Prof. Bruno Pierri
History of Italian Foreign policy
Giolitti’s Italy and the Italo-Turkish
War
April 8th, 2014
Relations with Austria-Hungary
1)
2)
3)
Resumption of irredentist feeling due to unjust
treatment of Italian minorities in Habsburg
Empire
Austro-Russian entente of Balkans due to:
Austrian determination to prevent Italian
ingerence in Balkans
Russia committed in Far East – war lost
against Japan
1903 Austro-Russian programme for reforms
in Macedonia, together with Turkish officers
Italian fears of extension of Austrian influence
on Albania
Austro-Russian Entente
Oct 1904: Pact of Neutrality in case one
of the two involved in war against other
power alone and without any
provockation
Vienna predicted possibility of war
against Italy
Russia safeguarded herself towards West
while at war with Japan, allied with UK
Italian Govt does not receive any
communication about pact with Russia
Entente Cordiale
Germany disliked Italian diplomacy since
Italy was trying to rapproach France
Berlin aimed at keeping intact Triple
Alliance as a challenge and defence
against Anglo-French Entente Cordiale
1904
Colonial controversies sorted out: Britain
free hand in Egypt, France free hand in
Morocco
Franco-British Declaration, 1904
His Britannic Majesty's Government declare that they
have no intention of altering the political status of Egypt
The Government of the French Republic declare that they
will not obstruct the action of Great Britain in that country
The Government of the French Republic declare that they
have no intention of altering the political status of
Morocco
His Britannic Majesty's Government recognise that it
appartains to France to preserve order in that country,
and to provide assistance for the purpose of all
administrative, economic, financial , and military reforms
They declare that they will not obstruct the action taken
by France for this purpose, provided that such action shall
leave intact the rights which Great Britain, in virtue of
treaties, conventions, and usage, enjoys in Morocco
Secret Articles
His Britannic Majesty's Government have no present intention of
proposing to the Powers any changes in the system of the
Capitulations, or in the judicial organisation of Egypt.
In the event of their considering it desirable to introduce in Egypt
reforms tending to assimilate the Egyptian legislative system to
that in force in other civilised Countries, the Government of the
French Republic will not refuse to entertain any such proposals, on
the understanding that His Britannic Majesty's Government will
agree to entertain the suggestions that the Government of the
French Republic may have to make to them with a view of
introducing similar reforms in Morocco.
The two Governments agree that a certain extent of Moorish
territory adjacent to Melilla, Ceuta, and other presides should,
whenever the Sultan ceases to exercise authority over it, come
within the sphere of influence of Spain, and that the administration
of the coast from Melilla as far as, but not including, the heights on
the right bank of the Sebou shall be entrusted to Spain.
First Moroccon Crisis
Expansion of French sphere of influence on
Morocco
This was in contrast with Madrid Convention
1880, claiming equal rights in the area for all
contracting parties
William II in Tangeri 31.03.1905 to defend
German trading interests: defence of open door
Kaiser’s landing provocked more resentment in
London than in Paris
No one wanted to fight against most powerful
army in Europe: negotiated solution ideal for
everyone
Madrid Convention
International conference summoned in Madrid
in summer 1880 worked out a universal
convention on the capitulation system in
Morocco
Besides capitulations, Europeans pressed for
the right to buy land and own real estate in
Morocco
Madrid Convention granted this right to all the
capitulation Powers of Europe
Conference of Algeciras
End of crisis Jan 1906
France did everything to aim as much as
possibile at the idea of protectorate on
Morocco
Italy in a difficult position, since she had
stipulated contracts with France
(Morocco and Libya), beside those she
already had with Triple Alliance
Agreement provided international
management of police, finance, taxation
system, public works and services of
Morocco through France
Renewal of Triple Alliance
1907 renewal necessary to avoid war
Italy-Austria: either war or alliance
Italy reached colonial and commercial
agreements with France, Russia and
Britain on Eastern Africa: good relations
with Entente Powers
Anglo-Russian Entente 1907
The Governments of Great Britain and Russia
mutually engage to respect the integrity and
independence of Persia, as well as the
permanent establishment of equal advantages
for the trade and industry of all other nations
Russia, on her part, engages not to oppose,
without previous arrangement with Great
Britain, the grant of any Concessions whatever
to British subjects in the regions of Persia
Great Britain undertakes a similar engagement
as regards the grant of Concessions to Russian
subjects
British Oil company had acquired concession in
1901: oil discovered in 1908
Bosnian Crisis
1908 Bosnia-Herzegovina annexed to Habsburg
Empire
Bulgaria declared independence from Ottoman Empire
Formally Bosnia-Herzegovina was still part of
Ottoman Empire, though Austrian Protectorate
Serbia could still hope to join her territory to that of
Bosnia
German hostility towards Russia implied an attempt
of reconciliation with Britain and France: 9 feb 1909
agreement through which Germany recognised French
political supremacy on Morocco, while France
committed not to harm German economic interests in
same area
Vienna reached agreement for recognition of
annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, but Serbia did not
accept it
German Ultimatum to Russia, which thus accepted
annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina
Italian Position
Austria-Italy Talks:
«[...] Tittoni has not hesitated to precisely declare me that
Bosnia-Herzegovina belonged to us and that we had Italy’s
signature for our right on these provinces. [...] the Triple
Alliance Treaty was stipulated four years later the
occupation and clearly says that territorial compensations
should be gained only if one or the other of the contracting
parties temporarily or definitively occupied a Turkish
country»
Aehrenthal’s interpretation excluded that annexation of
Bosnia-Herzegovina had been an “occupation” (since the
province had already been occupied), thus Italy had no right
to any compensation in case of annexation
Tittoni wanted dissolution of Turkish Empire in favour of
national States, in order to avoid expansion of Turkish
influence
On the day of the annexation, Tittoni said that Italy could
quietly wait for events and that the Govt could show to
people that they had deserved their confidence. Instead,
when public opinion in Italy came to know that there was no
concession to Italy a sense of frustration spread
Accords of Racconigi 1909
A)
B)
C)
1)
2)
3)
4)
Triple Alliance allies did not know anything about this
Pact
Russia and italy aimed at undermining Austrian
expansion in the Balkans
Before outbreak of WWI, in order to expand her own
influence in Balkans, Italy pursued three strategies:
Policy of compensations, since there is always Triple
Alliance
Policy of nationality
Imperialistic or partition policy
Italo-Russian Agreements:
Preservation of status quo in Balkans
If this impossibile, implementation of nationality
principle
No agreement in the East without informing each other
Safeguarding of mutual interests in Straits and
Tripolitania
Second Moroccan Crisis
Giorge V: «To tell the truth, the French in Morocco did
not do any dissimilar from what the British had done in
Egypt. […] the only thing to do was accepting the fait
accomplì of the occupation and find a compromise with
France on trading guarantees».
1 July 1911: German warship Panther docked in Agadir
Bay
Threat to British trade in Atlantic: British reaction
Crisis worsened due to Berlin’s claim of French Congo
as an exchange of renunciation to interests in Morocco
With this crisis, London completed process of
rapproachment to Paris
4 nov 1911: agreement through which France had free
hand in Morocco and Germany received from French
two strips of land useful for trade along rivers Congo
and Ubangi
Italo-Turkish War
France and Britain controlled North Africa
The die was cast for Italy: occupation of Libya
Economic penetration in progress for years
Costantinople damages Italian projects and
favours German trading
France tempted to extend her influence along
whole African coast
Italian occupation became “urgent”
Italian allies and friends feared that ItaloTurkish war could further undermine Turkish
Empire, thus favouring formation of national
States influenced by Russia: better to cede
territory through negotiations
Italo-Turkish War
Declaration of war 29.09.1911
Austria started to think of prehemptive war against Italy
Austria censured military operations in Adriatic in order to
prevent sailing of Turkish ships (better to localise conflict)
As a matter of fact, no action taken to stop conflictneutrality necessary to gain Italian friendship
Occupation of Dodecanese Islands (Apr 1912) worried
Austria in view of conflict closer to Turkish coast
France and Britain aimed at Mediterranean entente with
Italy
Balkan complications: Spring 1912 Alliance Serbia-BulgariaGreece-Montenegro
8.10.1912: war on Turkey
18.10.1912 Peace of Lausanne and cession of Libya to Italy:
great powers’ immediate recognition
Renewal of Triple Alliance without extension to
Mediterranean