Annotated Bibliography
Primary Sources
Articles
Anderson, Kevin. “Revelations and Gaps on Nixon Tapes.” BBC News 1 March 2002.
Web. 8 March 2013.
Anderson wrote this story to note the release of 500 additional hours of taped
conversations covering the time of the Watergate break-in. The tapes offer insight
into the events that became known collectively as Watergate. This article helped
us analyze the significance of Watergate as an event that made news far beyond
the boundaries of the United States and one that puts the story back in the
headlines when new information is released. We considered this a primary source
because it speaks to Watergate’s enduring status as “newsworthy” and its ongoing
impact on politics.
Bernstein, Carl and Bob Woodward. “40 Years After Watergate, Nixon was Far Worse
than We Thought.” The Washington Post 8 June 2012. Web. 18 March 2013.
This article was important to us as we analyzed the significance of Watergate over
time. The magnitude of Watergate has become clearer as new documents come to
light and more of the White House tapes are released for research. Woodward and
Bernstein in this article discuss how they see the significance of Watergate
differently now than they did as young reporters because there is so much more
information available. They no longer believe the cover-up was worse than the
crime—this long held belief minimizes the scale and reach of Nixon’s criminal
actions.
Cox, Archibald. “Watergate and the U.S. Constitution.” British Journal of Law and
Society 2:1 (Summer, 1975): 1-13. Print.
Archibald Cox was appointed special prosecutor for Watergate, but was fired in
October, 1973, for objecting to a proposed compromise related to access to the
White House tapes. In this article, Cox explains why the Watergate affair
represents both moral and Constitutional crises that “tested the ability of the
American political system to deal with substantial allegations of major
wrongdoing by the highest government officials.” We considered this a primary
source because Cox was personally involved in the handling of the Watergate
investigation and witness to Nixon’s abused of power.
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Curriden, Mark. "The Lawyers of Watergate: How a ‘3rd-Rate Burglary’ Provoked New
Standards for Lawyer Ethics." - ABA Journal. N.p., 1 June 2012. Web. 15 Apr.
2013.
Featured in the American Bar Association Journal, this article outlines the
changes made to the legal profession after Watergate. Curriden follows John
Dean, a former member of White House counsel at the time of Nixon, and his
journey with post-Watergate ethics. Mr. Dean spoke about his experiences being
prosecuted for obstruction of justice. American legislation then went on to pass
laws regarding professional conduct and professional responsibility, including the
Ethics in Government Act. Mr. Dean continues to educate lawyers about
professional ethics to this day with a variety of courses on the subject. This source
provided valuable insight from Mr. John Dean regarding the ethics laws as well.
Graham, Katharine. “The Watergate Watershed: A Turning Point for a Nation and a
Newspaper.” The Washington Post. 28 January 1997. Web. 5 March 2013.
This article is an excerpt from Graham’s book, Personal History. Graham is a
former editor of The Washington Post. This article describes the atmosphere in
the newsroom during the breaking of the Watergate stories. She particularly
writes about the threats Nixon imposed upon the lawyer representing The
Washington Post. This helped us to understand what a tangled web was being
spun to protect the President, and the extent of Nixon’s campaign to undermine
the press and control what was being published.
“I am Still Committed.” Text of President Clinton’s statement after his impeachment, as
transcribed by the Federal Document Clearing House. The Washington Post. 19
December 1998. Web. March 24, 2013.
President Clinton issued this statement after the Senate acquitted him of charges
of perjury and obstruction of justice. Extensive coverage of his affair with Monica
Lewinsky led to the charges; such intense media scrutiny is part of the legacy of
Watergate. Clinton’s speech provided an important source for the “Successors”
page of our website.
“Washington Post Coverage: The Watergate Story.” The Washington Post. 1960-2009.
Web. 9 April 2013.
The Washington Post website provides valuable links to numerous primary source
newspaper articles that are critical to understanding the rise and fall of President
Richard Nixon. Coverage of Nixon’s campaigns, elections, presidency, the
Watergate scandal, and the aftermath are available through the Post’s website.
The selection of articles also includes obituaries for the people involved in
Watergate—from President Nixon to Mark Felt, the man known as “Deep
Throat.” We accessed scores of articles through this collection of Watergate
coverage.
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Books
Agnew, Spiro T. Go Quietly…or else. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc.,
1980. Print.
In 1973, Spiro Agnew resigned as vice president in the Nixon administration in
the face of a bribery and extortion scandal. In this memoir, Agnew revisits what
he called “the most unpleasant days of my life,” insisting that he was innocent of
all charges and that high officials in the Nixon administration forced him to
resign. His commentary on the Watergate scandal provided another point-of view
from someone inside the administration while reminding us of the necessity to
consider perspective when reading memoirs and interpretation information in
light of all available resources.
Bernstein, Carl and Bob Woodward. All the President’s Men. New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1974. Print.
This is the story of the Watergate scandal told from the point-of-view of the two
Washington Post journalists whose investigative reporting contributed to
President Nixon’s downfall and changed the American presidency. Their account
helped us understand the function and role of the press and how investigative
journalism has changed over time.
Ehrlichman, John. Witness to Power: The Nixon Years. New York: Simon & Schuster,
1982. Print.
John Ehrlichman served as White House Counsel and Assistant to the President
during the Nixon administration. This account of the presidency is described as
“the frankest, most outspoken disclosure of the events which began with Nixon’s
electoral triumph and ended in Watergate.” Ehrlichman offers yet another insider
account of the power struggles between the President, his Cabinet, the Congress
and the White House staff. Examining so many books written by various
members of Nixon’s disgraced administration helped us evaluate the Watergate
scandals from many points-of-view.
Garner, Joe, Walter Cronkite, Brian Williams, and Bill Kurtis. We Interrupt This
Broadcast. Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks MediaFusion, 2008.
The author, joined by famous news personalities, created this volume that
includes CDs featuring actual broadcasts of radio news related to almost 50
historic events from 1937 to 2007. We considered this a primary source because
we used this source to obtain the sound recordings of an NBC news
announcement of Nixon’s impending resignation, Nixon’s resignation speech, and
Ford’s address after being sworn in as President.
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Gold, Gerald, ed. The Watergate Hearings: Break-In and Cover-up Proceedings of the
Senate Select Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities. New York: Viking
Press, 1973.
Compiled by the staff of The New York Times, this source includes extensive
testimony of key Watergate figures. The volume also includes President Nixon’s
statements and a variety of documents and commentary that helped us better
understand the impact of the Watergate scandal.
Gray, Patrick L. III. In Nixon’s Web. New York: Henry Holt & Company, 2008. Print.
L. Patrick Gray III was acting director of the F.B.I. from May 1972 to April 1973
as Richard Nixon’s administration conspired to undermine the F.B.I.’s
investigation of the Watergate break-ins. Gray’s top deputy Mark Felt is the
person who, as Deep Throat, leaked stories to the press. Gray was always
portrayed as one of the conspirators. This book tells his story using his papers and
personal documents—which had never before been published. Gray was
exonerated. This source provided alternative accounts to some of the newspaper
coverage of the day and helped us to see how complicated the Watergate affair
actually was.
Kissinger, Henry. Years of Upheaval. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1982. Print.
Henry Kissinger served as Secretary of State from 1973 to 1977 under President
Richard Nixon and President Gerald Ford. This memoir explores the
consequences of the Watergate scandal and the complicated foreign policy issues
that dominated Nixon’s second administration. Kissinger’s account helped us
understand the events surrounding the Watergate investigation in context from the
perspective of a respected member of the administration.
McGinniss, Joe. The Selling of the President 1968. New York: Trident Press, 1969. Print.
Television provided a major turning point in U.S. campaigns and elections.
Richard Nixon discovered the importance of crafting an image for television in
the 1960 presidential election when he was narrowly defeated by John F.
Kennedy. In the early stages of the 1968 campaign, Nixon selected advertising
and TV professionals to join his team and package and sell his message. This
resource helped us understand Nixon’s obsession with secrecy, image, and the
selection of people who helped him win the election. We consider it a primary
source because McGinniss informally joined the Nixon team at the early stages of
the campaign and observed the technicians, ghost writers, experts and pollsters as
the campaign happened.
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Miller, Marvin, comp. The Breaking of a President: The Nixon Connection. Corvina, CA:
Classic Publications, 1974. Print.
This volume is a compilation of five books written as the events of the Watergate
story happened. We considered this a primary source because it was written as the
events unfolded, chronicling the rise of Nixon to his resignation and the final
sentencing of his Watergate co-conspirators. It was helpful in our research
because it did offer the complete history documented by information available at
the time, and the information was paired with good primary source visuals to help
make the history come to life.
The Presidential Transcripts: The Complete Transcripts of the Nixon Tapes with
Commentary by the Staff of The Washington Post. New York: Delacorte Press,
1974. Print.
This volume provides complete transcripts the recorded conversations in Nixon’s
Oval Office. The tapes marked a turning point in the Watergate investigation
when they were subpoenaed and then finally turned over to investigators.
Publication of this volume was also turning point in history because it was the
first time that the president’s private conversations had been disclosed for public
consumption.
Watergate: Chronology of a Crisis, Vol. 1. Congressional Quarterly (1973). Print.
Congressional Quarterly, Inc. is an editorial research service and publishing
company that combines coverage of Congress, government and politics with
research into specific topics to serve clients in the field of news, education,
business, and government. This volume provides information about the activities
surrounding the Watergate Crisis, transcripts of presidential speeches, and
chronologically organizes the details of the events and investigations as they
unfolded. We considered it a primary source because it was published as the
events occurred and includes court transcripts, poll data, and commentary from
April through July 1973.
Watergate: Chronology of a Crisis, Vol. 2. Congressional Quarterly (1974). Print.
Each chapter of this volume covers a single week’s developments in the
Watergate investigations. Details of the cover-up emerge through secretly taped
conversations. This volume covers from August of 1973 to May of 1974. The
volume continues the story where Volume 1 left off and includes coverage of
Watergate development and various judicial orders and court proceedings.
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Woodward, Bob. Shadow: Five Presidents and the Legacy of Watergate. New York:
Simon & Schuster, 1999. Print.
According to Washington Post journalist Bob Woodward, who broke the story of
Watergate, “American politics was forever changed because of the Vietnam War
and the scandal surrounding Watergate.” In this book, Woodward examines the
presidential administrations that came after Nixon, revealing how the presidency
was forever altered because of measures taken to prevent future abuses of power.
This source helped us to analyze the long-term impacts of the Watergate crisis.
Correspondence
Branstad, Terry. E-mail to Rebekah Frese. 3 April 2013.
Iowa Governor Terry Branstad was a state representative when news of the
Watergate scandal broke. His reflection on the impact of Watergate provided an
excellent primary source account of how the scandal affected politicians at all
levels.
Robenalt, James. E-mail to Aditi Dinakar. 16 April, 2013.
Mr. James Robenalt is a partner at Thompson Hine LLC in Cleveland Ohio, and
also co-teaches an ethics course for lawyers titled “The Legacy of Watergate” that
outlines post-Watergate ethics laws. He also works with former White House
Counsel John Dean. Because of Watergate, lawyers were involved in the
obstruction of justice, and therefore, the American Bar Association put in new
rules on lawyers reporting fraud committed by their clients. These effects have
lasted for years, as lawyers today are still required to report crimes. The scandal
even caused an impact on the presidency, as it is now clear that lawyers must
represent the Office of the Presidency, not just the President himself. Mr.
Robenalt stated that Watergate deepened his understanding of the law.
Glover, Michael. E-mail to Aditi Dinakar. 11 April 2013.
As a former Associated Press reporter, Michael Glover has covered numerous
presidential debates during his career. Mr. Glover elaborated on the impact that
Watergate had on the field of investigative journalism. Watergate occurred at the
beginning of his career, and it shaped his view on the hostility between the
presidency and the press. He also stated that Watergate forced journalists to do
their own fact checking and verify research, something that was a healthy
development in the field.
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Guns, RaeAnn. "Watergate, 1972." E-mail to Aditi Dinakar. 1 Mar. 2013.
Mrs. RaeAnn Guns is a former lawyer and a current professor, at Des Moines
Area Community College. At the time of Watergate, she was a high school
student in Dubuque, Iowa. Her father was involved in politics, and her family
belonged to the Republican party. In response to the scandal, her father and her
family supported Nixon and questioned the authenticity of the reporting, a
seemingly common reaction amongst Nixon supporters. But after more
information came through, she saw the scandal as an extension of the corruption
of government, and sees the root of the current polarization of the government in
the Watergate scandal. Mrs. Guns was very helpful in providing the viewpoint of
an American citizen not involved in politics, and this interview showed how
people were affected by the scandal in everyday life.
Hunter, Bruce. "National History Day - Interview." E-mail to Aditi Dinakar. 18 Feb.
2013.
Though he was just a high school student at the time of the Watergate scandal, the
change in government had a lasting effect on Iowa Representative Bruce Hunter.
He described a common sentiment amongst people of that time—disbelief, and
lots of talks about conspiracies. Rep. Hunter also talked about the change from
before Watergate to after, the switch from a “larger than life” President, to a more
“human” view of the president position. He regards the humanization of
politicians and laws that shed light on campaign spending as positive effects of
the Watergate Scandal.
Kinder, Jerry. "The Watergate Scandal." E-mail interview. 25 Feb. 2013
As a former lawyer and current AP U.S. History teacher, Dr. Jerry Kinder saw the
impact of Watergate firsthand. He saw that the American people became very
cynical about thier country's government and politics, and saw that politician were
willing to do anything and everything to keep thier positions of power. He
believes that that Watergate changed politics today, because very few people
trusts the motives and goals of those in government.
Latham, Tom. " National History Day - Watergate." Letter to Aditi Dinakar. 22 Apr.
2013.
Congressman Tom Latham serves Iowa in the United States House of
Representatives. Though Rep. Latham was not actively involved in politics at the
time of the scandal, he profoundly remembers his disappointment in the Nixon
administration after the Watergate scandal was uncovered. He discussed how
Americans’ opinion of the presidency deteriorated after Nixon and how
government functions when one branch oversteps its boundaries. Overall, Rep.
Latham provided us with a valuable perspective from the Republican Party and
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from the U.S. Congress. We consider Rep. Latham to be a primary source because
he can comment first-hand on the legacy of Watergate as it affects Congress today.
Moderow, Richard. "Watergate- National History Day." E-mail interview. 17 March. 2013.
Mr. Moderow, a lawyer, had a unique view of Watergate, as he was a strong
Nixon supporter before news of the scandal broke. He states that the scandal had a
positive impact, and the American people now recognized that too much power in
the government can lead to corruption, and that voters must stay informed about
their leaders. As a result of Watergate, Mr. Moderow's political views became
more focused on the issues, as he realized that severe partisanship can result in
scandals such as this.
Staed, Art. "National History Day - Watergate." E-mail interview. 14 Feb. 2013.
Art Staed is a congressman in Iowa’s House of Representatives, and was an
educator for over thirty years in the State of Iowa. The Watergate scandal had a
huge impact on him, and his career in politics. At the time of Watergate, Rep.
Staed was a college student, and after hearing about all the misrepresentation of
politicians, he changed his party affiliation from Republican to Democrat - a huge
shift in one’s political career. He also learned from Watergate to be more
skeptical and analytical of facts and claims made by politicians. Rep. Staed
considers some of the post-Watergate laws have been ineffective.
Young, David. Email via personal spokesperson to Rebekah Frese. 21 March 2013.
Dr. Young served as assistant to Henry Kissinger during the Nixon
administration. He commented through his assistant via email with answers to
questions we submitted about the climate in the White House before and after
Watergate to help us evaluate the scandal as a turning point in history.
Interviews
Beall, Daryl. "Watergate in Politics." Personal interview. 18 Feb. 2013.
At the time of the Watergate scandal, Daryl Beall was a high school government
teacher in Urbandale, and also a candidate for Iowa’s Secretary of State. Senator
Beall spoke about the roots of Watergate, dating back to the 60s, a time of civil
rights and environmental action, but also smattered with violence and
assassinations. The Watergate scandal came up during his campaign. He says it
didn’t have too much of an effect on the election outcome, but it did amplify his
negative views of Richard Nixon. As for the impact on the public, he thinks that
Americans took one of two routes. The first is skepticism of the government, and
a cynical view of politics. The second is a group that was compelled to rise above
the dirty tactics and make the American government a fairer and more open place.
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We considered him a primary source because he commented on his observations
during the Watergate era.
Fink, William. Personal Interview with Rebekah Frese. 7 March 2013.
William Fink is a former Iowa State Senator. We consider him a primary source
because the interview focused on his observations of the immediate and long-term
impact of Watergate before, during, and after his own political career. Watergate
significantly affected people’s views of the American presidency and of public
servants in general. Mr. Fink’s perspective helped us see how things that
happened in Washington, D.C., had an impact on all facets of American life.
Frankel, Glenn, Dr. Personal interview with Andrew Boge. 20 Mar. 2013.
Andrew was fortunate enough while in Austin, Texas to meet with the Director of
Journalism at the University of Texas, Dr. Glenn Frankel. He in large part
became interested in journalism because of watching Watergate unfold. Dr.
Frankel helped in explaining the impact journalism had from both the perspective
of Woodward and Bernstein but also in a larger sense. It was helpful to another
get another professional opinion on the impact journalism had and meeting with
him in person was very helpful.
Frost, David P. Transcript of May 1977 Interview with Richard Nixon. Web. 19 Mar. 2013.
According to Sharon K. Fawcett, Assistant Archivist for Presidential Libraries,
Richard Nixon commented publicly on Watergate only three times after leaving
office—in his memoirs, in his handwritten notes for the library’s first Watergate
exhibit, and in the Frost/Nixon interviews broadcast in 1977. Accessing this
transcript helped us analyze how Nixon interpreted and rationalized his actions
that, in the articles of impeachment, were labeled as abuse of power.
Goldford, Dennis. Personal interview with Aditi Dinakar. 11 April. 2013.
Dr. Dennis Goldford is a professor of politics at Drake University, and has
appeared as a political analyst on KCCI news. At the time of Watergate, he was
attending graduate school, and says that he used to hear about all the atrocities of
the Nixon administration every night. He also saw the effects of the scandal, when
he saw the great amounts of distrust in the government resulting from the
misdeeds. He also discussed the changes in campaign financing, and that the
presidency was much more careful about public relations.
Kaul, Donald. Personal interview with Aditi Dinakar. 17 April. 2013.
Now retired, Mr. Donald Kaul is a former columnist for the Des Moines Register.
At the time of Watergate, he was sent to Washington, and wrote for the paper when
the news of Nixon’s scandals was being released. He stated that Woodward and
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Bernstein really opened the doors for other young journalists in the investigative
field. Mr. Kaul also described how the prominent reporters also created the issue of
reporting sources, starting with “Deep Throat.” he also described the hostility
between media and the presidency, and the increased cynicism amongst the
american people of the presidency. Overall, Mr. Kaul provided us with a very
helpful view of the impact of Watergate on the field of journalism.
Museum & Archives
Justice Department Memorandum Considering Indictment of Richard M. Nixon. 9
August 1974. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 4 March
2013.
Available in digital format on the NARA website, this memorandum outlines reasons
for and against pursuing an indictment against Richard Nixon, who had resigned
rather than face impeachment for his role in the Watergate scandal. The Watergate
Special Prosecutor outlined reasons for and against pursuing an indictment against
Nixon. This document also helped us understand the constitutional issues surrounding
the decision to indict a president or former president.
Nixon Presidential Library and Museum Interactive Website. Web. 4 March 2013.
We listed the Nixon Library website as a primary source because we used it to
access Watergate evidence including oral histories conducted with members of
Nixon’s administration, listen to portions of the White House tapes, view
documents important to Nixon’s presidency, and retrieve photographs for use on
our website. The site also provided links to a number of primary and secondary
source videos important to our research.
Political Collections, 1956-1976. The State Historical Museum of Iowa. Des Moines.
Artifacts.
The State Historical Museum of Iowa has an extensive collection of political
memorabilia dating from before Abraham Lincoln to the most recent Iowa Caucus
(2012). The Museum registrar granted access to the Museum’s “vaults” to
examine and photograph campaign buttons, political ephemera, and a copy of the
official program of the 1972 Republican National Convention in Miami. We used
photographs of items in the collection to illustrate our website. The buttons
condemning Nixon after Watergate offered insight into public reaction to the
events that led to the President’s resignation. It was also interesting to see the
campaign buttons of many of Nixon’s rivals, many of them representing
candidates who were smeared by his dirty tricks. During a second visit to the
Museum to examine political items in the years beyond Watergate (1970s to the
present), we observed that campaign items in the collections seemed to be much
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more attack-oriented after Watergate. Museum staff members were helpful as we
discussed this observation.
United States v. Nixon. U.S. Supreme Court Opinion. 1974.
In this landmark ruling, the U.S. Supreme Court held that President Nixon could
not claim executive privilege in order to avoid a subpoena to produce taperecorded conversations within the White House. The Court ruled that Nixon’s
refusal to surrender the tapes exceeded his power as specified in Article II of the
Constitution. “Neither the doctrine of separation of powers, nor the need for
confidentiality of high-level communications, without more, can sustain an
absolute, unqualified Presidential privilege of immunity from judicial process
under all circumstances.” Accessing the Court’s ruling helped us understand the
significance of the Constitutional crisis initiated by the Watergate scandal and
attempts to cover up the President’s involvement.
Watergate Door. Newseum. Washington, D.C. Artifact.
The Newseum describes this as “the most famous door in the world” because of
the key role it played in one of the biggest scandals in U.S. history. Five burglars
accessed the offices of the Democratic National Headquarters in the Watergate
complex through this door, taping the latch to keep it from locking. A custodian
found it taped and removed the tape. When he came back later and found it was
taped again, he then called the police to notify them of an apparent break-in. The
door was seized as evidence by the F.B.I. Artifacts help to make the stories of
history real, and the door provided a good visual for our website.
Photographs
1970. Photograph. The White House Museum, Washington D.C.
WhiteHouseMuseum.org. White House Historical Association. Web. 22 Mar.
2013.
President Nixon did not have a very good relationship with the press. In fact, he
openly didn’t have a particular affection for them. The image shows Nixon giving a
press conference and it is very apparent how disgruntled he is. This relationship with
the press would lead to the impact Watergate had on journalism being enormous.
"1974, THE WASHINGTON POST, Nixon Resigns Edition." : Lot 547. N.p., n.d. Web.
22 Mar. 2013
When investigating the impact of Watergate, an instrumental part of the scandal
was the role the Washington Post played in bringing down President Nixon.
When the Post ran the story “Nixon Resigns” history was made. The image of this
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helped illustrating the impact Woodward and Bernstein had on journalism,
politics, and forever changed the presidency of the United States.
Anti-Nixon Watergate Pin Staff Infection. 1974. Photograph. Cube Cart. 2006. Web. 23
Mar. 2013.
We used this photo of a Watergate-era button to emphasize the idea that Nixon had
surrounded himself with staff members willing to break the law in the name of power.
Bettmann. Nixon on Cambodia. N.d. Photograph. CORBIS. History.com. A&E
Television. Web. 22 Mar. 2013.
The context of why Watergate had such a large impact of journalism can be
traced backed to the United States involvement in the Vietnam war. Before the
US became involved a very simple status quo formed between the press and the
government. Vietnam started to disrupt that with public opinion and the start of
dishonest government officials. This made for the perfect situation for Watergate.
The image of President Nixon discussing his plans for the Vietnam War helped to
illustrate the impending impact that was about to come.
Carter Ethics Act. 1978. Photograph. Ethics at Home and Abroad. Rutgers University.
Web. 23 Mar. 2013.
This photo helped to illustrate legislation that resulted from Watergate.
"David Roberts." Grist. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013.
The image David Roberts provided gave an excellent illustration of the
Washington Post building currently, and helped when analyzing the impact today
Watergate had on journalism in a more current sense. In addition, it helped in
looking at how The Washington Post competed with the New York Times.
Dennis Goldman. N.d. Photograph. Drake University. Web. 15 Apr. 2013.
Dennis Goldman is a Professor of Politics at Drake University.
Federal Election Commission. N.d. Photograph. 2011. Web. 23 Mar. 2013.
We used this image on the political analysis pages of our website.
Nixon and AMPI. N.d. Photograph. Web. 23 Mar. 2013.
This image was used to illustrate the political analysis section of our website.
Nixon Resigns. 1974. Photograph. New York Times, Washington D.C. Web.
What Woodward and Bernstein did to journalism has had a profound impact
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toady. When investigating the resonance of their work, one must look to what
other newspapers did in response to the impending changes. Seeing the New York
Times and other newspapers publish headlines proclaiming the resignation of
Nixon helped to show how the story grew from a small story in the Washington
Post to a story that commanded headlines nationwide.
Nixon Resigns. 1974. Photograph. New York City. The Daily News. Vol. 56. New York
City: Dailey News, n.d. N. pag. Print. Ser. 39.
We used this photo to illustrate how Watergate grew from a seemingly
insignificant story to something that was covered nationwide an culminated in the
resignation of a president. Seeing less popular newspapers such as The Daily
News in comparison to the New York Times and the Post publish articles about
Watergate helped to show the lasting impact of Watergate on journalism.
Rep. William D. Ford. 1989. Photograph. C-Span. Web. 15 Apr. 2013.
This image of a C-Span airing of a House Session in 1989 shows Rep. William
Ford speaking about the Ethics in Government bill.
Richard Nixon Resigns After Watergate. 1974. Photograph. Tribune Archive, Chicago.
Chicagotribune.com. Chicago Tribune. Web.
The Washington Post was not the only newspaper to publish stories regarding
Watergate. Seeing the Chicago Tribune’s coverage of Nixon’s resignation helped
to see how big the story became and discern the lasting impact Watergate on
journalism
Tames, George. John Dean III. 1973. Photograph. The New York Times. 3 June 2011.
Web. 23 Mar. 2013.
We used this image from the New York Times to illustrate the political section of
our website.
"Todo En UNO." Caso Watergate Se Les Fue De Las Manos Al New York Times. N.p.,
n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013.
There was a significant change in the political map once the Washington Post
started to publish stories related to the Watergate break in. The reputation of the
Washington Post was elevated to closely matched that of the New York Times.
No longer was one newspaper at the top of the reporting heap. The image of the
front page from the New York Times shows how the newspaper was trying to
play catch-up with the Post to attempt to stay ahead.
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Trikosko, Marion S. Impeach Nixon. 1973. Photograph. Richard Nixon. 2 Mar. 2013.
Web. 23 Mar. 2013.
We used this image to illustrate the sentiment of the nation in response to
Watergate.
Websites
“A Conversation with Bob Woodward on the 40th Anniversary of Watergate.” Newseum
Video, 13 June 2012. Web. 7 March 2013.
Clips from this video enhanced the “Successors” page of our website as Bob
Woodward reflected on Nixon as President. We consider this a primary source
because Bob Woodward was one of the journalists who broke the story of the
Watergate scandal and has remained involved in analysis of the scandal’s aftermath.
American Presidency Project. University of California, Santa Barbara. Web. 24 March
2013.
This valuable resource contains more than 100,000 primary resources related to
the study of the Presidency. Vital to our research were the transcripts of press
conferences held during the Nixon Administration. We could also look up the full
text of speeches and press conferences we found quoted in other sources to
examine the quoted portions in context.
Associated Press Images. New York, New York. Web. 16-24 March 2013.
The AP image collections provided a vital link to primary source photographs and
photographs of documents related to the Watergate scandal and people involved.
We viewed hundreds of images in the Nixon, Watergate, and Ford files. We also
pulled images of the Presidents who followed Nixon. Searches related to 1970s
politics and culture were also fruitful. We used numerous photos from this
collection to illustrate our website along with the original AP caption information.
This on-line archive also illustrates one of the biggest challenges associated with
this project: there is so much information available.
Block, Herbert. “Herblocks History: Political Cartoons from the Crash to the Millenium.”
Library of Congress. Web. 9 April 2013.
Herbert Block, better known as “Herblock,” was a Pulitzer Prize-winning political
cartoonist who considered his mission “Taking one issue at a time and one
administration at a time and dealing with it the way you see it.” Reacting to Herb
Block cartoons, President Nixon once said he had to “erase the Herblock image.”
The Library of Congress digital collection of Herblock cartoons related to the
Watergate scandal provided excellent primary source illustrations for our website.
14
Dean, John W. "Watergate: Lessons for Today, Nearly 40 Years Later." The Ohio State
Bar Association. The Ohio State Bar Association, n.d. Web. 05 Mar. 2013.
Dean, an established lawyer, was employed at the White House at the time of the
scandal. He was caught up in a web of blame, in the prosecution of various White
House officials, and discovered the vast amount of information that the top
politicians in the Nixon administration were hiding from the rest of the
government and the American people. Mr. Dean also discusses the numerous
legislative acts that resulted from the shock of Watergate, including the
Independent Counsel Act, and the shift in investigative journalism. Due to
Watergate, The American Bar Association now requires all law schools to teach
legal ethics.
Dean, John W., and James Robenalt. "The Legacy of Watergate." The Legacy of
Watergate. American Bar Association, n.d. Web. 05 Mar. 2013.
Former White House counsel John Dean and lawyer James Robenault describe
the change in ethics after Watergate. The experts discuss the connections between
lawyers and Nixon's prosecution, and why so many lawyers entangled in the
scandal broke the law. The lawyers also discuss the shift in interpretation of a
client’s confidentiality, and the protection of the client’s intent on committing a
future fraud or crime.
Ford, Gerald R. “Remarks Upon Taking the Oath of Office as President.” 9 August 1974.
Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library. Web. 23 March 2013.
Ford was in the unprecedented position of giving a speech after taking the oath of
office as the first unelected president. He had been appointed Vice-President after
Spiro Agnew’s resignation, and then became President upon Richard Nixon’s
resignation. “The oath that I have taken is the same oath that was taken by George
Washington and by every President under the Constitution. But I assume the
Presidency under extraordinary circumstances never before experienced by
Americans,” Ford said. He promised to be open and honest, declaring “our long
national nightmare is over.” The speech helped us understand the historic nature
of Ford’s presidency; we used excerpts on our website.
"Media and Community." Media and Community. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Mar. 2013.
One significant impact of Watergate was the formation of Investigative Reporters
and Editors, Inc., a nonprofit organization dedicated to improving the quality of
investigative reporting. This helped in training journalists in proper techniques for
investigative reporting and helped compile a database for reporters. The comic we
used from this source was published at a recent conference for the organization.
15
Nixon, Richard. “President Nixon’s Resignation Speech.” 8 Aug. 1974. PBS. Web.
23 March 2013.
This transcript of President Nixon’s televised speech to the nation allowed us to
analyze Nixon’s perspective related to his resignation. He does not take
responsibility for his actions, but instead says his decision to resign is because
“America needs a full-time president and a full-time Congress” which is
impossible because of the time and attention devoted to “the Watergate matter.”
We used excerpts of this speech on our website.
“Profile In Courage Award Winners: Gerald Ford, 2001.” John F. Kennedy Presidential
Library and Museum. Web. 18 March 2013.
President Gerald Ford was honored with the Profile in Courage Award for his
courage in making a controversial decision of conscience to pardon former
President Richard M. Nixon. Initially, Ford’s pardon of Nixon appeared
suspicious—as though a deal might have been made to allow Ford to inherit the
presidency. Sen. Edward Kennedy criticized Ford for the pardon when he granted
it, but years later, Ford’s actions have come to be known as a courageous and
selfless act. He risked his own political future to help the nation get beyond
Watergate. We consider this a primary source because it addresses the ongoing
healing after Watergate.
“Question and Answer with Bob Woodward.” N.d. Web. 8 March 2013.
Many of the common questions people would ask Bob Woodward about his life
and career are posted and answered on Woodward’s website. This helped us plan
our own questions for Mr. Woodward, so we would not duplicate answers that are
already published.
"The Woodward and Bernstein Watergate Papers." Harry Ransom Center. University of
Texas, n.d. Web. 21 Mar. 2013.
The Ransom Center is located at the University of Texas at Austin. The
University bought the papers for $5 million and has posted them as an online
exhibit for the public's use. This became a valuable resource when analyzing the
impact of Watergate. What is made available are extensive documents like
Woodward’s notebook while investigating the Watergate break-ins, notes from
when he meet with Deep Throat, and original scans of the story they first
published in the Washington Post. This was an incredible resource and eventually
led to us interviewing the director of the center where these documents are housed.
16
Secondary Sources
Articles
Carver, Deborah. “What We See on the TeeVee: The Average American, Godlike
Announcers, and Neither Fear Nor Loathing in the 1972 Election.” Rethinking
History 11.2 (June 2007): 203-13. Print.
Cox’s essay conveys the importance of image in presidential campaigns—image
over substance. Nixon won the 1972 election in a landslide because of the
carefully crafted image put forth for the American people. Simmering underneath
was the scandal and cover-up of the Watergate events that would topple Nixon’s
presidency. This helped us understand the nature of Watergate as a turning point
in the history of politics and journalism. People were willing to overlook the
seemingly meaningless break-in at the Democratic Headquarters and elect Nixon
in a landslide based upon the image he crafted. Journalists uncovered evidence of
power abuse that shocked the nation and forever changed how people viewed
Nixon and the office of the President.
Corrado, Anthony. "The Lost Hope for Campaign Reform." The New York Times. N.p.,
13 June 2012. Web. 15 Apr. 2013.
In this New York Times Debate, Senior Fellow of the Brookings Institute Anthony
Corrado speaks about the current standing of campaign reform. He states that post
Watergate, a plethora of investigations probed into campaign spending and
corporate donations, which led to the Federal Election Campaign Act. However,
he states that after a slew of reforms and cases such as Citizens United, the
previously landmark laws of the Watergate era are now dashed.
Cox, David. “A Watergate on Wearside?” New Statesman 1 Nov. 2004: 16. Print.
“Watergate” has become synonymous with scandal, corruption, and abuse of
power. This article from a British current affairs and politics magazine warns of a
possible voting scandal and considers political office break-ins. The article does
not explain its use of the term “Watergate”—it does not have to. The term is
ubiquitous. This article helped us understand the far-reaching influence of the
Watergate scandal and the its lasting connotations of political corruption.
Dowd, Maureen. “Nixon Buried on Note of Praise and Reconciliation.” The New York
Times 28 April 1994. Web. 20 March 2013.
In her coverage of Richard Nixon’s funeral, Dowd described the former President
as someone who “fascinated, confounded, infuriated and enthralled Americans for
half a century.” Then-President Bill Clinton urged Americans to forgive Nixon,
17
saying “May the day of judging President Nixon on anything less than his entire
life and career come to a close.” Twenty years after his resignation, Nixon’s
funeral became a reunion for people connected to Nixon and to Watergate—
former cabinet and staff members; Spiro Agnew, Nixon’s vice president who,
facing tax evasion charges resigned; George McGovern, the candidate Nixon
defeated for president in 1972; four former Presidents and a host of senators and
representatives. Comments made by these people helped us see the impact Nixon
had on his friends and enemies, and how relationships were reconciled in the end.
Feighery, Glen. “Two Visions of Responsibility: How National Commissions
Contributed to Journalism Ethics, 1963-65.” The Association for Education in
Journalism and Mass Communication 2009: 168-210. Print.
A professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Utah,
Feighery’s monograph sheds new light on how journalism ethics developed in the
20th century. Journalists at the time also faced criticism for exercising prejudice,
writing sensationalized stories, and even inciting violence. Watergate coverage
initiated discussions of issues in journalism such as using anonymous sources.
This article helped us understand Watergate as a turning point in the development
of significant journalism reforms.
Feldstein, Mark. “Watergate Revisited.” American Journalism Review.
August/September 2004. Web. 5 March 2013.
Feldstein analyzes the role that journalism played in uncovering the Watergate
scandal that forced the first and only resignation of a U.S. President and how
Watergate, in turn, influenced journalism. A veteran investigative reporter and
chair of the Broadcast Journalism at the University of Maryland, Feldstein’s
article helped us analyze the impact of Watergate on journalism practices and vice
versa.
Finney, Daniel P. “Watergate Scandal Changed the Political Landscape Forever.” The
Des Moines Register 16 June 2012. Web. 20 March 2013.
Based on interviews with a U.S. Representative serving at the time of Watergate
and several university professors in the fields of political science and mass media,
this article looked at the changes in American politics and popular culture caused
by Watergate. The information helped us identify turning points we had not
initially considered.
Fisher, Marc. “As Years Go By, Watergate Drifts Toward Myth.” The Boston Globe. 17
June 2012. Web. 5 March 2013.
Fisher, a Washington Post reporter whose story was posted on the Globe’s
website, discusses the long-lasting impacts of Watergate—especially the turning
points in society’s perception of the presidency and changes in politics. This
18
helped us to understand that even though Watergate was a crisis for our nation, it
was also “proof that the system works.”
Gray, Leslie and Wynell Burroughs Schamel. “Constitutional Issues: Watergate and the
Constitution.” Social Education 51. 2 Feb. 1987. Web. 1 March 2013.
This source provided he memorandum sent from Carl Feldbaum and Peter
Kreindler to Leon Jaworski concerning whether or not President Nixon was going
to be prosecuted for obstruction of justice. Gray and Schamel discuss the
constitutional issue behind the Watergate Scandal. This helped us to fully
understand the background behind the constitutional issue and how much of an
impact the scandal really had on the power of the presidency.
Grier, Peter, and James N. Thurman. "25 years later, a presidency never the same. (Cover
story)." Christian Science Monitor 9 Aug. 1999: 1. Web. 26 Oct. 2012.
Authors Peter Grier and James Thurman address the Watergate scandal as one of
the most important domestic political events in the post-war period. They cite
Nixon’s opponent George McGovern, when he states, “What has lingered on
[from the Nixon experience] is the suspicion of government," and "We won't get
over it in the foreseeable future." Another legacy that came out of Watergate was
the reassertion of congressional authority, and the transfer of new oversight
institutions. The scandal made politicians fear for their safety around journalists
of all levels. Post-Watergate reforms, such as transparency for campaign funds
and freedom of information laws have also transpired.
Hesse, Monica. “We can’t have a scandal without the –gate.” The Washington Post 10
June 2012. Web. 4 March 2013.
Hesse’s article discusses the political and cultural impact of the Watergate
scandal, drawing the analogy that since Watergate, every scandalous occurrence
in the world has “been corralled together to reside in one vast gated community.”
She lists a number of the scandals over the 40 years since Watergate that have
plagued politicians and christened with a name ending in “-gate.” The author also
points out that there were numerous scandals preceding Watergate, but none had
the same lasting impact on American culture and vocabulary or immediate ability
to associate an action with the idea of scandal and corruption.
Kornblut, Anne. "The News Media Is Still Recovering from Watergate." New York Times.
N.p., 05 June 2005. Web. 05 Mar. 2013.
Anne takes an in-depth look at Watergate’s impact on journalism. She examined
the loss of luster professional journalism has experienced because of the direction
it is going. The combination of the Pentagon Papers, Watergate, and the Vietnam
war resulted in a hostile relationship between the press and the government. This
specific broken boundary is what she discusses at length in her article.
19
Latham, Aaron. “Mixed Nuts.” The Nation 2 Feb. 1985: 117. Print.
“American nightmares,” Latham wrote, have a way of being transmuted over tie
into national nonsense.” Latham was reviewing a book that had recently been
published that developed an elaborate conspiracy theory related to the Watergate
scandal. We did not consult the book that was the subject of Latham’s review
(Watergate, Deep Throat and the CIA by Jim Hougan) but the review helped us
understand how events that capture national attention, such as Watergate or the
Kennedy assassination, also inspire conspiracy theories that often take on lives of
their own.
Madrick, Jeff. “Can We Trust Government Again?” The Nation 9 April 2012: 11-13.
Print.
In this special edition of The Nation analyzing the upcoming 2012 elections,
Madrick traces peoples’ ongoing distrust in government to policies and events of
the 1970s including spending that resulted in inflation and a sharp economic
downturn and betrayal by elected officials. This article helped us understand the
shift in public opinion from trust in elected officials and government programs to
a state of frustration, fear, and distrust.
Nagourney, Adam. “Nixon Library Opens a Door Some Would Prefer Left Closed.” The
New York Times 31 March 2011. Web. 19 March 2013.
This article covers the opening of the Watergate Gallery at the Nixon Presidential
Library, noting the controversy surrounding the perspective of the new exhibition.
An earlier exhibition titled “The Last Campaign” was created by the Nixon
Foundation from a point-of-view that favored the former president. The library
director, Timothy Naftali, describes the new installation as a more honest
depiction of Nixon-era scandals based upon the ongoing release of documents and
tapes related to Nixon’s presidency. This helped us understand the complexity of
Nixon’s legacy.
Nagourney, Adam. “Watergate Becomes Sore Point at Nixon Library.” The New York
Times 6 Aug. 2010. Web. 19 March 2013.
When control of the Nixon Presidential Library was transferred from the Nixon
Foundation to the National Archives, a new Watergate exhibit was designed to
replace an earlier exhibit curated by the Richard Nixon Foundation with input
from former President Richard Nixon. Nagourney’s article helped us understand
the conflict that still surrounds interpretation of Watergate depending upon one’s
point of view.
20
O’Sullivan, John. “It Didn’t End with Watergate.” National Review 16 May 1994: 6.
Print.
O’Sullivan writes that, even though he did not always share Nixon’s political
views, Nixon was a likeable man. He also discusses Nixon’s foreign policies and
his refusal to contest the 1960 election. He shows by citing Victor Lasky’s book,
It Didn’t Start with Watergate, that Nixon was not the only president to misuse
his powers and that no one had ever given Nixon the benefit of the doubt. This
showed the other side of the argument concerning people’s reaction to the
Watergate scandal. Many people were vocal about their disappointment in the
president, but O’Sullivan claims that Nixon would in death be judged by a
“Historian in possession of all the facts.” This article, published along with
Nixon’s obituary, helped us see how difficult it is to understand the scandal in its
entirety.
Perlstein, Rick. “That Seventies Show.” The Nation 8 Nov. 2010: 25-34. Print.
Perlstein’s essay provides a survey of literature that explores the history and
culture of the 1970s. This was helpful in understanding how the war in Vietnam,
the energy crisis and politics influenced the context before, during and after the
Watergate scandal. According to Perlstein, Nixon exploited the public’s fears as a
cover for betraying the public’s trust, forever changing how people viewed
national leaders.
Plante, Bill. “Watergate Reporters: Nixon Administration Criminality Was Pervasive.”
CBS. 14 June 2012. Web. 7 March 2013.
In this reflection on Watergate, Plante discusses the Nixon administration’s lawbreaking patterns—showing that “it didn’t start with the 1972 break-in at the
Democratic headquarters.” This helped us to understand the context of the breakin, and that, though it was not the first illegal incident of Nixon’s presidency, it
was the first to be uncovered and presented to the public and Congress.
“Richard Nixon, 1913-1994: The Nixon Chronology.” The Los Angeles Times 27 April
1994. Web. 18 March 2013.
We used text from this timeline of Nixon’s life, published with his obituary in the
Los Angeles Times, for the “Chronology of a Crisis” timeline in our website. The
timeline helped us demonstrate the historical context of Watergate events.
Rosen, James S. “Overrating Watergate.” National Review 12 Oct. 1998: 30. Print.
Rosen wrote this piece as he perceived national media were attempting to dismiss
President Clinton’s sex scandals as a private matter, insignificant when compared
to Watergate. Rosen’s opinion that perhaps Watergate has grown to become a
21
national fable provides another viewpoint related to the scope and significance of
Watergate.
Sandel, Michael J. "Watergate Baby." New Republic 219.17 (1998): 9-10. Web. 26 Oct.
2012.
Michael Sandel was a Washington intern at the time of the House Judiciary
Committee ‘s contemplations about former President Nixon’s impeachment. He
reflects on the partisanship of the hearings, and the impact of party affiliation on
impeachment votes. He also states that a huge factor is the severity of Nixon’s
crimes, that the use of FBI and the IRS against political enemies were serious
enough to justify impeachment. Since Watergate, Sandel describes how the view
of the presidency has deflated, and media no longer reveres the president.
Shepard, Alicia. "The Watergate Legacy, 35 Years Later." Washington Post. N.p., 19
June 2007. Web. 05 Mar. 2013.
Alicia Shepard wrote a comprehensive book entitled: Woodward and Bernstein: :
Life in the Shadow of Watergate. She offered an excellent analysis on the impacts
after 35 years since Watergate broke. The article was formatted with reader
questions and the author's responses to those questions, regarding the book that
she wrote. This allowed us to see a great range of topics discussed, contributing
research to all areas of our analysis.
“This Is Watergate." New Republic 196.11 (1987): 7. Academic Search Elite. Web. 26
Oct. 2012.
The New Republic compares the “Iranamok” scandal of Reagan’s presidency to
that of Watergate. They described the scandal of arms as similar to Watergate, in
its “concerted effort by high White House officials to deceive the citizenry.” Other
similarities between the Reagan scandal and Watergate, was that its illegality that
offended the morals and values of the American population, and its likening to a
constitutional crisis.
Books
Archer, Jules. Watergate: America in Crisis. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company,
1975. Print.
Political espionage. Dirty tricks. Secret slush funds. Illegal wiretaps. Archer’s
book tells the story of a president driven to steal an election that was already
his—one he won by a large electoral majority. Illustrated with historical
photographs, this book demonstrates how the Watergate scandal was a turning
point in American history that caused people to think critically about the
presidency and not be intimidated by the power of the office.
22
Bausum, Ann. Muckrackers: How Ida Tarbell, Upton Sinclair, and Lincoln Steffens
Helped Expose Scandal, Inspire Reform, and Invent Investigative Journalism.
Washington, D.C.: National Geographic, 2007. Print.
A news story brought down a presidency, according to Daniel Schorr, chief
Watergate correspondent for CBS News at the time—and whose name appeared
on Nixon’s list of enemies. As journalists uncovered evidence of abuse of power,
Nixon had little choice but to resign—or be removed from office. Bausum’s book
helped us understand the pivotal role of investigative journalism in the events
surrounding Watergate, from the break-in to the President’s resignation.
Crowley, Monica. Nixon in Winter: His Final Revelations About Diplomacy, Watergate,
and Life Out of the Arena. New York: Random House, 1998. Print.
Nixon in Winter offers a perspective from behind the scenes of the presidency that
was written by Nixon’s political confidante. This book examines all aspects of his
presidency and his feelings after his resignation while having to watch the
“foreign-policy failures of Bush and Clinton.” This was an interesting take
because it described his personal feelings of the torment caused by the scandal
and the realization that the scandal would impact his political character forever.
Emery, Fred. Watergate: The Corruption of American Politics and the Fall of Richard
Nixon. New York: Random House, 1994. Print.
Emery was the Washington correspondent for The Times of London during the
Watergate scandal. He covered every aspect of the story at the time and then
revisited the topic in this book after accessing previously classified materials. It
was interesting to study materials written at different times throughout the scandal
and its aftermath. New understanding of the events and Nixon’s role in them
emerges as more of the White House tapes were released, documents declassified,
and interviews with those involved became public. This source helped us see how
interpretation of Nixon’s role in the scandal has changed over time.
Halberstam, David. The Powers That Be. New York: Knopf, 1979. Print.
In the book The Powers That Be, David Halberstam focused on what the
Watergate Scandal brought back - muckraking. All started by Upton Sinclair with
the book The Jungle, the style of writing would be reincorporated with journalism
by Woodward and Bernstein . This helped in seeing the context of the scandal, in
addition to its lasting effects.
Kilian, Pamela. What was Watergate? New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990. Print.
Written for an audience born after Watergate, this book focuses on the historical
context of Watergate and the way American democracy worked during a national
crisis. Especially helpful were the chronology of events surrounding the
23
Watergate scandal, a “who’s who” list of important figures, and a reading list of
books written by members of Nixon’s administration and by Watergate
investigators.
McConnell, William S. Watergate. Farmington Hills, MI: Greenhaven/Thomson Gale,
2006. Print.
Many different viewpoints are featured in this book, regarding the causes and the
legacy of the Watergate scandal. The introduction describes the chronology of
Watergate, from the Committee to Reelect the President, to the subpoena of
Nixon. Different authors then discuss their opinions on Nixon and his actions, and
the role of media in this political ordeal. The most valuable section of this book
describes the various legacies that resulted from Watergate, including the erosion
of trust in the government, the relationship between the press and various
government reforms.
Olson, Keith W. Watergate: The Presidential Scandal the Shook America. Lawrence: The
University of Kansas Press, 2003. Print.
Olson asserts that the Watergate scandal “created a constitutional crisis second
only to the Civil War,” resulting in the first (and only) resignation of a president
in U.S. history. His book helped us understand the people and events involved in
the crisis that became known as Watergate and how the scandal became a major
turning point in American political history.
Reston, James. The Conviction of Richard Nixon. New York: Harmony Books, 2007.
Print.
Reston’s book offers a behind the scenes look at preparations for David Frost’s
1977 interviews with President Nixon three years after he resigned from office.
Reston served as Frost’s Watergate advisor for the interviews, which Nixon had
hoped would launch him back into public life. Instead, according to Reston, the
interviews “sealed his fate as a political pariah.” This source helped us analyze the
short-term impact of the Watergate crisis.
Schudson, Michael. Watergate in American Memory: How We Remember, Forget, and
Reconstruct the past. New York: Basic, 1992. Print.
Schudson’s book dives into the deep realms of Watergate as a catalyst fir
significant change in history. Looking at how the political map for newspapers
was changed, giving rise to the Washington Post over the New York Times. In
addition, he discusses its impact on the political process. The booked helped in
our analysis regarding journalism and politics.
24
Werth, Barry. 31 Days. New York: Doubleday, 2006. Print.
31 Days examines the days following Nixon’s resignation and Gerald Ford’s early
days as President. This source was vital to the aspect of our project pertaining to
the way the presidency itself changed, and the way the citizens viewed the
presidency.
White, Theodore H. "Chapter Thirteen: Breach of Faith." Breach of Faith: The Fall of
Richard Nixon. New York: Atheneum, 1975. 322-43. Print.
Theodore White states that Richard Nixon destroyed the “myth” that the President
stands for the law, and has raised questions on what we seek from our
government. In the last chapter of his book, he describes the cultural clashedsof
Nixon’s time and the ideological wars that he faced in context of the scandal. He
compares Nixon’s test of faith and law to Cicero and the Roman Empire. He
likens Nixon's resignation to the death of Cicero and identifies them as necessary
to the public. This chapter also describes congress, opponents, and his retreat
after the disaster.
Wilson, Robert A., ed. Power and the Presidency. New York: Public Affairs, 1999. Print.
The authors—presidential biographers, historians, and journalists—described the
characteristics that draw people into the race for the presidency and how various
men have wielded the power that comes with the office. The authors addressed
presidents Roosevelt through Clinton. This provided excellent historical context
for how the presidency was before the Watergate Scandal and how it was changed
afterwards.
Case Study
Perry, James M. Watergate Case Study. Watergate. Columbia University, n.d. Web. 5
Feb. 2013.
James Perry did an excellent job analyzing the significant impact of Watergate,
especially related to the two journalists for the Washington Post, Woodward and
Bernstein, had on investigative journalism. The ability for a small blurb in a
newspaper to take down an entire presidency still reverberates in modern
investigative journalism. Methods of journalism changed, leaving a lasting impact.
25
Interviews
Finkelman, Paul. Conversation with Rebekah Frese, 16 March 2013.
Dr. Finkelman is the President William McKinley Distinguished Professor of Law
and Public Policy at Albany Law School, Albany, New York. Rebekah attended a
lecture he gave, “Why the Freedom Train Had to Be Underground: The Legal and
Constitutional Issues Surrounding the Underground Railroad.” Since many of our
sources mentioned that Watergate represented the biggest constitutional crisis
since the Civil War, Rebekah took advantage of an opportunity to meet with Dr.
Finkleman prior to his lecture to discuss how both events threatened the American
system of government.
Finkelman, Paul. Phone Interview with Rebekah Frese. 3 April 2013.
This phone interview provided a follow-up to Rebekah’s earlier conversation with
Dr. Finkelman, who specializes in American legal history, constitutional law, and
race and the law. Because he is an expert in the American Civil War, we wanted
to ask him to comment on the idea that Watergate was the greatest constitutional
crisis since the Civil War. He described ways Watergate represented a
constitutional crisis, but believes that the Civil War—and the succession of
Southern states—was “much more of a threat to the Constitution than Richard
Nixon.” His insight also helped us understand the idea of the “imperial
president”—the way the power of the U.S. presidency had grown to the point that
presidents, including Nixon, “acted almost as if he were an emperor, as though he
could do anything he wanted.”
Burgard, Stephen. "3Qs: How Watergate Changed Journalism — and the Nation."
Interview by Matt Collette. News at Northeastern. Northeastern University, 13
June 2012. Web. 27 Jan. 2013.
Matt Collette’s interview pinpointed specifically how the Watergate scandal had
an astounding impact on journalism. After this story broke, fact checking went out
the window as news outlets rushed to be first to publish a story. Changing the
views of journalism elevated the industry to the status of a lucrative profession
that can really have an impact on society. Watergate helped create a generation of
journalists that came in bold and ready to bring something new, working to the
top of the ladder, and “paying your dues” to the journalism industry. It in some
ways, journalism became a more respected field while in others, the profession’s
image was tarnished. The interview offered a professional opinion on the impact
the Watergate scandal had in a specific arena.
26
Staley, Thomas F. "Watergate Papers -- High School Student History Project Questions."
E-mail interview. 22 Mar. 2013.
Dr. Thomas Staley is the Director of the Ransom Center at the University of
Texas at Austin and also an English professor. He was instrumental in obtaining
the Watergate Papers, which are housed at the Ransom center and part of an
online exhibit. He was very helpful in offering his professional opinion on the
impact Watergate had on journalism and also looking at how a change occurred in
government. This interview was very helpful when looking at both the analysis of
journalism and politics as a result of Watergate.
Television Broadcast
Smith, Terence. "PBS NewsHour." Watergate: Thirty Years Later. PBS. IPTV, 17 June
2002. Television. Transcript.
Produced by PBS, this show presented the impact Watergate had on journalism.
The host, Terrence Smith, interviewed the former executive editor of the
Washington Post, Ben Bradlee, and the reporters, Woodward and Bernstein.
Because of Watergate, the quality of investigative journalism improved and
changed how people went about finding ‘breaking’ stories. This source provided
excellent insight as we examined the impact Watergate had on journalism.
Video
All the President's Men. Dir. Alan J. Pakula. Perf. Robert Redford and Dustin Hoffman.
Warner Bros., 1976. DVD.
Robert Redford and Dustin Hoffman star in a movie based upon the book, All the
President’s Men by Carl Bernstein and Bob Woodward. The Hollywood adaption,
like the book, focused on the experiences of the two Washington Post journalists
who uncovered the workings of the Watergate scandal. Investigating the scandal
was a long and exhausting journey for Woodward and Bernstein. The Oscarwinning film, while dramatizing the role of the journalists, helped us see how
ingrained Watergate is in popular culture.
American Experience. The Presidents: Nixon. Burbank: Warner Home Video, 2000.
DVD.
In this PBS documentary, primary source film footage, photographs and
documents illustrate the story of the rise and fall of one of the United States’ most
powerful and controversial presidents. Nixon was portrayed as a man of stark
contradictions and grand plans whose political career was ultimately destroyed by
petty grievances. He used his power as president to undermine his enemies while
circumventing the State Department to enact a bold vision for America’s role in
27
world affairs. The documentary helped us understand the extent of Nixon’s power
as president—and how the exercise of presidential power would change after the
Watergate scandal led to his downfall.
Watergate. Prod. Charles Lewis. Perf. Bob Woodward, Carl Bernstein, Barry Sussman, Ben Bradlee. Investigating Power. American University, 26 Apr. 2012. Web. 10 Apr. 2013. Watergate is a powerful topic that hits at different notes in different people. The video created by American University perfectly captures the power and deception that defined Nixon’s administration. This helped to set the stage for the impact the scandal would have on presidency, politics, and press. Images of Nixon before the scandal broke also helped to see the context of the event. Pergam, Andrew, dir. "Watergate: Forty Years after the Scandal." The Washington Post.
2012. Video.
This video is part of the The Washington Post’s on-line collection of Watergate
materials. It incorporates numerous primary sources, but we considered it a
secondary source because the materials were edited and interpreted for
presentation.
Websites
“The Aftermath of Watergate.” Watergate.info. 2013. Web. 5 March 2013.
This article was a list of bullet-points, much like a timeline, of the events
succeeding Watergate. This provided historical context and demonstrated how
much of an impact Watergate had on the presidency and society’s perception of
the presidency.
“Background: The Woodward and Bernstein Watergate Papers.” The University of
Texas at Austin. 2012. Web. 6 March 2013.
The University of Texas purchased Woodward and Bernstein’s Watergate papers
in 2003 for $5 million. The papers provide researchers access to important
primary source materials related to coverage of the Watergate scandal. Some of
the documents have been digitized, so this site was important in leading us to
useful primary resources.
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“Ceremony Celebrating the Opening of the Watergate Gallery.” Nixon Presidential
Library, Yorba Linda, California. Web. 19 March 2013.
Footage from the official ceremony opening the new Watergate Gallery at the
Nixon Library provided us with insight about Watergate from Sharon K. Fawcett,
Assistant Archivist, Office of Presidential Libraries; David S. Ferriero, Archivist
of the United States; and Timothy J. Naftali, Director of the Nixon Library and
Curator of the Watergate Exhibit. Their observations helped us analyze the impact
of Watergate in history.
“Forty Years Since the Watergate Scandal Erupted: Its Long Range Effects.” The
Progressive Professor. 17 June 2012. Web. 5 March 2013.
This source cements the turning points of Watergate—stating that the scandal was
“on the level of the Civil War and the Great Depression, in its long range impact
on the nation.” This helped us to put into perspective the seriousness of the
scandal in relation to other crises Americans faced throughout history.
"Impact on Journalism." Lively Arts. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Mar. 2013.
The political map was redrawn because of Watergate. Before Watergate the New
York Times was the undisputed top newspaper. Once the Washington Post broke
the stories surrounding Watergate, that newspaper was elevated in prestige. This
had a profound impact, showing that more than one newspaper could wield
influence.
“Jimmy Carter.” Presidential Profiles. History. Web. 22 March 2013.
The History channel site provided a useful profile of President Carter’s challenges
and conflicts with the media due to the lingering effects of Watergate. We used
this information to help put his presidency in context on the “Successors” page of
our website.
Johnson, KC. "Watergate's Effects." Watergate's Effects. Brooklyn College, n.d. Web. 05
Mar. 2013.
This page featured a summary of all the legislative initiatives that were enacted
after post-Watergate. Some of the most significant and prominent, are the Ethics
in Government Act, which required financial disclosure by government officials,
the Freedom of Information Act, which increased access to government papers,
and the Federal Campaign Act, which limited contributions by corporations to
federal campaigns. This site contributed to our analysis of Watergate’s legacy.
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Kenslea, Megan. "How Watergate Changed What Journalists Do." Columbia Scholastic
Press Association. Columbia University, n.d. Web. 19 Mar. 2013.
Kenslea meet with Alica Shepard who wrote a book analyzing the impact that the
Watergate scandal had on journalism. She summarized what she found, such as
how competition rose sharply with such a large influx of the population wanting
to become journalists. This greatly helped in showing all the different areas of
journalism and all the people it affected.
Over, Peter. "Illegal During Watergate, Unlimited Campaign Donations Now Fair
Game."NPR. NPR, 16 Nov. 2011. Web. 05 Mar. 2013.
The author discusses the impact of the newer Citizens United ruling on the subject
of campaign finances and a corporation’s contribution to election funds. Before
1971, many corporations made secret donations to campaigns. For example, the
Associated Milk Producers Incorporated made significant contributions to
Nixon’s campaign, and he performed favors for the group in return. The article
goes on to describe the changes made to the laws by the Citizens United case, and
how they can affect not only the election process with the increased presence of
PACs, but also skew campaign funding.
"The Past Reforms – A Look at the Laws." The Washington Post. The Washington Post
Company, 1998. Web. 4 Mar. 2013.
The Washington Post looks at the various aspects of campaign finance law in this
article, which mainly features legislation resulting from the Watergate scandal.
This section looks at the Federal Election Campaign Act, and offers a clear
breakdown of the elements of the act. It also explains the process for contributing
to campaigns, which was very helpful in our understanding of the act.
Shahid, Sharon. “35 Years Ago: Watergate is Nixon’s Waterloo.” Newseum Online 6
Aug. 2009. Web. 6 March 2012.
Shahid’s article offered a succinct explanation of the Watergate scandal’s impact
and included links to primary source newspaper front pages, video clips, and
artifact descriptions.
Shahid, Sharon. “A Conversation with Bob Woodward on the 40th Anniversary of
Watergate.” Newseum Online. 13 June 2012. Web. 6 March 2013.
Bob Woodward, one of the journalists involved in breaking the Watergate story
for The Washington Post, discusses the legacy of Watergate in this article. Having
listened to the Nixon tapes, he thinks the former president “misunderstood what
the office was about.” The tapes, according to Woodward, reveal someone who
was angry and unhappy being president. “He used the White House as an
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instrument of personal revenge,” Woodward said. Woodward’s reflections helped
us analyze Nixon’s actions and grasp the legacy of Watergate.
“Watergate and American Political Values.” Watergate.info. 2013. Web. 5 March 2013.
This is a list of ways the checks and balances of the United States government
were put into play during the Watergate scandal. This helped us to understand
why the events of the scandal unfolded the way they did.
“Watergate, Gerald Ford and the Nixon Pardon.” White House Historical Association.
Web. 5 March 2013.
This article provided a look at the Watergate events through the perspective of the
parallel process to confirm Gerald Ford as vice president after Spiro Agnew,
Nixon’s running mate and elected vice president resigned. Considering the
investigations and possible consequences, Ford’s selection faced intense scrutiny.
If the Watergate investigations led to Nixon’s impeachment and removal from
office, he would—though never elected—be next in line for the presidency. This
source also led to photographs we could use to illustrate our website.
Watergate Video and Viewing Guide. Newseum Online Exhibits. Web. 3 March 2013.
Newseum (Washington, D.C.) online resources provided insight into the
Watergate scandal, a short video compiled of news footage from the Watergate
era, and links to other valuable resource materials.
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