an enchantress who transforms some of Odysseus’ crew into swine. With the aid of a herb supplied
by the gods, Odysseus is able to repel Circe who then takes him as a lover and eventually helps him on his
voyage home.
HERMES (Latin – MERCURY)
He is the messenger of the gods and son of Zeus. One of his duties is to conduct the souls of the dead to
Hades. It is he who carries Zeus’ message to Calypso ordering her to release Odysseus.
HYPERION
The sun god who travels through the sky on a fiery chariot, Hyperion has charge of the sacred animals
belonging to the gods. His herd of cattle is despoiled by Odysseus’ men and they are punished for their
sacrilege.
POLYPHEMUS
He is a one-eyed giant Cyclops who holds Odysseus and his men captive in a cave. He is the son of
Poseidon.
POSEIDON (Latin – NEPTUNE)
He is the younger brother of Zeus and god of the sea and earthquakes. Poseidon bears Odysseus a grudge
because he blinded his son Polyphemus. Because Odysseus has to travel home by ship, he is at the mercy
of this god’s wrath. Despite the obstacles he puts in Odysseus’ path, he overcomes all these challenges and
in doing so, Odysseus becomes a favorite of the other gods, and therefore Poseidon’s hatred of Odysseus
mellows.
SCYLLA
This is a six-headed sea monster that lives in a cavern in the Strait of Messina where there is also a
whirlpool that drives ships within reach of her lair. She was once a beautiful sea-nymph who was loved by
Zeus and Poseidon, but was changed by the jealous Circe into a snapping monster. She manages to kill six
of Odysseus’ crew as he passes through the Straits.
THE SIRENS
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These were beautiful sea-nymphs who charmed sailors by their alluring songs. Odysseus has to sail past
these temptresses, and he has his men stop their ears with wax. He is bound to the mast so that he can
hear their magical song without being lured away.
ZEUS (Latin – JUPITER)
He is the father of the gods and King of Olympus, and he tries to act in a neutral manner concerning the
affairs of the mortals. It is he that gives Athena permission to help Odysseus to return home.
THE ODYSSEY
BOOK 1 – ATHENA AND TELEMACHUS
Summary
All the survivors of the Trojan War have at last arrived safely home with the exception of Odysseus.
He is being detained by the nymph Calypso who wishes to marry him. He has the sympathy of the gods
with the exception of Poseidon, who bears him a grudge and wishes to torment him.
In Poseidon’s absence, Zeus calls a divine council on Mount Olympus. One of their main concerns has been
the recent murder of Agamemnon by his wife Clymestra and her lover Aegisthus.
Athena interrupts her father and again reminds him of poor Odysseus. Zeus agrees that he should now be
allowed to return home, and so he sends Hermes to Calypso to order her to free Odysseus, and he gives his
daughter leave to go and see Odysseus’ son.
When Athena arrives at Ithaca, she finds Odysseus’ home overrun with suitors seeking to marry Odysseus’
wife Penelope who they believe is now a widow. Athena assumes the disguise of Mentor, an old friend of
Odysseus and who is, therefore, welcomed by Telemachus. Athena confirms that Odysseus is still alive and
that he will return home to punish the suitors and recognize his son. Athena advises Telemachus to sail for
Pylos and Sparta to learn more about his father. She says it is time for Telemachus to face his
responsibilities. Telemachus returns to the banquet of the suitors and orders them to leave the hall. They
are surprised at his sudden manliness, but they ignore him and continue their feasting. Telemachus retires
and considers his impending journey.
BOOK 2 – THE ASSEMBLY
Summary
Next day, Telemachus calls the men of Ithaca to an assembly, the first such meeting since Odysseus left for
Troy. He warns the suitors that they are wasting his father’s wealth and that Odysseus will return and
punish them severely.
The suitors respond by saying that it is Penelope’s fault, as she will not choose a husband thereby
preventing them from selecting other wives.
Just as the suitors prepare to mock Telemachus, two eagles of Zeus appear in the sky, a clear sign that he
has the favor of the gods. He tells the company of his proposal to take ship and seek news of Odysseus.
On his return he will either bring back his father or conduct a funeral ceremony.
At the seashore, Telemachus meets with Mentor (Athena), and they plan the journey to Pylos.
The suitors try to block Telemachus’ departure, but he leaves in the dead of night and obtains help from his
father’s faithful servants in obtaining supplies for the journey.
Whilst Telemachus is doing this, Athena now disguised as Telemachus, travels through the town obtaining a
crew for the ship.
Interpretation
The first thing the reader has to remember is that this story is 2,500 years old, it has suffered many
translations, and we are not seeing it in its original form.
Like The Iliad, The Odyssey was designed to be heard in public. It was part song, part play, and part poem.
That is why it is so dramatic. The dialogue is almost entirely constructed out of speeches, which would
have been accompanied by the actions of the actors.
The Odyssey is in contrast to The Iliad. It is less structured and has a much softer style. The Iliad revolves
around the battlefield outside Troy and on the ships of the Greeks, whereas The Odyssey moves over
several locations starting in the land of Ithaca, and then taking us to the mythical islands and coasts of
Odysseus’ adventure, including the underworld itself.
In addition to this, there are two further planes – the mortals’ world, and Mount Olympus home of the gods.
These two plains are linked by the fact that the gods visit the mortals, usually in disguise. The main god
who does this is Athena, and although Poseidon rarely visits the mortals, he has many emissaries to act on
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his behalf. These transitions for the gods can be quite surprising, whether they are from place to place, or
from god to human, and sometimes the transfer takes place in mid-verse, which can often be disconcerting
for the reader.
Book 1 opens thus:
“Goddess of Song, teach me the story of a hero.
This was the man of wide-ranging spirit who had sacked the sacred town of Troy and who wandered
afterwards long and far. Many were those whose cities he viewed and whose minds he came to know,
many the troubles that vexed his heart as he sailed the seas, laboring to save himself and to bring his
comrades home.”
This tells the listener what is in store for Odysseus and what his history has been. The above passage
represents the translation from Greek, and the conversion into prose.
BOOK 3 – TELEMACHUS AND NESTOR
Summary
Telemachus arrives at Pylos where he finds King Nestor making a sacrifice to Poseidon on the beach.
Telemachus asks the King for news of his father, Odysseus, and the old King takes the opportunity to
recount the Trojan expedition.
When the City fell, there was a dispute between Agamemnon and his brother Menelaus and the two
returned home separately with the army divided.
Odysseus had left Troy with King Nestor, but after a while, he decided to leave and return to Agamemnon –
that was the last that Nestor saw of Telemachus’ father.
The storm sent by the gods blew Menelaus’ squadron to Egypt, and perhaps he knows more about
Odysseus, for Odysseus never returned with Agamemnon who has since been murdered by his wife and her
lover.
Next day, Nestor gives Telemachus a chariot so that he can travel to Sparta and speak with Menelaus.
BOOK 4 – TELEMACHUS AND MENELAUS
Summary
Telemachus and Peisistratus, Nestor’s youngest son, arrive at the palace of Menelaus, and not surprisingly,
another great feast is in progress. The celebration is in honor of the King’s son and daughter who are both
being wed shortly. They are welcomed warmly by the court of Menelaus and are given seats of honor.
Although Menelaus does not know who they are, they are made very welcome.
Queen Helen joins the company and immediately notices the resemblance between Telemachus and
Odysseus, and so his identity is established.
The King and Helen pay tribute to the exploits of Odysseus at the siege of Troy.
In the morning, Menelaus has a private meeting with Telemachus, who explains the situation at Ithaca and
the desire for knowledge of his father.
Menelaus met Proteus, the old man of the sea, when he was in Egypt and he was able to obtain information
including the fact that Odysseus was alive and detained on the distant island of the nymph Calypso.
Menelaus gives Telemachus many valuable gifts.
Back on Ithaca, Telemachus’ departure is discovered by the suitors and they prepare a ship of their own in
order to find the Prince and kill him when he returns. Penelope learns of her son’s departure, is grieved,
and locks herself in a room.
Athena, in the guise of Penelope’s sister, appears to her in a dream to reassure her of Telemachus’ safety.
Interpretation
We see quite a complex plot, which is perhaps harder to understand by reading than it would have been for
the ancient audiences who would be viewing the action on a stage. It is easier to visually identify with a
character than it is to remember his name only.
We also see how involved the gods are with the lives of the mortals, and in particular Athena. She regards
Odysseus and his son as her protégés, and in doing so, she is in direct conflict with Poseidon. Whereas
Poseidon uses a more direct route, which will be shown later, Athena uses subtlety, disguising herself as
mortals and providing Telemachus with important advice and also comforting Penelope.
The first 4 Books and the final 10 Books frame Odysseus’ voyage and his adventures during the ten years
he was adrift.
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BOOK 5 – ODYSSEUS LEAVES CALYPSO
Summary
Returning to Olympus, Athena once more brings the question of Odysseus to the attention of Zeus. He
finally relents and sends Hermes, the messenger of the gods, to Calypso ordering her to release Odysseus.
She had hoped to make him her husband.
When Hermes arrives, he finds a distraught Odysseus pining for his family. Hermes orders Calypso to
release Odysseus and she is dismayed by this news, but knows she cannot stand against Zeus.
Hermes returns to Olympus and Calypso tells Odysseus that she will now help him to return to Ithaca. He is
somewhat surprised at the nymph’s change of heart. She makes ready a small boat for Odysseus amply
stocked with provisions.
You will recall that this decision by Zeus was made when Poseidon was absent, and he whips up a tempest
and Odysseus’ small boat is capsized and he is left struggling to keep afloat in the boiling sea.
Athena asks the sea nymph Leucothoie to save Odysseus, and he is able to make landfall in the country
occupied by the Phaeacians. Exhausted, Odysseus sleeps in an olive grove.
BOOK 6 – ODYSSEUS AND NAUSICAA
Summary
The King of the Phaeacians is Alcinous and he has a beautiful daughter called Nausicaa.
Athena appears to her in a dream and encourages her to go down to the river in order to wash the family
clothing. This will give a sign to the eligible young men that she is a potential capable wife. In the morning
she goes to the river with her attendants and she discovers Odysseus naked and dirty, hiding in the bushes.
Nausicaa’s attendants run in terror at the sight of this hairy man, but the Princess, showing courage, stands
her ground. She immediately realizes from Odysseus’ cultured speech that he is of noble birth, and she
provides him with assistance. After he has bathed himself in the river, she provides him with some fresh
clothing and they return to the palace.
Nausicaa is immediately impressed by Odysseus and considers that he would make a suitable husband.
Before reaching the palace, she leaves Odysseus as it would not be protocol for her to return with a
stranger, but she provides him with instructions of how to find the palace.
BOOK VII – ODYSSEUS AND KING ALCINOUS
Summary
As Odysseus approaches the palace, he is welcomed by Athena disguised as a young girl, who provides him
with information concerning the King and Queen. There is a great feast taking place in the palace and
Odysseus enters, and kneeling before Queen Arete, he begs aid in order to return to his home. The King
and Queen advise Odysseus that they will assist him and he is duly fed and welcomed. The King does not
interrogate the stranger, putting this off until he has had a good night’s sleep.
The next day, Odysseus has a private audience with the King and Queen and he recounts his story since
leaving Troy, until his detention by the nymph Calypso on the island of Ogygia.
The Queen notices that Odysseus is wearing some of her son’s clothes and so Odysseus tells of his
encounter with Nausicaa. King Alcinous promises to provide Odysseus with a ship and crew.
BOOK VIII – ODYSSEUS AND THE GAMES
Summary
Odysseus is still recovering from his shipwreck, but attends the feast and games organized by his hosts.
One of the entertainers is a blind minstrel who sings about the Trojan Wars. This brings back bitter
memories for Odysseus and his host notices that he is moved. The King suggests that they move outside in
order to observe athletic competitions including running, boxing and wrestling.
One of the young athletes taunts Odysseus for not participating in the games and he surprises the company
by hurling the discus further than anyone had done before, and he challenges anyone present to take him
on in any activity. The company is impressed by Odysseus’ prowess; the Phaeacians are a nation proud of
their athleticism.
Odysseus receives many valuable gifts from the Chieftains present.
The King then asks the stranger for an account of his adventures and he tells them that he is Odysseus,
King of Ithaca.
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BOOK IX – THE VOYAGE OF ODYSSEUS
Cicones, Lotus Eaters and Polyphemus
Summary
After leaving Troy, Odysseus and his squadron of ships raided the land of the Cicones. This proved to be a
disastrous campaign and they suffered heavy losses.
Leaving this country, they were still faced with a severe storm and they eventually made land in Lotophagi
(the Lotus eaters). This is a strange country, but the inhabitants appeared friendly and they encouraged
Odysseus’ crew to eat of the lotus, a local plant. Those that consumed this flower lost all memory of home
and loyalty. Odysseus along with some of his men who had not been exposed to the plant was hard
pressed to rescue the seamen who had been affected by this narcotic.
They hastily left Lotophagi and traveling west, they arrived at the land of the Cyclops, a barbarous race of
one-eyed giants. In search of provisions, Odysseus and a small band of twelve men went ashore and they
found a huge cave clearly belonging to a shepherd, and they went inside to await the owner. The cave’s
owner was Polyphemus, the son of Poseidon, who was famous for his taste for human flesh. When he
returned, he drove his flock of large sheep into the cave and sealed the entrance with a huge stone door.
When Polyphemus discovered Odysseus and his men in his cave, he immediately devoured two of them.
In defiance of Zeus, Polyphemus intended to consume all the men and ate a further two in the morning.
Odysseus and his men were trapped for they did not have enough strength to move the stone door. In
order to save the situation, Odysseus would have to call on his cunning again and he devised a plan.
That evening, he engaged Polyphemus in conversation and induced the Cyclops to consume so much wine
that he fell into a drunken sleep. Odysseus’ men had already sharpened a pole, and whilst Polyphemus
slept, they blinded him. The giant screamed with pain and rage, but he could not find his assailants.
Before the giant had passed out, Odysseus had told the dull-witted giant that his name was ‘Nobody’.
Hearing Polyphemus screaming, the other Cyclops came to his aid, but when he told them that ‘Nobody’
was responsible, they assumed that this was the work of the gods and left him.
Next day, the Cyclops opened up the cave to allow his sheep to graze and Odysseus and his men escaped
by clinging to the underside of the sheep to avoid detection.
As Odysseus left the shores of this land, he shouted out to the Cyclops that his name was Odysseus.
Polyphemus called out to his father Poseidon to avenge this deed.
BOOK X – THE VOYAGE CONTINUES …
Aeolus, The Laestrygonians, and Circe
Summary
Odysseus arrives at the island of Aeolus, the King of the Winds, and they receive a warm welcome.
They are able to replenish their supplies and renew their strength for they are only ten days sail from
Ithaca. As a parting gift, Aeolus gives Odysseus a large leather bag which contains all the winds that if free,
would drive them off course.
Within sight of Ithaca, there is some dissent among Odysseus’ crew. They have wrongly assumed that he
possesses valuable treasures from Aeolus, and they carelessly rip open the bag, setting free all the winds.
The gale blows the ships back from whence they have come and Aeolus is angry with Odysseus and forbids
him to come to his island again.
They are now becalmed and are forced to use the oars. Eventually they land on an island inhabited by
cannibals who are the Laestrygonians. All Odysseus squadron of ships are sunk save his, and they suffer a
severe onslaught from the cannibals.
Distraught, Odysseus arrives at the island of Aeaea, the home of the goddess Circe. He makes a camp on
the shore and he sends half of his men to explore the island under the command of Eurylochus. When he
returns, he tells of a lavish villa where a strange beautiful woman lives where her servants entertained
them. However, they were all turned into swine, but Eurylochus was able to escape. Odysseus is
determined to rescue his crew and on his way to the centre of the island he meets a young nobleman who
is Hermes in disguise. He gives Odysseus a magic herb that will protect him.
When Odysseus meets Circe her spells have no power over him and he overcomes her and she returns his
men to human form. Being a goddess, she recognizes Odysseus and had foreseen his arrival on her island.
The two become lovers and they remain on the island for a year.
The crew soon becomes anxious to return home and Circe agrees to help them, but she cannot guarantee
them a safe voyage home and suggests they go to Hades, the land of the dead, and obtain the advice of
the prophet Tiresias.
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BOOK XI – THE VOYAGE CONTINUES …
Hades, the Edge of the World
Summary
Following the instructions provided by Circe, Odysseus arrives at Hades where he makes a sacrifice of a ram
and a black ewe. The blood attracts the dead souls out of Hades and eventually Tiresias arrives, the blind
seer. After drinking some of the blood, he tells Odysseus that he has dangers still to face and that when he
arrives at Ithaca, he will be unknown and friendless. In order to live out a tranquil life, he will need to
appease Poseidon.
Odysseus then converses with other dead souls, including his mother who had died after he left for Troy,
Agamemnon, and Achilles. There were many other dead souls there, but this oppressive place caused
Odysseus to flee back to his ship.
BOOK XII – THE VOYAGE CONTINUES …
The Sirens, Scylla and Charybdis, and the Cattle of Hyperion
Summary
Odysseus and his men return to Circe again, who provides them with further supplies and gives them more
instructions regarding the final leg of their journey.
The first obstacle is the island of the Sirens. These women are irresistible to men and attract unsuspecting
sailors with their songs. They are lured onto hidden reefs surrounding the islands where many have been
wrecked over the years. Odysseus orders his men to plug their ears with wax so that they will be immune,
but he wishes to hear the song and orders them to lash him to the mast. They pass the danger unscathed.
The next challenge is a two-fold horror of Scylla, a six-headed monster who sits on a cliff at a narrow pass
below which lies a fierce whirlpool called Charybdis. To avoid the whirlpool, the ship has to pass below
Scylla, and despite a severe fight, six of the crew are lost to the monster.
To recuperate from this ordeal, the ship lands on an island where Hyperion, the sun god, keeps his cattle.
They are then becalmed and cannot leave the island, but Odysseus is unable to control his men who
slaughter some of the cattle for a meal. Odysseus had received warnings from both Tiresias and Circe to
leave the divine cattle alone, but the actions of his crew incur the wrath of all the gods, and when they
finally leave the island, Zeus destroys the ship killing the entire crew.
Odysseus spends nine days adrift in the sea and is eventually washed ashore on Ogygia, the home of
Calypso. Here he remains for seven years until his release is ordered by Zeus.
Interpretation
This section of the book deals with Odysseus’ journey from Troy to Ithaca, which takes ten years.
These Books represent the climax of the epic poem, but you will note that Book 5 relates to a position
three-quarters the way through Odysseus’ voyage. You must remember that in its original form, this poem
was meant to be heard, not read, and that the audience would be well aware of the plot. The reason for
starting in the ‘middle’ of the voyage is to immediately gain the audience’s attention.
Odysseus is about to leave Calypso’s island and we do not learn what happens before this time until many
books later. This method allows the use of flashbacks and, therefore, gives the story a more striking effect,
which method is still used today in the motion picture industry. The emphasis is not so much on the
content, but on its presentation, as the general outline of the story is already known to the audience. The
poem, therefore, entertains us by the way it tells the story. The author is not able to develop suspense or
provide the audience with a surprise ending. The focus is on the interpretation of the tale which is
surrounded by known events and characters.
If we look at the episode with Circe where the enchantress has turned some of Odysseus’ crew into swine,
Odysseus is immune to her spells and she tries to tempt him. In Alexander Pope’s translation of 1725, we
read
“Ill fits it me, whose friends are sunk to beasts,
to quaff thy bowls, or riot in thy feasts.
Me woulds’t thou please? For them thy cares employ,
and them to me restore, and me to joy.
With that, she parted: In her potent hand
She wore the virtue of the magic wand.
Then hast’ning to the styes set wide the door,
urg’d forth, and drove the bristling herd before;
unwieldly, out they rush’d, with gen’ral cry,
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enormous beasts dishonest to the eye.
Now touch’d by counter-charms they change again,
and stand majestic, and recall’d to me.”
We obtain a flavour of the original poem from this translation, and this represents more of a narration which
spaces out the speeches made by the characters.
Again, remembering that this is a visual performance, when characters speak, they do so in the form of a
speech – full of drama and actions.
We also get an insight into the main hero, Odysseus. He is a man’s man who has his faults that the
common man can relate to. True, he is intelligent and transmits a strong physical presence, but he is still a
man, and enjoys the vices that life provides. He wants to enjoy what the goddess has to offer, but his
conscience prevents him doing so whilst his men are reduced to being swine. He tells the goddess that he
will submit to her charms provided she restores his men.
When they are transformed back to human form, we read
“They saw, they knew me, and with eager pace
clung to their master in a long embrace:
Sad, pleasing sight! With tears each eye ran o’er,
and sobs of joy re’echo’d thro’ the bow’r:
Ev’n Circe wept, her adamantine (impenetrable) heart
felt pity enter and sustain’d her part.”
Homer uses two devices in his poem – the epithet and the simile, both techniques provide additional
description or identification. The epithet is normally attached to a ‘thing’ or a ‘person’ to aid in its
identification and description, e.g. ‘bright-eyed Athena’, ‘wine-dark sea’, ‘divine Calypso’ and so forth.
Sometimes it is used to bring irony or sarcasm to the dialogue, e.g. ‘brave Antinous’, who is in fact a
coward. This helps keep the audience’s attention and provides humour.
Modern works use this to less effect because the reader does not require the same level of description, as
most modern works are designed for reading.
The simile is used to liken one thing or an individual to something else, e.g.
“Laertes recognised his son and, weak at the knees
dizzy, flung his arms around the neck of great Odysseus
who drew the old man fainting to his breast and held him there
and cradled like driftwood the bones of his dwindling father.”
Or
“Odysseus, seeing the need for whitewash and disinfectant,
fumigated the house and the outhouses, so that Hermes
like a clergyman might wave the supernatural baton
with which he resurrects or hypnotizes those he chooses,
and waken and round up the suitors’ souls, and the housemaids’,
like bats gibbering in the nooks of their mysterious cave
when out of the clusters that dangle from the rocky ceiling
one of them drops and squeaks, so their souls were bat-squeaks
as they flittered after Hermes, their deliverer who led them” (to Hades)
As you can see, some of these similes are quite long. They normally start with ‘like’ or ‘as’, and you have to
imagine what actions the actors make when delivering the speech.
We have touched on the part played in the poem by the gods and other supernatural forces, but at the end
of the day, it is the mortals who significantly influence the development of the plot.
Homer recognizes that Odysseus is no match for Poseidon, so to create a balance, Athena takes a large role
in the play, together with other characters such as Circe.
The main use of the gods by Homer is to respond to actions by the mortals and in particular to punish them
for misbehavior. The moral is that mortals will be punished when they show greed, avarice, jealousy, or if
they disobey a particular rule laid down by the gods. These are normally imparted to mortals through
prophets and seers. It is when mortals ignore these visions of the future that they are in peril of retribution.
During these Books we also learn of the fate of Agamemnon and his murder at the hands of Clytemnestra
and her lover Aegistheus. He was murdered while bathing and apparently his wife threw a large net over
him twisting it round his body whilst her lover slew him with his axe. There is conjecture that Homer
composed an epic poem concerning this hero, but this unfortunately is lost to us. This story of
Clytemnestra is specifically mentioned so as to provide a contrast with the virtuous Penelope. Although
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Agamemnon’s return home was far quicker than that of Odysseus, it is the latter that will enjoy a full and
happy life, while Agamemnon is soon escorted to Hades. Clytemnestra was killed by her son Orestes.
At this stage, the reader now has an understanding of Homer’s style, which is still clear despite the elapse
of time and translation. Again going back to the fact that this would be a visual experience, Homer carefully
constructs a distinct personality for each character. He never judges the characters, leaving this to the
audience. It is, however, noticeable that he provides each character with a sympathetic side. No portrayal
is totally evil or totally good.
The poem is a true reflection of life as it was 2,500 years ago, and still is today. Homer presents a world
where there is cruelty and barbarism, but also beauty and love. He does not overly romanticize this world
and he does not feel the need to over-embellish the characters and locations.
The poem has stood the test of time because of its subject matter and its ability to stir the imagination of
the audience.
It is apparent that Homer held all life as sacred and even characters such as Polyphemus arouse a sense of
pity in the audience when he is left blinded and ridiculed by his peers.
BOOK XIII – RETURN TO ITHACA
Summary
The Phaeacians are sympathetic towards Odysseus regarding his trials, and they shower additional gifts on
him. A large crowd assembles at the docks to wish Odysseus a good voyage home.
Odysseus has been provided with a superb crew and a speedy ship.
Close to home, he falls into a deep sleep and the Phaeacians land at a deserted cove on Ithaca. There they
take the sleeping hero ashore with all his gear and quietly leave.
Poseidon is angered that Odysseus has returned home and avenges himself on the Phaeacians by causing
their ship to turn into a large rock when it re-enters its home port.
When Odysseus awakes, he at first does not recognize his homeland and fears he has been marooned, but
a young shepherd who is Athena in disguise advises Odysseus that he is home. She then reveals herself to
him and helps Odysseus hide his property and provides news concerning his wife and son Telemachus.
Odysseus still has much to do in regaining his estate and Athena suggests he adopts the disguise of an old
beggar. He travels to a small farm owned by Eumaeus, a faithful servant of Odysseus, whilst Athena goes
to Sparta to bring Telemachus home.
BOOK XIV – ODYSSEUS AND EUMAEUS
Summary
The farmer welcomes the beggar kindly and provides him with food.
Eumaeus recounts the recent history of Ithaca and how his mistress, Penelope, is besieged by suitors who
are slowly consuming the wealth of the estate. He stays loyal to his master’s memory, but many believe
Odysseus to be dead.
The beggar describes himself as a veteran of the Trojan campaign and that he knew Odysseus personally
during the war.
BOOK XV – TELEMACHUS RETURNS HOME TO ITHACA
Summary
Athena had appeared to Telemachus in a dream telling him to return home, but to be wary of an ambush
organized by some of his mother’s suitors.
The next day, Telemachus advises King Menelaus that he must return home, and the King gives him many
gifts, and Telemachus travels back by chariot to Pylos to board his ship.
A fugitive named Theoclymenus requests passage back to Ithaca. Telemachus agrees.
He arrives safely back at Ithaca, but he has gone ashore early in order to make his way to the farm of
Eumaeus as instructed by Athena. The crew takes the ship to the port at Ithaca and Telemachus tells his
crew to treat Theoclymenus well.
Odysseus and Eumaeus have had long conversations and Odysseus has learned how his wife, father and
son have fared over the years.
BOOK XVI - FATHER AND SON
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Summary
Telemachus is welcomed warmly by Eumaeus, who introduces Odysseus, still disguised as an old beggar.
When they are alone, Athena restores Odysseus to his true appearance, and the two decide how to punish
the suitors. There are more than one hundred of them. It is agreed that Telemachus should return to the
palace and behave normally, and Odysseus will enter still in disguise. His presence must be kept a secret
from everybody.
The suitors are dismayed that Telemachus has evaded their ambush, and they discuss other methods
regarding his disposal.
BOOK XVII – ODYSSEUS ARRIVES IN THE CITY
Summary
Penelope is overjoyed at the safe return of her son.
She is eager to learn about his time spent with King Nestor and King Menelaus, and he tells her that
Odysseus is rumored to be alive on an island with the nymph Calypso.
Telemachus introduces Theoclymenus, who is a soothsayer, who advises that Odysseus is already here in
Ithaca, disguised. Penelope has her doubts.
Eumaeus and Odysseus embark for the city. On their way they meet a disloyal servant from the royal
household who hurls insults at Odysseus the beggar, and kicks him. Odysseus controls his temper, not
wishing to reveal himself, and Eumaeus defends our hero from further harm.
At the gateway of the palace, Odysseus sees his favorite hound Argus who is near death. He has pined for
his master for nineteen years. The old dog recognizes his master, whimpers, and then dies.
Odysseus arrives at the palace to witness the suitors gorging themselves at their usual banquet.
Telemachus gives leave for the beggar to beg food from the guests, and some are gracious to Odysseus,
but others revile him, and their leader Antinous throws a footstool at him.
Penelope asks Eumaeus about the stranger and wonders if he has any news of her husband. Odysseus
agrees to see her that night.
BOOK XVIII – THE SUITORS TORMENT ODYSSEUS
Summary
The suitors indulge in leisurely pursuits in the courtyard and another beggar, Irus, who has become a
favorite of the suitors arrives at the palace. He is a large man for a beggar and immediately begins to bully
Odysseus, to the amusement of the suitors. Irus threatens to kill Odysseus, for there is only room for one
beggar in Ithaca.
Antinous comes up with the suggestion that the two beggars should have a boxing match, and the winner
will receive awards. When Odysseus disrobes, they are amazed at his muscular body, and suddenly Irus is
not so keen to fight with this stranger. In the fight, Odysseus breaks the bully’s jaw and the suitors give
Odysseus prizes, and then they return for another feast in the hall.
One of the suitors, Amphinomous, has been particularly kind to Odysseus, and Odysseus tries to warn him
to leave, but the young man pays no attention.
Penelope addresses the suitors and she appears to them as a vision of beauty. Her appearance has been
enhanced by Athena. She chastises the suitors for continuing to exhaust the resources of her husband’s
estate. Some of the suitors have a twinge of conscience and they send for gifts to be brought to the Queen
from their homes or ships.
Odysseus is concerned to see that some of the maidservants have become mistresses of the suitors and he
is disappointed at their lack of loyalty.
With newfound confidence, Telemachus orders the suitors to leave the hall due to their unruly behavior, and
the suitors comply.
BOOK XIX – PENELOPE AND THE BEGGAR
Summary
Odysseus and Telemachus gather together all the weapons in the palace and secure them under lock and
key.
Odysseus waits in the hall for Penelope and receives further abuse from an insolent maid, but when
Penelope arrives she chastises the girl.
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Penelope and Odysseus talk and she reveals her deep-seated sorrow over the loss of her husband. She has
engaged in many tricks to repel the suitors, but time is now crucial and she will soon have to make a
decision.
The beggar tells his story and of his acquaintance with ‘Odysseus’. His tale strikes Penelope as being
genuine and he convinces Penelope that her husband is still alive and will arrive home soon.
Penelope orders her servants to attend the beggar, and she assigns the aged nurse Eurycleia to look after
Odysseus. As she washes him, she recognizes an old scar and knows that it is her master. Odysseus warns
her to keep his identity a secret.
Penelope returns to the beggar with a plan that may satisfy the suitors. She proposes that she will marry
anyone who can string Odysseus’ bow, and then fire an arrow through a straight line of twelve axes.
Odysseus agrees that this is a good plan, and he is sure that her husband will return and complete the
challenge.
CHAPTER XX – THE SUITORS RECEIVE THEIR FINAL WARNING
Summary
Odysseus spends a restless night worrying about the challenge and whether he will be victorious. Athena
appears to him and says that she will aid him in his struggle.
Next day, there is a feeling of foreboding in Ithaca. Zeus has sent signs in the form of thunder.
During this time, Odysseus observes his servants to establish who have remained loyal. Eumaeus arrives
together with the chief cowherd, Philoetius, another loyal servant.
The suitors have also been busy and have planned to assassinate Telemachus.
At lunch, Odysseus receives further abuse from the suitors, so much so, that Telemachus loses his temper
and lectures the suitors severely concerning their vices and bad behavior.
The soothsayer, Theoclymenus also stands up and warns the suitors that there have been ill omens today,
and that they will be punished for their mockery.
The suitors decide to ignore the warnings and revert to their drinking and debauchery.
CHAPTER VVI – THE BOW OF ODYSSEUS
Summary
Penelope enters the great hall with the bow of Odysseus and announces the challenge to the suitors.
The suitors accept the challenge and Telemachus digs a trench and aligns the twelve axes. He is curious to
see if he can match his father’s strength and attempts to string the bow, but is unsuccessful.
Odysseus reveals himself to Eumaeus and Philoetius and gives them orders regarding the disposal of the
suitors.
The suitors take it in turn to try and string the bow, but none are successful. The leader of the suitors
Antinous suggests that they are weakened by the excesses of the banquet and propose that they return
tomorrow and try again.
Odysseus steps forward requesting that he be allowed to attempt the challenge. The suitors refuse him,
but Penelope offers him the chance, but says that she will not marry him if he is successful.
Telemachus orders his mother and the other women to leave the hall and Eumaeus and Philoetius
unobserved, lock the gates of the palace and the doors of the hall.
Odysseus effortlessly strings the mighty weapon and expertly sends an arrow through the row of axes.
The suitors are aghast and Telemachus takes hold of his sword and joins his father.
BOOK XXII – THE SUITORS ARE SLAUGHTERED
Summary
Odysseus fires another arrow and kills Antinous much to the horror of the suitors who regard the old beggar
as a madman.
Odysseus reveals himself and the suitors try to blame their behavior on the dead Antinous, and they offer to
make good the loss to the estate.
Odysseus kills Eurymachus with the next arrow and the rest of the suitors panic because they have no
weapons to defend themselves with.
Odysseus’ bow sings as arrows whistle into the suitors killing an enemy with each strike.
Telemachus, with the two loyal servants, helps kill the suitors. Only Phemius the bard, and Medon are
spared.
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The disloyal women servants are then made to remove the corpses and clean the entire area, and are then
taken outside and hanged. Those other servants and workers on the estate that had abused Odysseus
were also executed.
BOOK XXIII – ODYSSEUS AND PENELOPE ARE REUNITED
Summary
The old nurse, Eurycleia, runs to her mistress to inform her of Odysseus’ return and revenge.
She comes down to the banquet hall to greet her husband who is still dressed in rags. At first she does not
recognize him.
Odysseus bathes and dresses himself in royal garments and the couple make up for the twenty wasted
years.
Athena delays the sunrise so that the amorous couple can have more time together.
In the morning, Odysseus sets out to see his father, Laertes.
BOOK XXIV – ODYSSEUS AND LAERTES
Summary
In Hades there is concern at the arrival of so many souls of leading noblemen, these being the dead suitors.
Agamemnon asks Amphinedon to tell the whole story, and they are impressed by the cunning and strength
of Odysseus, and the patience of Penelope.
Back at Ithaca, Odysseus greets his aged father and hopes again to see the land prosper.
There is some unrest in the land as vengeance is sought by some of the suitors’ families. A group of
dissidents arm themselves and set off for the farm of Laertes in order to spill blood.
Zeus, meantime, feels that the action taken by Odysseus is fully justified and that peace should be restored
to Ithaca. He gives his daughter full permission to ensure this happens.
Odysseus meets the party of dissidents and their leader is killed by the spear of Laertes and Odysseus and
Telemachus slay some of the rest, and the survivors flee.
Thunderbolts from Zeus reinforce Odysseus’ position, giving a clear message that any further revolt will be
against the gods’ wishes.
Odysseus continues his long reign as King.
Interpretation
Something that perhaps has not changed greatly over the centuries is the double standards regarding male
and female sexuality. It is quite permissible for Odysseus to engage in sexual encounters with Calypso and
Circe and others as well perhaps. This is part of the male make-up and does not diminish Odysseus’
presence, but perhaps enhances it. On the other hand, we have Penelope who has remained absolutely
faithful, repelling the advances of over one hundred suitors at her door. Odysseus never expresses any
doubt concerning his wife’s faithfulness, but the way in which he treats the suitors by slaughtering them
almost to a man would make you think that they had conducted themselves improperly in respect of
Penelope. Perhaps Odysseus considers that their mere presence in his palace is violation enough. His
revenge is certainly complete and we see a further facet to his character in the butchery that takes place in
the halls of his palace. We read from Alexander Pope’s translation of 1726,
“A ship’s tough cable, from a column hung;
near the high top he strain’d it strongly round,
whence no contending foot could reach the ground.
Their heads above, connected in a row,
they beat the air with their quiv’ring feet below:
thus on some tree hung struggling in the snare,
the doves or thrushes flap their wings in the air.
Soon fled the soul impure, and left behind
the empty corpse to waiver in the wind.”
These lines describe the hanging of the maids of the palace, which Odysseus clearly regarded as having
descended into the depths of prostitution and shame. Their infidelity has cost them dear, just as with
Agamemnon’s wife, Clytemnestra. She too met her death because of her unfaithfulness and murder of her
husband. It is clear that virtue and faithfulness were important characteristics of women in these times,
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and those women that possessed these qualities were revered by all honorable men, but those that have
brought shame on themselves faced the ultimate punishment.
In contrast to the brutality of the hanging of the maidservants, we have the touching scene when Odysseus
is reunited with his father, Laertes. We read from Walter Shewring’s 1980 translation,
“His father, caught in a sudden black cloud of grief, took the grimy dust in both hands and
scattered it over his horny head, sobbing passionately. Odysseus’ heart was stirred, and a keen
pang shot through his nostrils as he looked at his beloved father. He leaped forward and clasped
and kissed him and said: I am the man you are seeking, father; it is my very self that you see,
returning in the twentieth year to my own native land. Put aside your sorrow and tears and
lamentation. …… As for Laertes, his knees failed him; his heart melted, as he knew for truth the
undoubted tokens Odysseus gave him. He threw his arms around his dear son and well nigh
swooned as Odysseus clasped him close.”
Thus is demonstrated the scope of Homer’s genius. He deals with scenes of violence, adventure, and love
with equal intensity and tenderness.
You will note that Penelope hesitates in recognizing her long lost husband. It is almost as if she has got
into the habit of being without him, and has lost all hope that she will ever be reunited with him. We read
from Robert Fitzgerald’s translation of 1961,
“She turned then to descend the stair, her heart
in tumult. Had she better keep her distance
and question him, her husband? Should she run
up to him, take his hands, and kiss him now? ……
And she, for a long time, sat deathly still
in wonderment – for sometimes as she gazed
she found him – yes, clearly – like her husband,
but sometimes blood and rags were all she saw. ……
Telemachus says:
“What other woman could remain so cold?
Who shuns her lord, and he come back to her
from wars and wandering, after twenty years? ……
A smile came now to the lips of the patient hero, Odysseus,
who turned to Telemachus and said:
‘Peace: let your mother test me at her leisure.
Before long she will see and know me best.’”
Penelope is like a beautiful formidable mountain that many men have tried to conquer. Remember when
she appeared to the suitors her beauty was enhanced by Athena, but none of the suitors were able to come
close to conquering this mountain, and even Odysseus himself on his return has to scale the cliffs once
more before Penelope will be ultimately conquered. It is worth the struggle for apparently none of
Penelope’s and Odysseus’ passion has waned, and we learn that Athena delays the dawn so that the
reunited couple can extend their lovemaking.
Penelope used many devices to repel her suitors. She would not consider marriage until Telemachus had
reached adulthood, but her most famous ruse was the shroud that she was weaving for her father-in-law
Laertes. She said she would choose a husband when she completed the shroud, but every night she would
secretly unravel the day’s work, so the task would never be completed.
Homer’s writing has been a source of inspiration to writers down the ages. His techniques have been
studied at length and his style of narration copied in various forms.
His descriptive writing has also inspired the art world, and you can visit almost any Art Gallery in the world
and you will see classic paintings depicting scenes from Greek mythology. Some of the most famous
paintings are ‘The Birth of Venus’ (Aphrodite – Greek) by Botticelli 1482, ‘The Blinding of Polyphemus’ by
Fresco 1580, ‘Leda and Zeus in Guise of Swan’ by Leonardo da Vinci 1516 (Leda was Helen’s mother), and
‘Poseidon and his Chariot’ by Cavalori 1497, to name but a few. Likewise there have been many sculptors
who have drawn on the mythical world for inspiration. With the advent of film-making the stories of Homer
have been the subject matter of many films that brought new challenges to the special effects departments.
Homer’s work has been translated into many forms of art. You will see from our quotations that many
literary figures have tried to encapsulate the essence of Homer. Perhaps the complete picture can only be
obtained by referring to them all. This wolfnote has drawn on a few of the many sources in an attempt to
do this. Homer will remain a source of inspiration for future generations.
******
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QUESTIONS FOR STUDY and IDEAS FOR ANSWERS
Q:
‘The Odyssey’ and ‘The Iliad’ are epic poems. What defines them as such?
Ideas:
These works must not be confused with later poems, as ‘The Odyssey’ and ‘The Iliad’ were unwritten oral
art forms.
Another work that can be compared to these is ‘The Beowulf’’, a saga of Britain.
The ancient Greeks had numerous such epic poems, but unfortunately many are now lost to us. However,
‘The Iliad’ and ‘The Odyssey’ represent the finest examples of the polished epic poem. They have survived
the ages because of their sophistication and evocative content. They spark the imagination of young and
old alike.
It is safe to assume that what we know today about ‘The Odyssey’ is probably an edited version of the
original. At some stage when the work was being composed, it would probably have been written down,
but for many centuries it was observed and not read, and those companies or individuals performing ‘The
Odyssey’ would have added or subtracted from the original form.
All epic poems are based on history and events that had taken place in the past; therefore, generally
speaking, the audiences were aware of the general plot. Today we will go and see Shakespeare’s ‘Romeo
and Juliet’ not because we don’t know the story, but to see a particular interpretation of the plot. So it was
with ‘The Odyssey’ and ‘The Iliad’. Audiences went to see the interpretation of the story, and perhaps they
would see new scenes depending on what company was appearing.
Another source of entertainment provided by the epic poem was its construction, and much pleasure is
obtained from the actual technical structure of the poem, the rhyming and the metre.
Q:
It is evident that Homer places women into certain categories in ‘The Odyssey’. Please expand on
this.
Ideas:
There is definitely a set hierarchy regarding the female characters in ‘The Odyssey’.
At the bottom end of the scale, we have such as Clytemnestra and the disloyal maidservants, who were
looked on with contempt regardless of their station. Socially they represent the two extremes of mortal
women, but their fate is the same because they were in one way or another, unfaithful.
Next, we have those like Penelope and Queen Arete, who were pillars of virtue and in particular Penelope
who stays faithful to her husband despite his absence for twenty years. However, her role in ‘The Odyssey’
is passive, and she really doesn’t contribute to advancing the storyline. That is why she is not the heroine
of the story.
Further up the scale we have Helen, Circe and Calypso. These are supernatural beings and although their
morals are to say the least questionable, this is permitted because they are always in control of the
situation. They are not seduced. They seduce. One might refer to them as being feminine, but having all
the advantages that mortal males would have.
At the very top of Homer’s hierarchy, we have Athena, plus the other virtuous goddesses. So far as ‘The
Odyssey’ is concerned, Athena is the only goddess and she is, therefore, the heroine of the story as she
comes down from Mount Olympus and walks with the mortals, especially Odysseus and to a lesser extent,
Telemachus. Her relationship with Odysseus is platonic. She understands his needs and she is almost like a
surrogate mother to him. You will note that Odysseus has lost his own mother. Homer stresses the fact
that Athena is virtuous.
Q:
Odysseus is regarded as ‘the complete hero’. Why is this?
Ideas:
Odysseus can be described as a combination of Achilles, Jason and Perseus.
Achilles was renowned for his barbarism as well as his prowess on the battlefield.
Jason was known for his sense of adventure and his bravery. He was a leader of men and was able to
persuade his crew to follow him into dangerous situations.
Perseus was perhaps not as adept in the physical pursuits, but he used cunning in order to obtain the head
of the Gorgon, Medusa.
Odysseus shows his barbarism by the way in which he hangs the maidservants in his hall.
He shows his skill in fighting when he kills the suitors who greatly outnumber him.
He shows his athleticism by matching the youths at the games held outside the palace of King Alcinous and
Queen Arete.
Of course he more than matches the voyages of Jason with his own epic trials whilst trying to return home
to Ithaca.
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By and large his crew is faithful to him, and he doesn’t let them down when the enchantress turns some
into swine.
He shows his cunning by suggesting the use of the wooden horse to defeat the Trojans, and by his plan to
escape from Polyphemus.
All these heroes have one thing in common – they were sponsored by Athena.
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