HYDROGEN
UNTAPPED ENERGY?
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Report author Olu Ajayi-Oyakhire BSc
Copyright © 2012, IGEM. All rights reserved
Registered charity number 214001
All content in this publication is, unless stated otherwise, the property of IGEM. Copyright laws protect this publication. Reproduction or retransmission in whole or in part,
in any manner, without the prior written consent of the copyright holder, is a violation
of copyright law.
Published by the Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers
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Table of contents
Foreword
4
Executive summary
5
1Introduction
6
2
Why do we need hydrogen in the energy system?
8
2.1.
Harnessing energy from unrestrained wind farms
8
2.2.
Harnessing energy from other renewable sources
11
2.3.
Energy security
12
2.4.
De-carbonising the power generation and transport sectors
13
3
What is the hydrogen economy?
15
3.1.
Production – sources of hydrogen
15
3.2.
Storing and distributing hydrogen
18
3.3.
Hydrogen utilisation
20
4
Current hydrogen activities
23
4.1.
What is going on in the UK?
23
4.2.
EU activities on hydrogen to date
29
4.3.
Global outlook
33
5
Hydrogen – where is the market for it?
35
5.1.
Potential market for automotive hydrogen applications
35
5.2.
Other niche markets for hydrogen
37
5.3.
Hydrogen in the gas industry
37
6
Hydrogen – how safe is it?
39
6.1.
Hydrogen properties and characteristics
39
6.2.
Regulations, codes and standards (RCS)
41
7
Summary of findings
44
8
Glossary of terms
45
9
Acknowledgements
46
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Foreward from IGEM
The Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers (IGEM) supports the government objective of developing a low carbon economy. In order to achieve a reduction of 80% of CO2 emissions by 2050 the development of the use of hydrogen and fuel
cell technology is seen as vital to a low energy economy.
The gas industry has a long history of responding to changes in the operating environment from the early days of gas lighting in 1792 when coal gas was first used through
to the highly developed gas distribution network we have today. The energy constituent of coal gas was hydrogen and the UK therefore operated the first hydrogen
network for 170 years before converting to natural gas in the late 1960’s. The development of hydrogen as a clean, sustainable low carbon fuel has a key part to play in
developing a healthier environment and in securing future energy supplies.
IGEM believes that the development of technologies utilising hydrogen is relevant to
all energy sectors including transport, buildings, industry and utilities but this can only
be achieved with the commitment of public and private sectors with government support on both a national and European level.
IGEM is aware that this will require major investment in terms of infrastructure for
transportation, hydrogen production technologies to integrate intermittent power
sources to the electrical grid, the use of fuel cell applications in buildings and the
development of the gas distribution network to transport hydrogen. However as the
technology improves and the use of these technologies increases, the economic viability of utilising hydrogen will be more sustainable.
We could see the use of lighting in the home going full circle with hydrogen providing
the fuel but instead of the light source being a naked flame as it was in 1792, it will
be provided by a fuel cell delivering electricity to illuminate a low energy light source.
Claire Curtis-Thomas CEng FIMechE FIET FCGI FRSA CIGEM
Chief Executive Officer
Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers
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Executive summary
1.
Hydrogen has potential applications across our future energy systems due particularly
to its relatively high energy weight ratio and because it is emission-free at the point of
use. Hydrogen is also abundant and versatile in the sense that it could be produced
from a variety of primary energy sources and chemical substances including water,
and used to deliver power in a variety of applications including fuel cell combined
heat and power technologies. As a chemical feedstock, hydrogen has been used for
several decades and such expertise could be fed back into the relatively new areas of
utilising hydrogen to meet growing energy demands.
2. The UK interest in hydrogen is also growing with various industrial, academic and
governmental organisations investigating how hydrogen could be part of a diverse
portfolio of options for a low carbon future. While hydrogen as an alternative fuel is
yet to command mass-appeal in the UK energy market, IGEM believes hydrogen is capable of allowing us to use the wide range of primary energy sources at our disposal
in a much greener and sustainable way.
3. IGEM also sees hydrogen playing a small but key role in the gas industry whereby
excess renewable energy is used to generate hydrogen, which is then injected into
the gas grid for widespread distribution and consumption. Various studies suggest
admixtures containing up to 10 – 50%v/v hydrogen could be safely administered into
the existing natural gas infrastructure. However, IGEM understands that this would
currently not be permissible under the Gas Safety (Management) Regulations (GS(M)
R) for gas conveyance here in the UK. Also, proper assessments of the risks associated with adding hydrogen to natural gas streams will need to be performed so that
such systems can be managed effectively.
4. IGEM has also identified a need for standards that cover the safety requirements of
hydrogen technologies, particularly those pertaining to installations in commercial
or domestic environments. IGEM also recommend that the technical measures used
to determine separation distances for hydrogen installations, particularly refuelling
stations, are re-assessed through a systematic identification and control of potential
sources of ignition.
5. Hydrogen has the potential to be a significant fuel of the future and part of a diverse
portfolio of energy options capable of meeting growing energy needs. This report,
therefore, seeks to demonstrate how hydrogen could be a potential option for energy
storage and power generation in a diverse energy system. It also aims to inform the
readers on the current state of hydrogen here in the UK and abroad. This report has
been assembled for IGEM members, interested bodies and the general public.
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1. Introduction
It will require a radical change in the way we utilise our depleting resources for heating, electricity generation and transport in order to meet challenging 2050 carbon
reduction targets of 80% in 1990 levels.1
There have been a number of strategies set out to meet our 80% reduction targets
which include using fossil fuel sources more sustainably and efficiently, encouraging commercialisation of innovative technologies, and deploying alternative energy
sources with the potential to generate clean power.2 Using fossil fuels efficiently will
involve deploying carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies but with the high
number of economic and legal hurdles that still need to be crossed, it will be a while
before CCS becomes the main carbon abatement technology.
Alternative energy sources can be derived from renewables - wind, solar, tidal, geothermal, and bio-fuels (such as biomass, biodiesel, bio-ethanol and biogas). Renewable
energy has tremendous potential but is limited mainly to electricity generation due
to the constraints associated with using renewable sources in other areas of energy
consumption such as transportation and heating. Energy arising from wind, waves and
solar sources can vary on a daily basis depending on weather conditions. There will
be occasions when the amount of energy being generated by these climate based
sources far exceeds the energy demand required on the day. Therefore the level of
energy produced may exceed the ability of the grid to absorb the level of energy
generated without causing grid stability issues.
Technology for storing electricity is well established in the form of batteries and
pumped storage however coupling renewable energy sources with electricity storage
requires long term storage capability (weeks or even months). To give an idea of the
scale, the energy density of batteries suitable for transport applications is typically
between 100 – 180 Wh/kg (Watt hour per kilogram) and such devices can cost up to
£25/kg.3
One alternative to battery storage is effectively storing and distributing energy in the
form of hydrogen. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of processes using different sources4 at an average cost of £1.90/kg.5 Provided there is access to clean water,
wind energy that would have otherwise been wasted can be used to generate
1
DECC accessed 03.11.11. Available at <http://www.decc.gov.uk/>.
2
HSE - Science & research, accessed 03.11.11. Now we’re cooking with gas (well hydrogen, actually!). Available at
<http://www.sro.hse.gov.uk/publicpages/ShowArticle.aspx?id=190>.
3
Calculated at an exchange rate of $1.57 (<www.xe.com> 13.08.12).
4
Interview with Mark Crowther – Managing Director at Gastech at CRE, 06.02.12.
5
Calculated at an exchange rate of $1.57 (<www.xe.com> 13.08.12).
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hydrogen via electrolysis. This hydrogen generated can then be converted back to
electricity by reacting it with air or oxygen in combustion engines or fuel cells (hydrogen energy density is around 33.6 kWh/kg). Hydrogen can also be stored in a number
of ways. Underground storage has been practised since the 1970’s and new capacity
(equivalent of 2.5% of annual UK energy use) has just been built in Texas, USA.
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2. Why do we need hydrogen in the energy system
2.1 Harnessing energy from unrestrained wind farms
“We have almost a quarter of Europe’s offshore wind and tidal resource, a tenth of its wave
energy potential and so we are determined to harness the opportunities that come from our
inclement weather” Fergus Ewing MSP, Scottish Minister for Energy, Enterprise and Tourism6
The UK is one of windiest countries in Europe and consequently wind energy is
considered in some quarters to be critical to enable us to reach our renewable energy
targets. Although the wind energy sector is yet to fully mature, project roll-outs have
gathered pace since the first (onshore) wind farm built at Delabole in 19917. The
report on Building a low carbon economy in the UK8 points out that onshore and
offshore wind resource together could deliver 30% of our electricity supply by 2020
and be part of a radical decarbonisation of the economy by 2030. However, certain
commentators consistently argue that the scale and pace of wind power development, incentivised by the Renewables Obligation (RO),9 exceeds the ability of the grid
system to integrate this sporadic energy source.
These wind power integration arguments have been backed up by recent events in
2011 when National Grid revealed that significant “constraint” payments (see Box 1 on
page 9)10 were made to a number of Scottish wind farms in April 2011. The Renewable Energy Foundation (REF)11 report that constraint payments were made because
in that instant, the Scottish electricity grid network could not cope with all the wind
energy being generated and chose to hold back the wind power input to the electricity system. Constraint payments get added to household bills and are ultimately paid
for by consumers, raising fears about the long-term suitability of wind power to meet
energy needs as Britain pushes for more wind farms.12
6
4th World Hydrogen Technologies Convention (WHTC ’11), Glasgow, Scotland. 14.09.11. Opening plenary session.
7
Environmental Change Institute, University of Oxford 2005, accessed 03.11.11. Wind power and the UK wind resource. Avail-
able at http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/publications/downloads/sinden05-dtiwindreport.pdf.
8
CCC - Committee on Climate Change 2008, accessed 03.11.11. Building a low-carbon economy - the UK’s contribution to
tackling climate change. Available at <http://www.theccc.org.uk/pdf/TSO-ClimateChange.pdf>.
9
Ofgem accessed 21.12.11. What is the Renewables Obligation (RO)? Available on <http://www.ofgem.gov.uk/Sustainability/
Environment/RenewablObl/Pages/RenewablObl.aspx>.
10
Transmission Constraint Agreement, accessed 12.12.11. Available on < http://www.nationalgrid.com/uk/Electricity/Balancing/
services/balanceserv/systemsecurity/trans_constraintagreement/>.
11
REF - Renewable Energy Foundation 2011, accessed 03.11.11. High rewards for wind farms discarding electricity 5th – 6th
April 2011. Available at <http://www.ref.org.uk/publications/231-high-rewards-for-wind-farms-discarding-electricity-5th-6thapril-2011>.
12
According to the REF, wind farms forego subsidies worth approximately £50 - £55 per MWh from the Renewables Obliga-
tion Certificate (ROC) and Levy Exemption Certificates (LEC). Therefore, the constraint payments are required by the wind
generators so as not to be out of pocket.
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Box 1: What are Constraint Payments?
Constraints arise when the electricity system is unable to transmit generated power
to the location of demand. This could be due to congestion at one or more locations
within the Transmission Network. National Grid is responsible for ensuring the electricity system remains within safe operating limits and that the pattern of generation
and demand responds to any Transmission related constraints.
In the event that the system is unable to accept the electricity being generated,
National Grid will take action in the utility market to either increase or decrease the
amount of electricity at different locations on the network. There is a variety of tools
available to assist National Grid to do this, which includes entering into a Transmission
Constraint Agreement and buying or selling electricity in the Balancing Mechanism
(see below) with power providers, suppliers and large customers to resolve the constraints on the Transmission System.
The Balancing Mechanism requires the electricity generators to switch off or reduce
the power supplied; a system already used to reduce supply from coal and gas-fired
stations when there is low demand. On top of the standard charge for power generation, wind turbine owners lose very lucrative subsidies which are paid to companies
generating electricity from green sources. In the event of the wind turbines having to
be the turned off, the loss of this double source income leads to higher compensation costs. Below is a table that shows the wind farms compensated for not generating energy in April 2011
Wind farm
Rate paid
Total paid in
Wind farm owner
per MWh
April 2011
Whitelee
£180
£308,000
£180
Farr
£800
£265,000
£800
Hayward Hill
£140
£140,000
£140
Black Law
£180
£130,000
£180
Millennium
£300
£33,000
£300
Beinn Tharsuin
£180
£11.500
£180
Resolving the grid-balancing issue, according to the House of Lords’ Economic Affairs
Committee,13 will require more backup generation capacity to respond very quickly to
short term changes in electricity outputs from wind farms. However, the technical
13
The economics of renewable energy, chapter 4: renewable in the electricity system, accessed 13.12.11. Available on <http://
www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200708/ldselect/ldeconaf/195/19507.htm>.
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challenges and costs associated with such backup generation, large enough to balance an
electricity system, with a high percentage of intermittent renewable generation are still uncertain. The Department for Energy and Climate Change (DECC) has also called for better
energy storage facilities to be connected to renewable power sources.14
Figure 1: Location of Scottish wind farms that received payments to reduce output to 30 April 2011.15
One possible option to storing this wind energy that would otherwise be wasted could be
hydrogen generation via electrolysis. Electrolysis is just one of the many hydrogen production methods available today. It uses direct current (DC) electricity to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction such as the dissociation of water into hydrogen (H2) and oxygen
(O2). Electrolysers have traditionally been used for hydrogen production in places with
low electricity prices or where very high purity gas was required, however, not until very
recently have they started to become a viable option for production as fossil fuel prices
continue to rise.
14
DECC accessed 03.11.11. Available at <http://www.decc.gov.uk/>.
15
REF - Renewable Energy Foundation 2011, accessed 03.11.11. High rewards for wind farms discarding electricity 5th – 6th April
2011. Available at <http://www.ref.org.uk/publications/231-high-rewards-for-wind-farms-discarding-electricity-5th-6th-april-2011>.
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Ideas of using wind turbine technology to produce electricity for hydrogen production
were first proposed in the early 1970s. Several papers have been written on using
small to mega-watt scale offshore wind turbines to electrolyse seawater, with the
hydrogen produced piped back to land.16
2.2 Harnessing energy from other renewable sources
The issue associated with matching the supply and demand of solar power due to
its seasonal variability could be resolved by generating hydrogen. For example, solar
photovoltaic cells could be used to produce hydrogen via electrolysis and later used
to provide heat or electricity when it is most needed – which is on a cold winter’s
night not at noon in the summer.17 Geothermal and tidal energy could also be used
to generate power and this power stored as hydrogen. Although it is very difficult
to determine the full worth of electricity from intermittent sources, this renewably
derived hydrogen has the potential to allow consumers to purchase this power as and
when they need it.18
From an efficiency viewpoint, there are energy losses involved with converting renewable energy to hydrogen and converting that hydrogen back to power via a fuel cell.
In comparison, the round-trip efficiency of an energy system is reduced by a factor of
3 if fossil fuel is used to make electricity, then the electricity used to make hydrogen.
However, there are still some advantages of deploying such a concept. Advances in
technology mean hydrogen is no longer difficult to store and transport, which effectively means using hydrogen is never constrained by demand. Also, using intermittent
sources to produce hydrogen has the potential to maximise the operating hours per
year which could significantly reduce the cost per kWh of the energy generated from
these sources.
16
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, accessed 13.12.11. Electrolysis: Information and Opportunities for Electric Power
utilities. Available on <www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/40605.pdf>.
17
Mark Crowther, 2010, Hydrogen: Green currency of the future. Gas International Engineering and Management (Jan/Feb
2010) pp 23 – 26.
18
Interview with Mark Crowther – Managing Director at Gastech at CRE, 06.02.12.
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Figure 2: Hydrogen storage concept for renewable energy.
2.3 Energy security
One of the UK’s long term energy challenges is the ability to deliver secure supplies
of clean energy at affordable prices, as North Sea oil and gas reserves dwindle and
we become increasingly dependent on stocks imported from overseas. After years of
being a net exporter of both fuels, the UK became a net importer of natural gas and
crude oil in 2004 and 2005 respectively. Production peaked in the late 1990s and has
declined steadily ever since as the discovery of new reserves has not kept pace with
the maturity of existing fields. Becoming a net importer of both fuels has also made a
significant contribution to the UK’s balance of payments.
In 2010 the UK produced 1.4 million barrels per day (mbl/d) of oil and consumed 1.6
million barrels per day (mbl/d); however, this consumption has gradually been on the
decline since 2005 mainly because of a progressive ebbing of gasoline demand.19 For
natural gas, UK Continental Shelf (UKCS) production has been decreasing since 2000
and in 2010 was down 4% on 2009 levels. According to DECC, this was one of the
smaller year-on-year decreases as production has been falling by an average rate of
6% per year since 2000. In 2010 gas demand also increased by 8.4%, following a
decrease of 7.6% in the previous year because of the cold climate and higher demand
from electricity generators. As a result imports of natural gas have increased and in
2010 were almost a third higher than in 2009.20
19
2010 Oil & Gas Security, accessed 20.12.11. Emergency Response of IEA Countries. Available on <www.iea.org/papers/
security/uk_2010.pdf>.
20
<http://www.decc.gov.uk/assets/decc/11/stats/publications/dukes/2306-dukes-2011-chapter-4-natural-gas.pdf>.
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Figure 3: United Kingdom dry natural gas production (excluding imports), monthly range and average monthly
production for the year, January 2000 to December.21
Therefore in the longer term, oil and gas will still remain an important but declining
part of the UK’s energy mix. Their use, particularly for electricity, heat generation and
transport, will decline in favour of renewable energies. In addition, consumption is
more than likely to fall as a result of improvements in energy efficiency and the development of better performing hybrid vehicles.
The White Paper on Energy22 suggests that the potential long-term possibilities for
large scale alternatives to gas for the production of heat may be through the production and use of hydrogen and low carbon electricity. However, with the various storage
and end-use options available, including micro-generation and combined heat and power (CHP) and the possibility of blending small quantities with natural gas in the gas
grid, hydrogen could be a part of a diverse portfolio of short to medium term options
in place to address the dependence on natural gas for heating and oil for transport.
2.4 De-carbonising the power generation and transportation sectors
In an effort to meet our statutory 80% reduction in emissions by 2050, it is easy to
target the 2 major emitters of CO2 according to Figure 4, which are the power and
transportation sectors. However, the fact remains that low carbon alternatives in these
2 sectors are vital to achieving any emission targets.
21
U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). The United Kingdom’s natural gas supply mix is changing, June 2012, ac-
cessed 22.06.12. Available on <http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.cfm?id=6770>.
22
Department of Trade and Industry. Meeting the energy challenge: a white paper on energy, May 2007, accessed 24.11.11.
Available on <http://www.dti.gov.uk/files/file39387.pdf>.
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185
16
85
28
122
153
-2
44.5
21.6
Figure 4: UK 2006 green-house gases (GHG) emissions presented by DECC source sector category.23
Hydrogen manufactured from indigenous fossil fuels such as coal (with post-combustion CCS) could provide a flexible, interchangeable option to electricity. Also,
hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are being developed, some of which are at very advanced
stages and could be a better option to electric vehicles (EVs) both from a cost and
consumer standpoint.24
IGEM believes hydrogen as an alternative energy carrier to electricity is capable
of allowing us to use the wide range of primary energy sources in a much greener
way, as well as giving the options of both easing the transition to an all electric
transport sector and increasing the opportunities for hydrogen in this market.
23
CCC - Committee on Climate Change 2008, accessed 03.11.11. Building a low-carbon economy - the UK’s contribution to
tackling climate change. Available at <http://www.theccc.org.uk/pdf/TSO-ClimateChange.pdf>.
24
Ofgem Project TransmiT Consultation 2010, accessed 03.11.11. UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association (UK HFCA)
Response. Available on <http://www.ukhfca.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/UKHFCA-OFGEM-TransmiT-UKHFCAResponse-Final-_2_.pdf>.
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3. What is the hydrogen economy?
The hydrogen economy is a system with three associated elements:
•
Production of molecular hydrogen from fossil fuel (with carbon sequestration), nuclear energy or renewable energy.
•
Storage and transportation of hydrogen.
•
The final end-use of hydrogen to produce heat (domestically and commercially) and power.
Whereas hydrogen is the most abundant element on the planet, it does not occur
naturally in its useful form; it has to be generated using fossil fuel, nuclear or renewable
energy.
Furthermore, contrary to much popular belief, the whole concept of the hydrogen
economy and using it as a fuel is not new. Up until 1977 manufactured gas, comprising of
methane, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and approximately 50% hydrogen was piped
into UK homes and used to cook meals and provide heat and lighting, before attention
shifted to the much cheaper and cleaner natural gas.
3.1 Production - sources of hydrogen.
Similar to electricity, hydrogen can be produced from a wide variety of primary
sources.25
•
Coal – hydrogen can be produced from the gasification of coal.
•
Oil – hydrogen can be produced from steam reforming or partial oxidation of fossil oils.
•
Gas – hydrogen can be produced as a by-product from reforming natural gas or biogas with steam.
•
Power – hydrogen can be produced from water electrolysis using any power source including nuclear, wind and solar power.
•
Wood/Biomass – hydrogen can be produced by decomposing biomass under controlled conditions.
•
Algae - hydrogen can be produced via methods that utilise photosynthesis.
•
Alcohols – hydrogen can be produced from gas or biomass-derived alcohols such as ethanol and methanol.
The natural gas or steam reforming process involves pre-heating, purifying and reacting the gas with steam in the presence of an active nickel catalyst to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide is then reacted further with water
in the ‘shift’ reaction to produce additional hydrogen. Process efficiencies are typically
between 65 – 75%.
25
IEA HIA, accessed 10.11.11. Hydrogen Production and Storage – R & D Priorities and Gaps 2006. Available on <http://iea-
hia.org/pdfs/Hydrogen_Gaps_and_Priorities.pdf>.
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Figure 5: Hydrogen sources & production processes.
A coal gasifier converts pulverised coal into hydrogen and carbon monoxide when
steam and oxygen are added in a cycle known as the Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC). Partial oxidisers produce hydrogen from heavy hydrocarbons (e.g.
oil), typically at process efficiencies of about 50%.26
Electrolysis involves splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity. Ideally,
39 kWh of electricity and 8.9 litres of water are required to produce 1kg of hydrogen
at 25°C and 1atm.27 Typical commercial electrolyser system efficiencies are between
56 – 73% which corresponds to 53.4 - 70.1 kWh/kg (some new technologies have
shown to achieve up to 80% efficiency on a gross calorific value (GCV) basis).
26
Dutton G., Bristow A., Page M., Kelly C., Watson J., Tetteh A. The Hydrogen energy economy: its long term role in
greenhouse gas reduction. Tyndall research project IT1.26, accessed 10.11.11. Available on <http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/content/
uk-hydrogen-futures-2050>.
27
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, accessed 13.12.11. Electrolysis: Information and Opportunities for Electric Power
utilities. Available on <www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/40605.pdf>.
16
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Pyrolysis, photo-biological and thermo-chemical processes are the less well-known
hydrogen production routes. Biomass pyrolysis, similar to the gasification process,
produces a variety of gases at temperatures in excess of 800°C including hydrogen,
methane, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide.
Photo-biological production of hydrogen is the process whereby photosynthetic
microbes undergo metabolic activities using light energy to produce hydrogen from
water. Examples of microbes with such metabolic capabilities include green algae and
cyanobacteria.28
The global hydrogen production stands at around 448 billion m3 per year (40 billion
kg per year). The reforming method is the most cost-effective way to produce large
quantities of hydrogen (costing between £0.50 - £4.00/kg29 of hydrogen produced). It
accounts for around 48% of the hydrogen currently produced worldwide (see figure 6),
especially in places such as the US, where hydrogen is predominantly used for refining
petroleum and producing fertilizer. The major drawbacks to this method, however, are
(a) the process is based on the use of non-renewable fossil fuel sources and (b) the
reactions involved also produce carbon dioxide which has to be dealt with.30
Here in the UK, most of the hydrogen produced is also from the steam reforming process. Much of this hydrogen production is done on commercial scales in industrial clusters located in the Northwest of England, Teesside and South Wales. This hydrogen,
for the most part, is used within the production facilities where it is made, with some
merchant gas – commercially traded hydrogen gas – available for distribution. The
International Energy Agency (IEA), evaluating the UK hydrogen infrastructure, suggests
that for the short to medium term, current hydrogen gas production and supply is incapable of supporting a major expansion of its use in fuel cell or gas turbine applications.
The IEA also suggests that most UK refineries possess the infrastructure and feed
stocks needed to manufacture hydrogen on a large enough scale, and ammonia plants
could be expanded for further hydrogen production if a profitable market emerged.31
28
IEA HIA, accessed 10.11.11. Hydrogen Production and Storage – R & D Priorities and Gaps 2006. Available on <http://iea-
hia.org/pdfs/Hydrogen_Gaps_and_Priorities.pdf>.
29
Calculated at an exchange rate of $1.57 (<www.xe.com> 13.08.12).
30
National Renewable Energy Laboratory, accessed 13.12.11. Electrolysis: Information and Opportunities for Electric Power
utilities. Available on <www.nrel.gov/docs/fy06osti/40605.pdf>.
31
Hoffheinz G., Kelly N., Ete A. Evaluation of hydrogen demonstration systems & United Kingdom hydrogen infrastructure.
Years 2-3 of task 18 of the IEA hydrogen implementing agreement 2007, accessed 14.11.11. Available on <http://webarchive.
nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file38314.pdf>.
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18%
4%
48%
30%
Figure 6: Global hydrogen production by source in 1999.32
As mentioned previously, electrolysis is a production option mostly used in places with
inexpensive sources of electricity. Early designs were tanks filled with an electrolyte
that was manually made to contact electrodes, both the cathode and the anode, in
alternate sequences. These provided the interface between the circuit delivering the
external energy and the electrolyte where the initial dissociation of ions take place.
Newer designs are more intricate and complicated systems, and their capital costs are
largely driven by the costs of the electricity used and the materials used as the separation diaphragm. In the EU, cost targets for the production of hydrogen have been set at
£13.05/kg in 2010, £7.78/kg in 2015 and £4.32/kg in 2025 and there are currently some
electrolyser systems capable of producing hydrogen for as little as £3.77/kg (based
on£0.03/kWh33 energy and 20 year Capex amortisation).34
3.2 Storing and distributing hydrogen
Theoretically hydrogen can be stored as a liquid, gas or solid. Liquid hydrogen is typically kept at temperatures bordering on -253°C in highly insulated tanks. Hydrogen can
also be stored as a compressed gas underground at up to 150bar, and as a solid within
the chemical structure of hydrides or porous carbon-based materials.
Gaseous hydrogen storage is by far the simplest and most employed option for both
large and small scale storage. The two main methods of storing large quantities of
gaseous hydrogen include: (a) in cavities created by dissociation in salt formations and
(b) deep aquifer layers.35 Some examples are given below:
32
Ogden J. Hydrogen applications: Industrial uses and stationary power. Hydrogen pathways class, UC Davis 2004, ac-
cessed 14.11.11. Available on <http://www.its.ucdavis.edu/education/classes/pathwaysclass/7-StationaryH2(Ogden).pdf>.
33
Calculated at an exchange rate of €0.79 (<www.xe.com 13.08.12>).
34
ITM Power HFuel Cost structure, accessed 25.11.11. Available on <www.itm-power.com/news-item/hfuel-cost-structure/.
35
Donat, G., F. Hydrogen-an energy carrier. The institution of Gas Engineers Library.
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•
•
•
Teesside, UK, by Sabic Petrochemicals (3 × 70,000 m3 storage capacity)
Clemens Dome, Lake Jackson, Texas, U.S., by ConocoPhillips (580,000 m3)
Moss Bluff salt dome, Liberty County, Texas, U.S., by Praxair (566,000 m3 maximum permitted capacity)
At the other end of the spectrum, small scale hydrogen storage, such as that required
on board road vehicles, is commonly in conventional steel cylinders or special composite material tanks capable of holding the gas at pressures of up to 700bar. Such systems require relatively rare materials to build which can be very expensive to procure.
Distributing hydrogen is another key element to its use. Pipeline transportation is traditionally done within large petrochemical complexes when the hydrogen produced is to
be used directly. Long distance hydrogen pipelines do exist, with the longest in Europe
being between France and Belgium at 400km.36 At present, the UK only has about 25m
of hydrogen pipeline.
Utilising the existing infrastructure for natural gas is an option often mentioned for the
transmission of hydrogen gas. Most types of natural gas conveying pipes have been
known to be porous to molecular hydrogen, however a technical distinction is necessary at this point. Below 20bar hydrogen can be safely carried in existing steel and
plastic pipes provided that the joints are mechanically suitable. Above this pressure or
thereabouts and certainly at 40bar, there is risk of hydrogen being absorbed into the
material of the pipe causing hydrogen embrittlement. This is a process whereby various metals become brittle and fracture following contact with hydrogen.37 High carbon
plastics are also known to be too porous for conveying hydrogen.38
The conventional methods for hydrogen distribution therefore include: cylinders and
tube trailers used mainly for small to medium-scale liquid and gaseous hydrogen delivery, and on-site liquid hydrogen production facilities.39
36
C.A. Berridge. Hydrogen as a fuel source for vehicles – options for a hydrogen bus energy supply system based on
economic & environmental considerations, accessed 22.12.11. Available on http://design.open.ac.uk/research/documents/BerridgerevisedPDF.pdf.
37
Interview with Mark Crowther – Managing Director at Gastech at CRE, 06.02.12.
38
C.A. Berridge. Hydrogen as a fuel source for vehicles – options for a hydrogen bus energy supply system based on
economic & environmental considerations, accessed 22.12.11. Available on http://design.open.ac.uk/research/documents/BerridgerevisedPDF.pdf.
39
Liquid & bulk gases – hydrogen, accessed 22.12.11. Available on www.airproducts.co.uk/bulkgases/hydrgen_equipment.htm.
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3.3 Hydrogen utilisation
Hydrogen is a raw material used extensively in industry, particularly in the chemical
industry (for ammonia and methanol synthesis) and the refining industry (for hydrotreatments by hydrogenation of unsaturated hydrocarbons and hydro-sulphuration).
Other areas where hydrogen is used include the aerospace industry, food and semiconductor industries.
8%
16%
2%
17%
36%
21%
Figure 7: UK hydrogen consumption by industry sector in 1996.40
6%
3% 2%
35%
54%
Figure 8: Global hydrogen consumers by industry in 2007.41
Hydrogen can be used to provide electricity and heat through its use in fuel cells (see
box 2 on page 21) or through combustion in an internal combustion engine (ICE). Fuel
cells generate electricity from an electrochemical reaction where oxygen and hydrogen
combine to form water. The electricity produced from the reaction can be used in
40
British Energy, accessed 14.11.11. The feasibility, costs and markets for hydrogen production 2002. Available on<http://
www.british-energy.com/documents/The_Feasibility,_Costs_and_Markets_for_Hydrogen_Production.pdf>.
41
Linde engineering, accessed 14.11.11. Industrial hydrogen production and technology. Available on <http://www.hzg.de/
imperia/md/content/gkss/institut_fuer_werkstoffforschung/wtn/h2-speicher/funchy/funchy-2007/5_linde_wawrzinek_
funchy-2007.pdf>
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many portable, stationary and transport applications and the heat produced as a byproduct can also be used for heating and cooling purposes.42
Fuel cells can be stacked up together to generate more power depending on the
requirement of the application, however, the cost of building a fuel cell is still relatively
expensive when compared to the ICE. Further measures to increase the fuel cells’ durability and reduce costs is in development43. Examples of fuel cell applications powered
by hydrogen include stationary combined heat and power (CHP) units, used either for
centralised energy production or micro-generation of electricity and heat. Renewable
resource-rich areas with limited ability to export electricity to the electricity grid could
be potential beneficiaries of CHP applications.
Box 2: How does a fuel cell work?
A fuel cell unit consists of a stack – a unit composed of a number of individual cells.
Each cell within the stack has two electrodes - one positive and one negative - called
the cathode and the anode. The reactions that produce electricity take place at the
electrodes. Every fuel cell also has a solid or liquid electrolyte (which facilitates movement of ions from one electrode to another) and a catalyst (which accelerates the
reactions at the electrodes). The electrolyte’s role is key as it must only permit the
appropriate ions to pass between the electrodes. If free electrons or other substances
travel through the electrolyte, the chemical reaction will be disrupted.
Figure A1: How a fuel cell works (Source – The Fuel Cell Today Industry Review 2011)
As a transport fuel, hydrogen can be used in hydrogen internal combustion engine
vehicles (HICEVs) and hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs). Hydrogen’s use in
internal combustion engines is much the same as the petrol-powered engines we have
in our cars today, but with slight modifications. Research has suggested that hydrogen
42
The fuel Cell Today Industry Review 2011. Available on <http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/media/1351623/industry_review_2011.pdf>.
43
Interview with Karen Hall – UK HFCA Technical Manager, 26.08.11.
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burns much cleaner and improves efficiency by around 20% compared to the use of
petrol44 which makes HICEVs a realistic near-term transition option.
In the longer term, hydrogen fuel cells in vehicles are likely to be the more popular
utilization technology for transport, mainly because the fuel cells generate electricity
on-board the vehicle. Traditional hybrid electric vehicles require plug-in systems that
connect to the electricity grid which could have long term ramifications for the electricity system.45
Most major car manufacturers have fuel cell electric vehicles prototypes in development and others already lease out vehicles to end-users in different parts of the
world46 e.g. Honda, Toyota, Hyundai, Ford, Chrysler, Mercedes-Benz, Nissan and General Motors.
Figure 9: Honda’s fuel cell electric vehicle on display at the 4th World Hydrogen Technologies Conference
held in September 2011 in Glasgow, Scotland (Photo courtesy of Jonathan Wing, Fuel Cell Today).
44
Dutton G., Bristow A., Page M., Kelly C., Watson J., Tetteh A. The Hydrogen energy economy: its long term role in greenhouse
gas reduction. Tyndall research project IT1.26, accessed 10.11.11. Available on <http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/content/uk-hydrogenfutures-2050>.
45
Interview with Will McDowall – Research associate with UCL, 27.09.11.
46
The fuel Cell Today Industry Review 2011. Available on <http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/media/1351623/industry_review_2011.pdf>.
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4. Current Hydrogen Activities
The state of the current global market for hydrogen suggests further developments
are required in the various elements associated with a working hydrogen economy.
According to the Department of Trade and Industry (now Department for Business
Innovation & Skills – BIS),47 reporting on the global status of hydrogen research, much
work is needed in areas such as the fuel cell technology and its applications for transport and power generation.
4.1 What is going on in the UK?
In England and Scotland, the UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association (UKHFCA) and
the Scottish Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association (SHFCA) are the main bodies facilitating hydrogen activities and promoting support for further research and development.
Their emphasis is on representing the leading UK hydrogen and fuel cell companies as
well as organisations from the academic community.
According to UKHFCA technical manager Karen Hall, the Association acts to engage with
UK government to highlight the importance of fuel cells and hydrogen technologies for
the UK economy and the future energy mix. The UKHFCA contributes to discussions
concerning energy futures, as well as ensuring the UK hydrogen industry is aware of the
possible avenues for research funding both locally and internationally, through various
governmental bodies known as Knowledge Transfer Networks (KTNs).48
IGEM believes additional support for technical hydrogen research here in the UK
is necessary so as to facilitate more UK input to the safety codes and regulations
work currently taking place internationally.
At the time of writing, the research councils (e.g. Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, EPSRC) via the Department for Business Innovation & Skills (BIS) have
supported and funded hydrogen fuel cell demonstration projects in the UK.49 Regional
initiatives such as England’s Regional Development Agencies (RDAs) have also provided
funding for projects. One example is Advantage West Midlands (AWM), facilitating
research in the West Midlands region and setting up new facilities as part of research
47
Sustainable Energy Programmes - The global status of hydrogen research, accessed 22.11.11. Available on <http://webarchive.
nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file16067.pdf>.
48
Interview with Karen Hall – UK HFCA Technical manager, 26.08.11.
49
Hyways - 2050 UK Hydrogen Vision 2006 draft, accessed 17.11.11. Available on < http://www.hyways.de/docs/deliverables/WP3/
HyWays_UK_Vision_Hydrogen_Chains_JUN2006.pdf>.
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alliance involving the Universities of Birmingham and Warwick.50 Other sources of funding are the Carbon Trust and the Energy Savings Trust.51
Below are some of the ongoing demonstration projects in the UK.
The Cleaner Urban Transport for Europe (CUTE) trial
“These buses are a marvel of hydrogen technology, emitting only water rather than
belching out harmful pollutants” Boris Johnson, Mayor of London
Between 2004 and 2007, the city of London participated in the Cleaner Urban Transport for Europe (CUTE) trials as part of a worldwide demonstration that tested a fleet
of zero-emission fuel cell buses in 9 cities across the globe. Transport for London
(TfL)52 operated 3 specially built Mercedes Citaro buses (see figure 10) for 8 to 10
hours a day.
Figure 10: Hydrogen-powered fuel cell (HFC) bus operating on a busy route in Central London.53
The success of the trials has led to the introduction of 5 hydrogen-powered buses
currently operating on one of London’s most polluted areas as of March 2011. Planning
permission for a hydrogen refuelling facility to be built in the east of London has also
been approved by the Olympic Delivery Authority and a further 3 buses will be delivered by the end of 2012.
50
51
Interview with University of Birmingham’s Fuel Cell group, 22.08.11.
Hyways - 2050 UK Hydrogen Vision 2006 draft, accessed 17.11.11. Available on < http://www.hyways.de/docs/deliverables/WP3/
HyWays_UK_Vision_Hydrogen_Chains_JUN2006.pdf>.
52
Transport for London (TfL), Hydrogen Vehicles, accessed 17.11.11. Available on < http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/projectsand-
schemes/environment/8444.aspx>.
53
London’s hydrogen buses, accessed on 17.11.11. Available on <http://www.habitables.co.uk/transport/londons-hydrogen-buses>.
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IGEM recommends that the UK government continually invest in infrastructure linked
to hydrogen transport applications and the subsequent research that could permit
significant technological advancements. This would ensure infrastructure reliability and
integrity needed to achieve UK wide commercialisation of hydrogen powered buses
and other related automotive technologies.
ITM Power
ITM Power is a company based in Sheffield that specialises in the design and
manufacture of hydrogen energy systems for energy storage and clean fuel production.
They run a number of project trials and demonstrations aimed at getting their products
into the commercial market. One such project is the hydrogen-powered home in
Sheffield which incorporates an internal combustion engine powered with hydrogen from
an electrolyser unit splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen.54
In early 2011 ITM Power launched the field trials HOST – Hydrogen On Site Trials. This
saw ITM Power’s self-contained Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) based electrolyser
system HFuel (see figure 11), and 2 hydrogen internal combustion engine vans operating
at third party sites for a set period of time. The programme to date has seen 21
commercial partners join from 7 different industry sectors including Scottish & Southern
Electric, Enterprise and DHL.55
ITM Power believes HFuel could be the solution to the energy storage conundrum
associated with integrating intermittent renewable energy in the electricity system.
Charles Purkess ITM Power marketing manager explains, “Denmark is a typical example
where 20% of the generating capacity is from wind but only a small percentage of
demand can be met with that wind power. The rest has to be either exported to Sweden
or Norway or wasted”.56
54
Ellwood P., Bradbook S., Hoult E., Snodgrass R. Emerging energy technologies programme: Background report.
Health & Safety Laboratory, May 2010.
55
Hydrogen On Site Trials (HOST), accessed 18.11.11. Available on <http://www.itm-power.com/page/49/HOST.
html>.
56
Visit to ITM Power HQ in Sheffield, UK. 26.09.11.
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Figure 11: ITM Power’s HFuel unit generates hydrogen gas from water by electrolysis. 57
SUPERGEN XIV – Delivery of Sustainable Hydrogen (DOSH2)
The ongoing SUPERGEN XIV research project brings together 12 of the leading universities
in the UK – including the Universities of Cambridge, Oxford, Strathclyde, Birmingham and
Newcastle - with the aim of improving the way hydrogen and hydrogen based fuels are
produced and delivered. The research topic areas cover hydrogen production routes that
make use of less energy than conventional processes. In addition, the socio-technical issues
which deal with how hydrogen is delivered to the consumer and the impact of including
hydrogen in the energy infrastructure are also being addressed by social scientists.58
The University of Birmingham Fuel Cell group
The University of Birmingham Fuel Cell group currently runs a number of demonstration
projects in different areas to evaluate the benefits of using hydrogen technologies in reallife applications. One such area is SCRATCH – Supply Chain Research Applied to Clean
Hydrogen – which ran from May 2007 through till 2010. Successful demonstrations
include a hydrogen filling station, a hydrogen-powered house, 5 Microcab hydrogen fuel
cell vehicles (see figure 12) used to deliver university post and a hydrogen fuel cell CHP
unit.
The fuel cell CHP unit (see figure 13) used a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) based
fuel cell to supply 1.5kW of electricity and 3kW of heat to a house. The 1.8m by 1m BAXI
unit produced the hydrogen required to run the fuel cell in-situ by reforming Natural Gas.
57
TM Power products brochure, accessed 25.11.11. Available on www.itm-power.com/cmsFiles/products/HFuel_Brochure.pdf.
58
SUPERGEN XIV – Delivery of Sustainable Hydrogen, accessed 22.11.11. available on <http://www.supergen14.org/>.
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Its overall efficiency was also maximised by storing the heat produced from the chemical
reaction in a 600-litre water tank built next to the unit by the researchers, which
subsequently circulated hot water through conventional radiators and to a hot water
cylinder in the house.59
Figure 12: University of Birmingham’s five Microcab Hydrogen Fuel Cell (HFC) Vehicles.60
Figure 13: Hydrogen Fuel Cell Combined Heat and Power unit (Photo courtesy of University of Birmingham Fuel Cell Group).
According to Aman Dhir, Research Fellow with the University of Birmingham Fuel Cell
group, the two key barriers that need to be surmounted before hydrogen can become a
part of the UK energy mix are:
•
•
The general perception of hydrogen as a dangerous gas which could be solved by
educating the general public about the properties of hydrogen
The lack of a coherent set of regulations to govern the use of hydrogen gas as a fuel.61
Olu Ajayi-Oyakhire, 2011. The up and coming hydrogen economy – Is the writing on the wall. Gas International (Oct 2011) pp
59
22 – 23.
60
61
Microcab Hydrogen Powered Cars, accessed 17.11.11. Available on <http://www.greencarsite.co.uk/econews/microcab.htm>.
Interview with University of Birmingham’s Fuel Cell group, 22.08.11.
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IGEM echoes the need for hydrogen safety education and encourages the relevant
organisations to develop schemes whereby the general public is informed on the
properties and potential benefits of hydrogen gas.
The Hydrogen Office
The Hydrogen Office project (see figure 14), set up by Business Partnership Ltd and funded
by the Scottish Communities Renewable Household Initiative, exists to support the rapid
development of renewable energy, hydrogen and fuel cell and energy storage industries
in Scotland. Based in Fife, on the east coast of Scotland, the offices within the building
are powered by an energy system incorporating a 750 kW wind turbine used to generate
electricity for powering lightings and computers. Any excess electricity generated is also
used to produce and store hydrogen from water for later use. The offices’ wind turbine
system generates on average 4000 kWh of electricity per day - equivalent to the annual
consumption of a typical four bedroom home. During windy periods the turbine exports
electricity to the electricity grid, however when there is not enough wind power a 10kW
hydrogen fuel cell is used to generate the electric power needed. A Ground Source Heat
Pump (GSHP) is used to provide heat to the offices.62
Figure 14: the Hydrogen Office in Fife, Scotland (L) and the Office system (R).24
62
The Hydrogen Office, accessed 18.11.11. Available on <http://www.pureenergycentre.com/pureenergycentre/Hydrogenoffice-
casestudy.pdf>.
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The Hydrogen Centre
The Hydrogen Centre is a research and development centre developed by the University of
Glamorgan with part funding from the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF). Its
main function is to raise awareness of hydrogen as a clean and sustainable energy carrier
with the potential to overcome the UK’s dependence on imported energy. The centre has a
functioning range of renewable and hydrogen energy technologies. These include a 20kW
photovoltaic (PV) array installed on the roof, an alkaline electrolyser used to harness power
output from the PV by separating water into hydrogen and oxygen, a compressed hydrogen
fuel dispenser and a 12kW Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell.63
4.2 EU activities on hydrogen to date
In the last two decades interest in hydrogen and its use as a fuel has grown within the
European Union (EU). This interest has led to the allocation of more funds for hydrogen
research and demonstration projects in the region. Under the second European Research
Framework Programme (FP2, 1988-1992), the financial contribution towards research,
development and demonstration on hydrogen and fuel cells was £6.3 million.64 This
increased to £216.3 million65 under the Sixth European Research Framework Programme
(FP6, 2002-2006). Further research in the EU is being supported under the Seventh
European Framework Programme (FP7, 2007-2013). A review of the major projects,
partnerships and associations is shown below.66
63
The University of Glamorgan, Renewable Hydrogen Research & Demonstration Centre, Baglan Energy Park, South Wales. The
Hydrogen Centre, accessed 18.11.11. Available on <http://www.h2wales.org.uk/Assets/Images/hydrogen_brochure.pdf>
64
Calculated at an exchange rate of €0.79 (<www.xe.com> 13.08.12).
65
Calculated at an exchange rate of €0.79 (<www.xe.com> 13.08.12).
66
Pritchard, D. K., Fletcher, J. E., Hobbs, J. W. A review of the regulatory framework around hydrogen refuelling. Health & Safety
Laboratory, 2007; NATURALHY – Using the existing natural gas system for hydrogen, accessed 24.11.11. Available on <http://www.
naturalhy.net/docs/Naturalhy_Brochure.pdf>
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Table 1: Review of EU research projects and demonstrations
Project
Time Frame
Summary
The European
integrated
Hydrogen Project
(EIHP)
1st phase – 1998-2000
Partnership between the European hydrogen
industries set up to provide inputs for
harmonised procedures for approval of hydrogen
fuelled vehicles.
Draft proposals were developed on:
• regulations for hydrogen fuelled road vehicles
• design concepts for refuelling stations using
course risk assessments
• guidelines for design, installation, operation and
maintenance of gaseous hydrogen stations
The European
Hydrogen
and Fuel Cell
Technology
Platform (HFP)
2004 till date
Set up to bring together all relevant
stakeholders in an effort to co-ordinate hydrogen
and fuel cell research, development and
deployment programmes on European, national,
regional and local levels.
Tasks carried out included:
• defined the technological and market
developments to create a hydrogen-oriented
energy system by 2050
• published an implementation plan for the
programme for 2007 to 2015
• created a European public-private partnership
– Joint Technology Initiative (JTI) which allows
more efficient organisation of research and
development in Europe
HyApproval
2005-2007
Project was set up to make a handbook for the
approval of hydrogen refuelling stations that
could be used to certify public hydrogen filling
stations in Europe.
HyFLEET:CUTE
2007 till date
Successor to the CUTE project which closed
in March 2006. CUTE was executed to
demonstrate the feasibility of creating an
innovative, high-energy efficient, clean urban
public transport system.
Objectives for the HyFLEET:CUTE project
included:
• development, optimisation and testing of new
and existing hydrogen infrastructure
• operation of 33 fuel cell powered buses in
nine cities on three continents around the world
including Amsterdam, Barcelona, Hamburg,
London, Madrid and Berlin
2007-2012
Project was aimed at the deployment of 150
small urban vehicles, including small utility
vehicles, minibuses, wheelchairs, scooters and
cargo-bikes, in 4 regions of Europe.
Objectives included:
• developing an innovative logistic procedure of
refilling vehicles with hydrogen
Hychain-Minitrans
2nd phase – 2001-2004
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Project
Time Frame
Summary
HyLights
2006-2009
A co-ordinated programme set up to prepare
European hydrogen and fuel cell demonstration
projects. Tasks included:
• developing an assessment framework for
concluded and ongoing projects
• establishing a projects database and identifying
necessary financial and legal steps for new
projects
HySafe
2004-2009
The Safety of Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier
project was set up by the European Network of
Excellence to focus on the safety issues relevant
to the commercialisation of hydrogen. The
objectives included:
• integrating and harmonising the fragmented
research base in the EU and contributing to the
development of safety requirements, standards
and codes of practice
HyWays
2004-2007
This project created a roadmap, based on
country specific analysis of the participating
countries, for the introduction of hydrogen
in the European energy system. Some of the
conclusions from the project were:
• until 2030 hydrogen production from fossil
fuel with CCS is expected to be the most
important production source in Europe
• for the foreseeable future hydrogen
infrastructure build up is likely to be comprised
of both central and onsite hydrogen production
HarmonHy
2004-2006
Projects were set up to make an assessment of
hydrogen and fuel cell related regulations and
standards activities, paying particular attention
to Europe. The main aim of the projects was
to encourage agreement on issues pertaining
to standards and regulations. Some of the
conclusions from the project were:
• to achieve global harmonisation, work on
standards should be performed at international
level by recognisable organisations i.e. ISO, IEC
• lack of standards on material compatibility
for high pressure systems and nothing on the
operational aspects of refuelling
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Project
NATURALHY
Time Frame
Summary
2004-2009
Project explored the potential of using the
existing natural gas transmission and distribution
system, and end-user appliances, to deliver
hydrogen. Here are some of the major findings
from the project:
• effects on Natural Gas pipeline materials
caused by hydrogen can be mitigated by
appropriate measures
• material investigations revealed that additional
measures would be required to ensure the
integrity of steel pipelines; when hydrogen
is transported using the existing Natural Gas
system
• escapes of natural gas/hydrogen mixtures
within buildings behave in a similar way to
Natural Gas
• gas concentration and accumulation increases
are slight for hydrogen addition up to 50% by
volume
• the severity of explosions within buildings
are slight for hydrogen addition up to 20% by
volume
• for pipeline operators the main hazard posed
by the failure of transmission pipelines is that of
a large fire
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4.3 Global outlook
USA
The US Department of Energy (DOE)67 published a strategic plan for the research,
development and demonstration of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. The report
reiterates the North Americans’ commitment to hydrogen and fuel cells on the back of a
series of stalled projects. One such project is the California Hydrogen Highway Network
(CAH2Net), initially set up in 2004 to build 50-100 hydrogen refuelling stations by 2010.
The initial goals have since been scaled back due to federal budget cuts and CaH2Net is
to have only 8 stations completed by the end of 2012, a dramatic decrease in the initial
capacity.
The DOE report, however, suggests that hydrogen and fuel cells could provide up to
900,000 new jobs in the US by 2030-2035. It stresses that growing global interest in
hydrogen and fuel cell technologies shows the need for continued investment in the area
for the US industry to remain internationally competitive.68
Germany
Described by the National Organisation for Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology
(NOW GmbH)69 as the leading European country in the field of hydrogen and fuel cell
technologies, Germany is investing heavily in technology that will see it become the first
country in the world with a nationwide hydrogen refuelling infrastructure. The joint effort is
by the federal government, industrial gas and auto manufacturers, and various universities
and research bodies. Construction will begin in 2012 for stations in Stuttgart, Berlin, and
Hamburg, as well as along 2 routes that cross the country north-south and east-west.70
Germany’s accelerated interest in hydrogen also comes on the back of plans by the
government to phase out its 17 nuclear power plants by 2022. This has led to a step-change
in the demand for renewable energy sources with the renewable contribution towards
electricity generation expected to double by the end of 2012, bringing it to 35%. According
to German Chancellor Angela Merkel, hydrogen is an alternative for clean energy storage
that can be beneficial to both the power and transportation sectors. 71
67
U.S. Department of Energy, the Department of Energy Hydrogen and Fuel Cells Program Plan. An integrated strategic plan for
the research, development, and demonstration of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies, September 2011, accessed 23.11.11. Available
on <http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/program_plan2011.pdf>.
68
Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association. Europe, Asia plan hydrogen highways – U.S. should take note, 8th September 2011,
accessed 23.12.11. Available on <fchea.posterous.com/Europe-asia-plan-hydrogen-highways-us-should>.
60
National Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Technology Innovation Programme (NIP), accessed 25.11.11. Available on <www.bmvbs.de/
ShareDocs/Artikel/UI/national-hydrogen-and-fuel-cell-technology-innovation-programme-nip.html.
70
Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association. Europe, Asia plan hydrogen highways – U.S. should take note, 8th September 2011,
accessed 23.12.11. Available on <fchea.posterous.com/Europe-asia-plan-hydrogen-highways-us-should>.
71
www.hydrogenfuelnews.com/germany-poised-to-lead-the-world-in-renewable-energy/85783.
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Asia
Coordinated efforts are ongoing in Asia, specifically in the south-east regions, to expand and
mass-produce the next generation of green vehicles and the accompanying infrastructure
by 2015. According to the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association (FCHEA), hydrogen
is getting a lot of attention in China, Japan and South Korea. Japan, for example, plans to
build around 100 hydrogen supply stations in 4 metropolitan areas – Tokyo, Aichi, Osaka,
and Fukuoka - by 2015. 10 of the major automakers including Toyota, Nissan and Honda
have also released a joint statement on their plans to expand hydrogen powered fuel cell
vehicles in Japan.72
72
Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association. Europe, Asia plan hydrogen highways – U.S. should take note, 8th September 2011,
accessed 23.12.11. Available on <fchea.posterous.com/Europe-asia-plan-hydrogen-highways-us-should>.
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5. Hydrogen – where is the market for it?
Developing a working hydrogen system requires the identification of potential markets for
the concomitant technologies which are not always easy to identify especially when the
technology is still in its infancy stage. However, hydrogen’s versatility through its use in
fuel cells makes it applicable in a wide variety of end-user applications. This versatility also
provides a basis for the assessment of the market requirements for hydrogen discussed
below.
The markets for hydrogen include fuel cell markets such as portable consumer electronics,
micro-CHP for power generation and transport. The American Institute of Chemical Engineers
(ALCHE)73 has suggested that the major future markets for hydrogen as fuel will depend
primarily on four factors;
•
•
•
•
The future cost of hydrogen.
The rate of advances of various technologies that use hydrogen.
The cost of competing energy systems.
Potential long-term restrictions on greenhouse gases.
5.1 Potential market for automotive hydrogen applications
Hydrogen has the potential to become a very important transport fuel. However, for
hydrogen to have a stable and long-term market share in the automotive sector a number of
technological factors that influence the costs of vehicles will need to be addressed.
The costs of Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) are determined by their automotive fuel cell
systems i.e. the onboard storage tanks, the fuel cell stack itself, the electric drive motor, etc.
Although the costs of fuel cells have come down significantly over the past decade, how they
compare against other competing technologies such as Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) is a
critical market driver.
If BEVs work well at low costs then end-users will tend to buy these vehicles and there
will be little incentive to make a transition to hydrogen powered vehicles. Current research
evidence suggests that BEVs will not be able to achieve the sort of energy density that will
give a sufficient range at a low enough weight and cost to make BEVs a serious contender
for an all-purpose vehicle (although it could be ideal for a local urban ‘run-around’ commuter
vehicle).
In addition to the costs and performance of competing technologies are the behavioural
uncertainties around the use of hydrogen powered cars. These uncertainties are based on
consumer behaviour towards new technology. This asks important questions of whether
vehicle users will accept low range vehicles and when these vehicle owners will charge their
vehicles (in the case of BEVs).
73
2005 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Spring Meeting, accessed 23.11.11. Hydrogen markets: Implications for hydrogen
production technologies. Available on <http://www.ornl.gov/~webworks/cppr/y2001/pres/122902.pdf>.
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Low vehicle range is a delicate issue because current vehicular technology, incorporating the
Internal Combustion Engine (ICE), provides consumers with a durable, cost-effective, safe,
reliable and long range package that has been in-use for a long time. Vehicle charge times, on
the other hand, raises concerns over the long-term impact BEVs could have on the electricity
grid when owners charge their vehicles at peak times (after work at 6pm). There are currently
a small number of studies looking into when BEV owners are most likely to charge their
vehicles; the University of Birmingham Fuel Cell group are currently conducting a number of
simulation BEV trials in the Midlands and have so far found that more people charge their
vehicles at peak times as opposed to the recommended off-peak times.74
Another even more critical factor that drives the market for hydrogen as a transport fuel is
the amount of greenhouse gas reduction achievable with hydrogen as opposed to other low
emissions fuel options e.g. bio-fuels. As a transport fuel, bio-fuels have the potential to be the
most cost-effective, low carbon option to conventional transport fuels simply because they
are easy to produce and use, and may not require a radical infrastructure overhaul.
However, despite their massive potential, sources of bio-fuels are surrounded by controversy.
One of which is around issues of land conversion (unless sourced from waste) which ignites
the food vs. fuel debate. Some opponents to their use believe land-use schemes – schemes
that specifically set out land for growing energy feed crops – potentially transform high
carbon emission eco-systems to low carbon emission systems, resulting in net emissions of
carbon dioxide from bio-fuels when evaluated on a ‘field to wheel’ basis. Research evidence
to prove otherwise will have a big impact negatively on the role hydrogen plays as a zero
emission transport fuel in the near future.
In addition to the points already highlighted is the factor around the politics of a transition
to hydrogen as a transport fuel. Will McDowall from the UCL Energy Institute opines75, “The
market for hydrogen as a transport fuel will need to be driven by a specific consumer case or
demand. So far no key consumer need for hydrogen as a transport fuel has been identified”.
The current automotive market for hydrogen is policy-driven and, looking back in time, no
major energy system transition has ever been driven by changes in policy. In fact, the need for
commuters to travel longer distances was the key driver behind the transition from horsedrawn carriages to the internal combustion engine (ICE) in the late eighteenth century76. As
there is no key consumer requirement for hydrogen, the onus is on the government, industry
representatives and advocates of hydrogen to facilitate the transition to a hydrogen based
transport system by proving:
• Behaviourally, hydrogen will be accepted by consumers.
• Technologically, hydrogen is ready for the market.
• Competitively, hydrogen will be miles ahead of its rivals.
74
Interview with University of Birmingham’s Fuel Cell group, 22.08.11.
75
Interview with Will McDowall – Research associate with UCL, 27.09.11.
76
Bouwkamp, N., 2004. Understanding technological transitions in history and lessons learned for a hydrogen-refuelling
infrastructure. Hydrogen Pathways Program at the Institute of Transportation Studies at the University of California at Davis.
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Nevertheless, if all the uncertainties around hydrogen as a fuel are resolved, there are still
issues to do with aligning investment in refuelling infrastructure, investment in new vehicle
technology, and incentives to buy hydrogen vehicles to make them cost-effective until
mass-produced77. IGEM understands that to achieve a successful transition to hydrogen
as a transport fuel, UK government will have to play a prominent role by maintaining and
augmenting incentives that can promote the uptake and mass-market appeal of the next
generation of zero-emission vehicles in an effort to decarbonise the road transport system.
5.2 Other niche markets for hydrogen
There are numerous niche markets for hydrogen in stationary applications, some of which
include medium scale stationary fuel cell systems (200-1000kW) and CHP or CCHP
(Combined Cooling, Heat and Power) plants that could be used for neighbourhood scale
power generation. These could also be useful for off-grid or remote micro-generation of
power. The Energy Savings Trust78 suggest that micro-generation products such as fuel cell
micro-CHP units could meet up to 30-40% of the UK’s electricity needs and make a vital
contribution to reaching targets of 80% reduction in carbon emissions by 2050.
Early fuel cell activities are also creating new markets for hydrogen in the areas of light
duty vehicles (LDVs), forklifts, buses, scooters and back-up power units. Pike Research79 has
suggested that industrially used forklifts will be the largest drivers of hydrogen fuel demand
in the UK by 2020, as industry targets new energy efficiency measures to curb costs.
5.3 Hydrogen in the gas industry
The gas industry is interested in hydrogen because of dwindling gas reserves and the need to
limit emissions of CO2 to meet target reductions in greenhouse gases. One way of possibly
incorporating hydrogen would be adding it to natural gas and distributing it in the existing
infrastructure.
Studies performed for the International Gas Union (IGU)80 indicate that replacing 10%v/v of a
natural gas supply stream with hydrogen reduces CO2 emissions by 3% and the NATURALHY81
study suggests CO2 reductions of up to 15% could be achieved with hydrogen gas addition up
to 50%v/v. This small CO2 reduction compared to the volumetric amount of hydrogen added
is due to the low density and low calorific value of hydrogen. It is important to point out,
however, from that UK GS(M)R will not permit up to 50%v/v. This would be limited to 25%v/v
on a Wobbe number basis while the current limit on hydrogen outlined in the regulations is
0.1molar%.
77
Interview with Will McDowall – Research associate with UCL, 27.09.11.
78
Ceres power, accessed 24.11.11. Available on http://www.publications.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmenvaud/159/159we23.htm.
79
PikeResearch, available at www.pikeresearch.com.
80
Slim K.B. Should we add hydrogen to the natural gas grid to reduce CO2-emissions? (consequences for gas utilisation
equipment). 23rd World Gas Conference, Amsterdam 2006, accessed 25.11.11. Available on www.igu.org/html/wgc2006/pdf/paper/
add11558.pdf.
81
NATURALHY – Using the existing natural gas system for hydrogen, accessed 24.11.11. Available on <http://www.naturalhy.net/
docs/Naturalhy_Brochure.pdf>.
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It is useful to consider the effects of adding increasing quantities of hydrogen to natural gas.
These include:
• Effect on net and gross calorific value - hydrogen decreases the calorific value of
natural gas/H2 admixtures.
• Effect on Wobbe number - hydrogen very slightly decreases the Wobbe number
of natural gas/H2 admixtures (up until ~70%) (although it may not be outside regulatory
agreements in some European countries).
• Effect on ignition properties/knock propensity – hydrogen decreases the ‘knock
tendency’ of natural gas/H2 admixtures.
• Burning velocity – the burning velocity of natural gas/H2 admixtures increases with
H2 addition up to 30%.
IGEM recommends that the potential risks associated with adding hydrogen to natural
gas streams such as the risks to the integrity of the pipeline network and gas processing
sites for the operators, the lessened performance of domestic appliances and the possible
increase in frequency of explosions during gas escapes for the general public, and the
elevated emissions of NOx from combusting, all be evaluated against the possible carbon
reductions that could be attained with utilising hydrogen and natural gas admixtures.
Natural gas could also be used for neighbourhood scale power generation via stationary CHP
units capable of converting the gas to hydrogen in-situ. The UKHFCA82 have suggested that
the adoption of fuel cell micro-CHP technology could save up to 2.5 tonnes equivalent of CO2
if it replaced conventional boilers used today. This would equate to 40-50% of a typical UK
home’s yearly carbon footprint.
Figure 15: Distributed energy generation utilising gas.83
82
www.ukhfca.co.uk/the-industry/benefits/.
83
www.ukhfca.co.uk/the-industry/benefits/
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6. Hydrogen – how safe is it?
The concept of using hydrogen as a fuel is one that raises safety concerns in the public
psyche. It is also commonplace for the majority of the public to associate hydrogen with
disastrous events such as the Hindenburg airship incident (May 1937), the ‘challenger/
astronaut’ incident (January 1986) or the Hanau tank accident (1991).
According to the German Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association (DWV),84 the Hindenburg
accident was caused by the extremely flammable nature of the paint used to coat the outer
shell of the German passenger airship and not hydrogen – which burnt out within 90 seconds.
The ‘challenger’ incident that resulted in the death of 7 astronauts was caused by a defective
seal in the auxiliary boosters which led to a flame escape that damaged tank fuel lines
supplying liquid hydrogen and oxygen. DWV stress it would have happened exactly the same
way with any other fuel in the tank.
The Hanau tank accident saw a tank holding 100m3 of hydrogen gas at 45 bar burst without
apparent reason resulting in an explosion. The explosion was due to stresses caused by cracks
at the corners along the welding seams, enlarged by the presence of hydrogen gas. The
Hanau event resulted in significant progress in safety engineering and the development of
new test methods capable of detecting cracks at earlier stages.
That said, it does not necessarily mean that hydrogen is completely safe. Aman Dhir research
fellow with the University of Birmingham’s fuel cell group opines, “It is a gas with different
properties that need to be understood”.
6.1 Hydrogen properties and characteristics
Hydrogen is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas that burns with a pale blue flame that
is virtually invisible in daylight. It is a small molecule and, thus, has a high propensity to leak.
Hydrogen would leak nearly 3 times faster from a leak of given size than natural gas and over
5 times faster than propane.85
Hydrogen is the lightest of all elements; it is 14 times lighter than air. This causes it to be
buoyant and rapidly disperse when released in air. This can be an important safety asset in the
event of a leak where hydrogen would quickly diffuse through air and hence from buildings
compared to other fuel gases.86
84
Bain, A., Schmidtchen, U. Afterglow of a myth: Why and how the “Hindenburg” burnt, 2000, accessed 21.06.12. Available on
<http://www.dwv-info.de/e/publications/2000/hbe.pdf>.
85
Pritchard, D. K., Royle, M., Willoughby, D. Installing permitting guidance for hydrogen and fuel cell stationary applications: UK
version. Health & Safety Laboratory, 2009.
86
Pritchard, D. K., Royle, M., Willoughby, D. Installing permitting guidance for hydrogen and fuel cell stationary applications: UK
version. Health & Safety Laboratory, 2009.
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Hydrogen also has a high propensity to ignite; the range of hydrogen/air mixtures that will
explode is between 4% v/v hydrogen (Lower Explosive Limit) up to 75% v/v (Upper Explosive
Limit) at standard atmospheric conditions. This wide flammability range is a disadvantage
however the LEL, which is considered to be of greater significance from a safety perspective,
is only slightly different to that of methane (5.3%) or propane (2.1%).87
For explosions, the energy needed to start a hydrogen/air explosion is diminutive; small sparks
such as those produced from dropping a plastic-cased pen is capable of igniting hydrogen/
air mixtures. The maximum burning velocity of a hydrogen/air mixture is also high; it is about
8 times greater than that of natural gas mixtures. This makes it difficult to confine hydrogen
flames and explosions, particularly in closed environments. However, on a positive note, this
rapid rate of deflagration means that hydrogen fires convey less heat to the surroundings
than other gaseous fuel fires, reducing the risk of creating secondary fires in neighbouring
materials.88
The severities of a hydrogen and gasoline fuel leak were studied by Dr. Michael Swain at
the University of Miami.89 The two vehicles used were designed consistent with existing
manufacturer specifications for the two fuels. Dr Swain’s results showed that when the fuel
line in the gasoline fuelled car was punctured with a 1.6 millimetre hole and the hydrogen
fuelled car was subjected to an equivalent failure mode accident scenario, the gasoline fuelled
car suffered severe damage whilst the hydrogen fuelled was undamaged (see figure 16). This
was due to the rapid deflagration rate of hydrogen compared to gasoline.
87
Pritchard, D. K., Royle, M., Willoughby, D. Installing permitting guidance for hydrogen and fuel cell stationary applications: UK
version. Health & Safety Laboratory, 2009.
88
Pritchard, D. K., Royle, M., Willoughby, D. Installing permitting guidance for hydrogen and fuel cell stationary applications: UK
version. Health & Safety Laboratory, 2009.
89
Swain, M.R., Fuel leak simulation. University of Miami, accessed 25.11.11. Available on <http://www1.eere.energy.gov/
hydrogenandfuelcells//pdfs/30535be.pdf>.
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Figure 16: Fuel leak simulation of hydrogen fuelled car (L)
and gasoline fuelled car (R) after 1min.
6.2 Regulations, codes and standards (RCS)
In the case of hydrogen, standards are needed to assure the safety of technology that
produce, transport, utilise, dispense and store it. The science behind the technologies are
well understood within the hydrogen industry, however there is a strong need to standardise
technical guidance for these products that can enable global widespread deployment.
Several standards and regulations are under development internationally with technologyspecific standards being developed in parallel with technologies. This is beneficial because
it gives the relevant approval authorities a form of reference when evaluating new
demonstration projects or early commercial installations, as well as a sense of confidence for
operators that the information presented is based on hydrogen industry best practices.90
Standards and regulations are the key to solving the ‘chicken and egg’ dilemma, which asks
the question of what to roll out first – hydrogen technologies and equipment (chicken) or
the infrastructure to distribute it (egg). The International Standardisation Organisation (ISO)
currently has a technical committee responsible for developing standards on systems and
devices for the production, storage, transport, measurement and use of hydrogen – ISO/TC
197.91 This work involves 31 countries, with 20 involved actively in the ISO TC working groups
and 11 following progress on an observer level.
90
Hall, K. Informing industry on regulations, codes & standards (RCS) developments - UKHFCA overview. UKHFCA Workshop,
Sheffield. 04.10.11.
91
Pritchard, D. K., Fletcher, J. E., Hobbs, J. W. A review of the regulatory framework around hydrogen refuelling. Health & Safety
Laboratory, 2007.
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In the UK, the British Standards Institution (BSI) acts as a national mirror body and information
hub for the activities going on within the ISO community. The UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell
Association (UKHFCA) also facilitate industry involvement in document reviews to prepare UK
positions and feedback to ISO draft standards. Gastec at CRE (part of KIWA Ltd) has provided
CE marking services to a wide range of hydrogen appliance manufacturers. However, for local
installations there is a lack of guidance for both the installers and permitting authorities, both
of whom may not be experts in hydrogen technologies.
One illustration is in the requirements for hydrogen refuelling stations. In the UK, petrol
station licensing is required under the Petroleum Act 1928,92 which is usually issued by the
Local Petroleum Authority (LPA). The LPAs, in addition to the aforementioned requirement,
typically have added conditions deemed necessary by them – currently covered under the
Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations (DSEAR) – for permitting
installation of petrol stations. However, for hydrogen there are currently no equivalent
licensing requirements for refuelling stations and therefore installations have to comply with
the same UK health, safety and land use planning regulations as do petrol stations.93 This, in
principle, is not an issue. However, due to the chemical nature of hydrogen, this methodology
often leads to the over-exaggeration of safety requirements known as separation distances.
This increase in separation distances puts severe restrictions on the locations of hydrogen
refuelling stations which prevents siting hydrogen stations within many urban areas, areas
where they are most needed.94 The main issue with assessing separation distances is the need
to indentify the hazard associated with the installation. For example, in the case of a hydrogen
leak into the air, controlling the intake of a nearby building would be based on the distance at
which the hydrogen concentration falls below the LEL within the building.
The hydrogen industry has raised its concerns over the restrictions imposed by the use of
methodology originally designed for petrol stations in determining separation distances.
Several key stakeholders within the hydrogen industry shared their view at the UKHFCA
workshop held in October 2011, calling for a re-assessment of the scientific basis of
the separation distances as such restrictions do not apply to other hydrogen utilisation
technologies such as FCEVs, scooters and hydrogen powered buses.95
92
Petroleum (Consolidation) Act 1928. London: The Stationery Office.
93
Pritchard, D. K., Fletcher, J. E., Hobbs, J. W. A review of the regulatory framework around hydrogen refuelling. Health & Safety
Laboratory, 2007.
94
Pritchard, D. K., Fletcher, J. E., Hobbs, J. W. A review of the regulatory framework around hydrogen refuelling. Health & Safety
Laboratory, 2007.
95
UKHFCA Workshop, Sheffield. 04.10.11.
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IGEM would welcome the opportunity to work with interested parties within the
hydrogen industry to develop standards that cover the general safety requirements of
hydrogen technologies in commercial and/or domestic premises. With strong expertise
in facilitating and producing standards that cover the utilisation side of natural gas
(the IGEM/UP series), IGEM has identified a lack of voluntary standards in the area of
hydrogen utilisation here in the UK.
IGEM echoes the calls made by members of the UKHFCA for the re-assessment of separation
distances.
IGEM recommends that the technical measures used to determine the separation
distances for hydrogen installations are re-assessed through the systematic identification
and control of potential sources of ignition as done for petrol filling stations. IGEM would
welcome the opportunity to work with interested parties within the hydrogen industry as
well as the HSE to re-evaluate a methodology for determining safety zones for hydrogen.
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7. Summary of findings
1.
IGEM believes additional support for technical hydrogen research here in the UK is necessary so as to facilitate more UK input to the safety codes and regulations work currently taking place internationally.
2.
IGEM recommends that the UK government continually invest in infrastructure linked to hydrogen transport applications and the subsequent research that could permit significant technological advancements. This would ensure infrastructure reliability and integrity needed to achieve UK wide commercialisation of hydrogen powered buses and other related automotive technologies.
3.
IGEM echoes the need for hydrogen safety education and encourages the relevant organisations to develop schemes whereby the general public especially young people are informed on the properties and potential benefits of hydrogen gas.
4.
IGEM recommends that the potential risks associated with adding hydrogen to Natural Gas streams such as the potential risks to the integrity of the pipeline network and gas processing sites for the operators, the lessened performance of domestic appliances and the possible increase in the frequency of explosions during gas escapes for the general public, and the elevated emissions of NOx from combusting, be evaluated against the possible carbon reductions that could be attained with utilising hydrogen and Natural Gas admixtures.
5.
IGEM would work towards producing standards for the construction and testing of hydrogen gas distribution systems involving material selection, pressure testing and operating conditions. These would include the mains and service pipes, pressure control equipment and gas measuring equipment to ensure safe system operation.
6.
IGEM would welcome the opportunity to work with interested parties within the hydrogen industry to develop standards that cover the general safety requirements of hydrogen technologies in commercial and/or domestic premises. With strong expertise in facilitating and producing standards that cover the utilisation side of natural gas (the IGE/UP series), IGEM has identified a lack of voluntary standards in the area of hydrogen utilisation here in the UK.
IGEM echoes the calls made by members of the UKHFCA for the re-assessment of separation distances.
7.
IGEM recommends that the technical measures used to determine the separation distances for hydrogen installations are re-assessed through the systematic identification and control of potential sources of ignition as done for petrol filling stations. IGEM would welcome the opportunity to work with interested parties within the hydrogen industry as well as the HSE to re-evaluate a methodology for determining safety zones for hydrogen.
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8. Glossary of terms
The American Institute of Chemical Engineers
Battery Electric Vehicles
Department for Business Innovation & Skills
British Standards Institution
California Hydrogen Highway Network
Carbon Capture and Storage
Combined Cooling, Heat and Power
Combined Heat and Power
Cleaner Urban Transport for Europe
Calorific Value
Direct Current
Department for Energy and Climate Change
Department of Energy
Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations
Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council
European Regional Development Fund
European Union
Electric Vehicles
Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association
Framework Programme
Gross Calorific Value
Ground Source Heat Pump
Gas Safety (Management) Regulations
Hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle
Hydrogen Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle
Health and Safety Executive
Internal Combustion Engine
International Energy Agency
Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle
International Gas Union
International Standardisation Organisation
Knowledge Transfer Networks
Light Duty Vehicles
Lower Explosive Limit
Local Planning Authorities
Proton Exchange Membrane
Photovoltaic
Supply Chain Research Applied to Clean Hydrogen
Scottish Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association
Renewable Energy Foundation
Renewable Heat Incentive
Renewable Obligation
UK Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Association
ALCHE
BEVs
BIS
BSI
CAH2Net
CCS
CCHP
CHP
CUTE
CV
DC
DECC
DOE
DSEAR
EPSRC
ERDF
EU
EV
FCEV
FCHEA
FP
GCV
GSHP
GS(M)R
HFCEV
HICEV
HSE
ICE
IEA
IGCC
IGU
ISO
KTNs
LDVs
LEL
LPAs
PEM
PV
SCRATCH
SHFCA
REF
RHI
RO
UKHFCA
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9. Acknowledgements
IGEM would like to thank the following for providing interviews and providing assistance.
Mrs Karen Hall, UKHFCA
Dr Aman Dhir, University of Birmingham
Professor Kevin Kendall, University of Birmingham
Mr Will McDowall, UCL
Mr Nick Hart, ITM Power
Mr Charles Purkess, ITM Power
Mr Mark Crowther, Gastec at CRE
IGEM is also grateful to the following for their assistance:
Ballard Power Systems, USA
Jonathan Wing, Fuel Cell Today
Please direct all queries or comments to:
[email protected]
+44 (0) 844 375 4436
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The Institution of Gas Engineers & Managers (IGEM) is the Chartered
membership organisation for the UK and overseas gas industries.
Established in 1863, IGEM provides technical support and publishes the
UK’s favoured Technical Standards as well as independent expert reports
covering significant trends, developments and innovations. IGEM’s technical
seminars and networking conferences are attended by individuals and
organisations from all parts of the gas value chain, including onshore
exploration and production, supply, distribution and utilisation.
IGEM is also licensed by the Engineering Council to assess and award
Engineering Technician, Incorporated Engineer and Chartered Engineer
status to the next generation of gas industry talent.
For further information visit www.igem.org.uk, email [email protected]
or call 0844 3754 436
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Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers
IGEM House
High Street
Kegworth
Derbyshire
DE74 2DA
www.igem.org.uk
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