West Penwith
Agreed by English Nature,
the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds,
the National Trust, and the Cornwall Wildlife Trust
A Howard
Illustrations by S McCartney
July 1997
Summary
The development of the Natural Areas concept is a key part of English Nature's strategy to help
conserve nature in England. A Natural Area is not a designation, but an area of countryside
identified by its unique combination of physical attributes, wildlife, land use and culture. English
Nature believe that Natural Areas provide an improved framework for securing public support for
wildlife and geological conservation, and that development of the idea will greatly improve their
ability to work together with others to deliver effective nature conservation. It is hoped that the
Natural Areas approach to nature conservation will, through highlighting the essential flavour of an
area and demonstrating in simple terms the interdependence of its component parts, go some way
towards fostering a pride in the local environment and creating a force for change.
The ancient landscape and spectacular scenery of West Penwith combine to give this Natural Area a
special sense of place which distinguishes it from the rest of England, indeed from the rest of
Cornwall. Its many landscape designations, including Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty and Area
of Great Historic Value, reflect the national importance of its scenery and archaeology. Its position
as the most south-westerly peninsula in Britain endows it with a mild and wet climate, and exposes it
to the full force of the Atlantic gales. It is mostly underlain by granite formed at the end of a
mountain-building event which took place approximately 280 million years ago. The granite has
helped shape the cultural landscape, used as it was for building the stone circles and field
boundaries of prehistory and the houses, churches and mine buildings of more recent times.
Approximately 70% of the land area is given over to agricultural production, predominantly
livestock-rearing with some early vegetables, flowers and bulbs. A large part of the remaining land 8% - is covered by heath, an internationally important habitat, found mainly on the chain of hills, the
Penwith Moors, which runs through the Natural Area and which dominates the landscape. Cornish
hedges and derelict mine sites are important landscape features and are being recognised more
widely as important wildlife habitats as well.
The habitats present support over 100 species of national or international conservation concern in
the Natural Area, including species which have national strongholds in the Natural Area, such as the
liverwort Western rustwort and the flowering plants coral necklace, three-lobed water-crowfoot and
purple viper’s-bugloss.
The habitats and species present are greatly influenced by past and present land use, which has
been predominantly agricultural, and the character of the physical environment. However changes
in land management over recent decades have adversely affected the nature conservation interest of
the Natural Area. This profile aims to describe and evaluate the key nature conservation features of
the West Penwith Natural Area, to outline the main issues affecting them and highlight the need for
action, and to propose nature conservation objectives for discussion.
The production of this Natural Area Profile is the first step towards securing local agreement on
what the priorities for nature conservation are within the West Penwith Natural Area. The profile is
consistent with the UK Biodiversity Action Plan, and in particular with the UK Steering Group
Report on biodiversity which was submitted to Government in December 1995. The profile will,
through the addition of targets and action points, help with the development of relevant Local
Biodiversity Action Plans.
NA 96 West Penwith
Foreword
One of the key components of English Nature’s Strategy for the 1990s has been the Natural
Areas approach. We examined the local distinctiveness of each part of England, to identify
their characteristic wildlife and natural features, and used this to define a comprehensive
series of Natural Areas. Their boundaries are based on the distribution of wildlife and natural
features, and on the land use pattern and human history of each area, and thus offer a more
effective framework for the planning and achievement of nature conservation objectives than
do administrative boundaries. They are not designations.
Wildlife is not restricted to designated and protected sites such as nature reserves or SSSIs; it
occurs throughout the countryside, coast and built up areas of England. No part of the
country is without some wildlife interest. The Natural Areas approach gives us a way of
determining priorities for nature conservation areas with ecological and landscape integrity,
and to set objectives which reflect these priorities. Together, all Natural Areas provide a
powerful vision for nature conservation right across England.
The achievement of the objectives described for each Natural Area will be a key part of or
new strategy Beyond 2000. The objectives will guide our work over the coming years, and
we hope Natural Areas will allow us to help others in achieving what is best for nature
conservation locally.
This Natural Area profile is one of a series of 120, one for each Natural Area. In it we
describe the wildlife and natural features of the area, and what makes it special and
distinctive. Each Natural Area profile is different, since it describes and reflects the local
distinctiveness of the area, and therefore includes nature conservation objectives which are
particular to that area. The profiles have been written after a wide range of local
consultations, both on the boundaries of the Natural Areas themselves and on these profiles.
We hope you will find this document useful, and look forward to working with you to
maintain and enhance the wildlife and natural features of England.
Dr Derek Langslow
Chief Executive
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Contents
Summary
Forward
1.
The Natural Areas Concept................................................................................................7
1.1
The role of the profile 7
1.2
The Natural Area Boundary 8
2.
West Penwith Natural Area - An Introduction ................................................................10
3.
Geology and Landforms...................................................................................................12
4.
Geology and landforms issues and objectives..................................................................16
5.
Habitats ............................................................................................................................18
6.
Habitat issues and objectives ...........................................................................................22
7.
Species..............................................................................................................................25
8.
Species issues and objectives ...........................................................................................29
9.
Prime biodiversity areas...................................................................................................31
10. Appendices.......................................................................................................................33
11. Bibliography.....................................................................................................................41
12. Glossary............................................................................................................................44
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West Penwith Natural Area- A Vision for the Future
One cannot travel in West Penwith without becoming aware of its history. The Natural Area
is littered with archaeological remains, from prehistoric field boundaries and standing
stones to 19th century engine houses. Its history is tied inextricably to its geology, through
providing the materials with which to build the hedges and stone circles, and through its
abundance of mineral deposits. The Natural Area’s history has also shaped the nature
conservation features present, such as the extensive tracts of heathland on the moors and
the distinctive Cornish hedges.
The West Penwith Natural Area has a profoundly Cornish, even Celtic, feel. The many
archaeological remains, small irregular fields bounded by Cornish hedges, the expanses of
heath and bracken on the moors, the granite tors and clitter slopes, and the treeless and
exposed landscape all combine to give the Natural Area a unique identity. But this identity
is being eroded as hedges are removed, heathland is neglected and inappropriate
development blights the landscape. West Penwith has a very strong natural character, but
how long will it be before it becomes indistinguishable from any other part of England?
How can we reverse the trends and produce a landscape richer in wildlife and natural
features? It is essential to take a long-term view of what we wish to see happen, since
change does not come about overnight. We all have our own ideas and ways of contributing,
but surely our shared vision for the future of the West Penwith Natural Area must include
the following:
The current trend towards habitat loss should be reversed. The Environmentally Sensitive
Area and Countryside Stewardship Scheme have already slowed the rate of agricultural
improvement in parts of the Natural Area, but more needs to be done to persuade farmers to
return to less intensive agricultural practices and encourage wildlife back onto the large
number of farms not covered by these schemes. Fragments of semi-natural habitat such as
heathland, mire and unimproved grassland should be extended and linked together so that
rare species such as marsh fritillary are given the chance to thrive and move about the
countryside easily. The extensive network of Cornish hedges should be maintained and
dilapidated hedges rebuilt - for both archaeological and nature conservation reasons - and
the nature conservation interest of Cornish hedges, derelict mine sites and farmland should
be recognised and promoted. Habitats should be managed for their common plants and
animals so that declines in numbers of common species such as skylarks and song thrushes
are halted and reversed, and so that the current recovery of popular species such as otters
continues unabated.
Future generations should continue to have access to the countryside, and to geological
exposures and landforms which are important to our understanding of the processes which
shaped the landscape. People should be encouraged to learn about and value the landscape
and natural features, for whatever reason, be it scientific interest or just enjoyment of the
countryside.
It must be remembered that the human influence on the environment is very great indeed,
and without the support of land managers and the general public this vision will not be
fulfilled. Nature conservation must be balanced with other land-use interests, such as
development and recreation. Agriculture and tourism will continue to be dominant forces
and must continue to be profitable, whilst recognising the considerable benefits of a healthy
NA 96 West Penwith
environment. Decisions will be made on the basis of long term value rather than short term
expediency.
If all this is achieved, the survival and enhancement of many of the Natural Area’s habitats
and species will be ensured and the distinctive landscape and character of West Penwith
will be retained and enhanced for future generations to enjoy, live and work in.
Who Can Contribute?
Significant progress in realising a nature conservation strategy for the West Penwith
Natural Area can only be made if all the individuals and organisations involved in its
management pull together with a shared Vision for the Future.
Action, co-operation and involvement will be needed from:
•
landowners, farmers and the local community
•
conservation and countryside management bodies such as English Nature, the
National Trust, Cornwall Archaeological Unit, the Forestry Commission, Cornwall
Wildlife Trust, the Countryside Commission, English Heritage, the Environment
Agency, the Farming and Wildlife Advisory Group, the Royal Society for the
Protection of Birds and voluntary organisations
•
industrial and commercial concerns such as the quarrying companies
•
government bodies such as the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of Agriculture,
Fisheries and Food
•
local authorities and parish councils
•
research organisations such as universities and other institutions which can help to
increase our understanding of the West Penwith Natural Area.
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1.
The Natural Areas Concept
The development of the Natural Areas concept is a key part of English Nature's strategy to
help conserve nature in England. The Natural Areas are considered to provide an improved
framework for integrating planning and management of the countryside, securing public
support for wildlife and geological conservation, setting objectives for nature conservation
and greatly improving English Nature's ability to work together with others to deliver
effective action. Natural Areas take account of both local needs and national priorities.
The land area of England and the seas around it have been divided into some 120 Natural
Areas and Maritime Natural Areas, of which West Penwith is one. A Natural Area is not a
designation, but an area of countryside identified by its unique combination of physical
attributes, wildlife, land use and culture. These features give a Natural Area a "sense of place"
and a distinctive nature conservation character which we can seek to sustain in a sensible
ecological context. The concept relies upon wide participation and enables all those involved
to "Think globally, act locally".
Through Natural Areas, English Nature aims not only to help set the context for special sites
such as nature reserves and Sites of Special Scientific Interest, but just as importantly to
promote action to conserve wildlife and geological features throughout the countryside. It is
hoped that people will be stimulated to look after plants and animals wherever they may be,
and whether they are rare or still commonplace.
1.1
The role of the profile
This profile sets out to describe and evaluate the wildlife and geological features of the West
Penwith Natural Area, to identify the key issues affecting them and the need for action.
Important habitats, species and physical features within the Natural Area are identified and
described, and objectives set for their conservation.
The profile is written for all those with an interest in and influence on nature conservation
within the area identified as West Penwith. It is hoped that it will serve to draw public
organisations, conservation bodies and local people closer together, towards the achievement
of shared objectives that address the top priorities for conservation within the Natural Area.
The document is consistent with recent thinking on the conservation of biodiversity in the
UK. In particular, it draws on Biodiversity: The UK Steering Group Report, published in
December 1995, which develops several of the prime objectives set out in Biodiversity: The
UK Action Plan (1994). The Plan commits the Government to the objectives of the
Convention on Biological Diversity, signed by the Prime Minister at the Earth Summit in Rio
de Janeiro in June 1992. The UK Steering Group Report includes lists of species of
conservation concern in the UK, as well as costed action plans for some 14 key habitats and
116 key species. It also covers the production of Local Biodiversity Action Plans, seen as the
means of implementing the UK plans at the local level. Biodiversity Action Plans have
already been published for key habitats in South West England and are in the process of being
produced for Cornwall.
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This profile has been written in a style and format that should allow it to be developed easily
into a nature conservation strategy or Local Biodiversity Action Plan for the whole Natural
Area. The development of this can be achieved through the addition of policies, targets and
action points.
1.2
The Natural Area Boundary
The West Penwith Natural Area covers the Land’s End peninsula as far east as St Ives but
excludes Penzance (Map 1). The boundary is based on the underlying geology, which has a
profound influence on the character of the Natural Area. The north and south coasts and a
narrow strip of coastal habitat approximately 0.5km wide form part of the Maritime Natural
Areas of Start Point to Land's End and Land's End to Minehead. Maritime habitats and
species occurring only within this coastal strip are described in the profiles of the Maritime
Natural Areas.
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2.
West Penwith Natural Area - An Introduction
The Natural Area consists of an open landscape of gently undulating ground and a higher
chain of hills, the Penwith Moors, along the northern edge. These hills are the weathered
remnant of a large granite mass which was formed approximately 280 million years ago. They
rise out of a lower coastal “plain”, an ancient wave-cut platform which was once submerged
beneath the sea. The character of the vegetation present is strongly influenced by the
underlying geology and the prevailing westerly winds. This results, on the higher ground, in
heath and bracken and a general absence of trees. Here, adders and slow worms find refuge,
and skylarks and meadow pipits are typically seen over open ground. The lower ground
consists of farmland, chiefly livestock production with some early crops and bulbs, cut by
steep-sided, occasionally wooded valleys. Linnets and goldfinches are commonly seen on the
farmland and the Cornish hedges provide shelter for many insects, reptiles and small
mammals.
The landscape of West Penwith is recognised as being of national importance through its
designation as a Heritage Coast and as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. It is an
ancient landscape, windswept and exposed, with an internationally important concentration of
archaeological remains spanning the centuries from prehistory to the mediaeval period. Map 2
shows the concentration of statutory and non-statutory landscape designations within the
Natural Area.
Evidence of human history pervades the landscape, more so in West Penwith, perhaps, than
anywhere else in Cornwall. People have been present in West Penwith since the end of the
last Ice Age, approximately 10,000 years ago. Large areas of the peninsula were deforested
during the Neolithic and Bronze Ages (6,000 to 2,500 years ago), resulting in the deterioration
of the soils and the subsequent development of heathland. Many archaeological remains exist
from this period including burial chambers such as Lanyon Quoit and standing stones such as
Men-an-Tol. Low stone banks on the moors define Bronze Age field boundaries. Many
remains survive from the later prehistoric and Roman periods (2,500 to 1,500 years ago),
including field boundaries (Cornish hedges) and the dispersed settlement pattern
characteristic of much of Cornwall. In some parts of the Natural Area quite large areas of the
prehistoric field pattern remain recognisable. There are very few areas in Britain where this
sort of feature still survives within a working agricultural landscape, and for this reason a
large part of the Natural Area has been designated an Environmentally Sensitive Area, where
farmers and landowners are encouraged through financial compensation to manage the land in
an environmentally sensitive way (see Map 2).
The remains of a once-thriving minerals extraction industry are a distinctive feature of the
Natural Area - abandoned china clay workings, derelict engine houses and chimneys and old
spoil heaps are dotted about the countryside, adding to the air of bleakness in this harsh and
exposed landscape. Many of these abandoned workings now support heathland and mire
vegetation, and important communities of mosses and liverworts.
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The interdependence of the physical environment, habitats and species of the Natural Area on
natural environmental processes, land use and the Cornish culture is evident. It is important
therefore to take a holistic approach to the conservation of the features present, and to
involve everyone with an interest in the Natural Area in the setting and achieving of
objectives for future management. It is also important to target the limited resources available
at conserving features which, through being conserved themselves, would help greatly in the
conservation of others.
In the following pages the West Penwith Natural Area is described in terms of its natural
features and the factors that have influenced the formation of these features. Those features
which are described as "key" are felt to be either rare and declining, have a stronghold in the
Natural Area, or are typical of and important in people's perceptions of the Natural Area and
contribute substantially to its character.
Conservation issues and other factors affecting the key features are identified and listed in
each section. Because of the interdependence firstly of the habitats present on the physical
landforms and geology, and secondly of the species on the habitats present, many of the
issues will apply to two or more sections. A number of objectives are proposed at the end of
each section which will form the basis of efforts to achieve our Vision for the Future.
3.
Geology and Landforms
The Natural Area is almost entirely underlain by granite of early Permian age (approximately
280 million years old). This granite is one of the large masses that form a spine running
through South West England from the Isles of Scilly in the west to Dartmoor in the east. The
landscape of West Penwith is dominated by the chain of hills - the Penwith Moors - running
through the north of the Natural Area. These are surrounded by a lower-lying coastal plain
formed by marine erosion many millions of years ago. Some of the moors are topped with
granite tors and strewn with half-buried granite boulders, or clitter. Deposits of granitic sand
and gravel, collected in gullies between the hills, have resulted in a gently rounded
topography.
The rocks at the margins of the granite contain many minerals, some of which are found
nowhere else in the world. Veins of tin and copper ores are found in these areas, and many
old mine sites can be seen on the coastal plateau. The extraction of these metals formed the
basis of the Cornish economy in times past; the derelict engine houses and chimney stacks
which remain now contribute greatly to the landscape character of the area.
The key geological and landform features of West Penwith are described below. Almost all
the important geological exposures are, naturally enough, on the coast in the sea cliffs. Much
of the West Penwith coastline lies within geological Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs).
These coastal features are described in the profiles of the adjacent Maritime Natural Areas.
Within the Natural Area, only two sites have been identified as Regionally Important
Geological/Geomorphological Sites (RIGS), at Bog Inn and Wheal Drea, both near St Just.
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The key geological and landform features of the Natural Area are:
•
Granite. The Land’s End granite is one of the seven major granite outcrops on the
mainland of South West England. The granite forms an ovoid-shaped mass lying
within metamorphosed sediments and lavas (known locally as killas and greenstones)
of Devonian age (about 360 million years old). It was emplaced as a molten liquid into
the surrounding country rocks at the end of the Variscan Orogeny (a phase of
mountain building which took place approximately 300 million years ago). Upwelling
granitic magma cooled to form domes of rock (plutons) linked together at depth
forming a spine which has controlled the subsequent shape and history of the South
West peninsula. Over much of West Penwith, the overlying rocks have been
weathered away, so that the granite is now exposed at the surface.
Granite is composed of three major minerals: quartz, feldspar and mica. In the West
Penwith granite, the mica is in the common iron-bearing form known as biotite. Two
varieties of feldspar are also present: a coarse, potassium-rich form known as
orthoclase and a more sodium-rich variety known as plagioclase. There are areas of
both coarse-grained and fine-grained granite - the size of the constituent crystals
having been determined by the rate of cooling of the molten rock in different places.
•
Tors, growan and clitter. Tors in West Penwith are landforms composed of deeply
incised blocks of granite protruding above the soil. They were formed as a result of a
succession of different chemical and physical processes taking place under different
climatic conditions. Initial cracking probably occurred as the rocks cooled. Deep
chemical weathering took place along faults and major joints during humid tropical
episodes such as in the late Mesozoic and the Tertiary periods (200-20 million years
ago), isolating cores of hard unweathered granite. Subsequent erosion of the
surrounding soft weathered material, perhaps during the Ice Ages of the Quaternary
(the last 2 million years), left the core-stones of granite standing up above the surface.
Tors are found in the areas of coarse-grained granite; fine-textured granite rarely
forms tors since it is not easily split.
Weathering of the granite by infiltration of water, which dissolves the feldspars, forms
granitic sand and gravel, known as growan. This lies to a considerable depth over the
granite, particularly in depressions, resulting in a gently rounded topography and
frequent clitter slopes - where slopes are covered with half-buried boulders of granite
which migrate slowly downhill through rockfall and periglacial activity. These granite
boulders lying on the surface were used by early peoples to erect the stone circles,
burial chambers and standing stones which contribute so essentially to the ancient feel
of the Natural Area.
•
Minerals. Cornwall is world-renowned for its mineralogical interest. Its mineral suite
comprises 450 species, 6 of which are unique to the county. 39 of the 400 or so
mineral locations in the county are type localities (the first place that the mineral was
discovered.) Type localities in the Natural Area include Geevor Mine (Sodiumzippeite).
The Natural Area has had a long history of minerals exploitation, which has helped to
shape its cultural and landscape heritage. Many of the veins of metal-bearing minerals
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were formed as a result of the intrusions of granite into the overlying rocks. The
intense heat of the upwelling magma baked the surrounding rocks, in a process known
as contact metamorphism, resulting in an encircling belt, or aureole, of metamorphic
rock surrounding the granite. The granite crystallised as it cooled and shrinkage cracks
formed. Hot solutions containing boron, fluorine and silica were forced under pressure
into the fissures, altering the rocks adjacent to the cracks in processes known as
greisening and tourmalinisation. Water circulating in the rocks carried dissolved
metals, and deposited them as veins of metal ores such as cassiterite (tin) and
chalcosine (copper). The richest deposits of copper mineral were found in the killas
and greenstone whilst tin was found mostly in the granite. Similar processes, followed
by infiltration and convective circulation of fresh water, attacked the feldspars in the
granite, breaking down its crystalline structure and converting it into kaolinite, from
which china clay, or kaolin, is derived. These mineralisation processes led to the
formation of a great concentration of mineral wealth, which was the mainstay of the
Cornish economy for many centuries, until cheaper imports were introduced in the
19th and 20th centuries.
•
Marine erosion platforms. West Penwith is characterised by a chain of hills in the
north of the Natural Area, surrounded by lower-lying, roughly level platforms formed
by ancient marine erosion processes. At the time of the formation of these platforms
during the Cretaceous period (140-65 million years ago), the present-day moors would
have appeared as a chain of small islands surrounded by a shallow sea, much like the
Isles of Scilly today.
•
Head deposits. During the Ice Ages, Cornwall escaped the ravages of the great ice
sheets, and instead had a climate like that of the tundra regions of the world today.
Under these extremely cold, permafrost conditions, soil, subsoil and underlying
decomposed granite would move slowly downslope and collect in gullies and valleys.
This unconsolidated material now forms a mantle over much of the area and consists
of angular fragments of local bedrock in a sand-clay matrix. A good example can be
seen at Porthmeor, where a stream cuts down through the deposit. Sometimes this
material contained cassiterite and small quantities of gold; it was washed by tin
streamers to recover the metals, often resulting in a hummock-hollow terrain. Nearly
half of all the tin ever produced in Cornwall has been recovered by tin-streaming.
•
Soils. The soils of West Penwith lie largely over the parent rocks from which they
were formed. In the Natural Area the soils are predominantly acidic, gritty, loamy soils
with variable drainage.
•
Pollen stratigraphy. The pollen record from beneath barrows and other ancient
archaeological sites is largely intact and very useful in interpreting palæoclimates and
recent (ie within the last 10,000 years) environmental change in the Natural Area. It
also has an important role to play in interpreting climatic changes in Northern Europe
over the same period.
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4.
Geology and landforms issues and objectives
The geological and geomorphological features of the Natural Area, including the coastal
exposures of these features, are of outstanding conservation significance. They contribute
greatly to our understanding of past tectonic processes and, through their major role in the
economy in times past, complement the historical significance of the area.
The major issues affecting the key geological and landform features of the West Penwith
Natural Area and objectives proposed for their conservation are outlined in Table 1. The
overall objective is to maintain, enhance and promote sustainably the geological resource, and
in particular the rock exposures, mine sites and natural landforms important for understanding
the origin and development of the Natural Area and its place in the South West and the UK.
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Table 1. Geology and landform conservation issues and objectives
Conservation issues
Loss or damage to geological or landform features
Conservation objectives
Prevent further loss or damage to the geological and landform resource
•
Loss of physical features
Lack of protection for geological and landform features outside
designated sites
Housing, tourism and commercial development
Possibility of landfill sites being created in disused quarries etc.
Mineshaft capping
Quarrying for aggregates, building materials, etc.
Utilisation of mine spoil for economic return
•
•
Lack of information/awareness of importance of physical features
Lack of data
Lack of information about site specific management requirements
Damage from visitor pressure, eg erosion, overcollection of
minerals
Opportunities for increasing public awareness not effectively taken
up
•
Inappropriate management of physical features
Landscaping of derelict mine sites
Prevent further loss of physical features
Protect important sites from loss or damage. Liaise with English Nature and RIGS
group to identify further RIGS
Liaise with planning authorities over the siting of future developments
Liaise with planning authorities over the siting of landfill developments
Encourage the use of safe alternatives to the capping of mineshafts
Liaise with quarrying companies to agree conservation faces in working quarries
Agree conservation sites through proposed Derelict Land Reclamation Strategy,
Minerals Local Plan and the review of Minerals Planning Permissions
•
-
Identify and record the total geological and landform resource of the Natural Area and
raise the profile of the Natural Area’s geological importance
Promote research into and surveys of physical features. Identify and document all
important sites within the Natural Area
Provide management advice to farmers and landowners and investigate the use of site
management agreements
Manage access if appropriate
Promote the geological resource through the production and distribution of targeted
education material, the improvement of access to geological sites and on-site
interpretation where feasible, the provision of guided walks and talks, the promotion of
green tourism, eg museums and geological trails, and by strengthening links between
geology, scenery, habitats, and the cultural and industrial heritage
•
Creation and enhancement of geological and landform features
Promote appropriate management of physical features
Liaise with local authority and English Partnerships to reduce the impact of
landscaping schemes (eg through Derelict Land Grant) on mine dumps
Identify features which would benefit from active management, eg vegetated rock faces
that need clearing
Encourage less intensive use of agro-chemicals
Creation and enhancement of geological and landform features
•
New exposures created by quarrying and road developments
•
Liaise with highways authority to retain roadside rock exposures
•
Lack of funding for enhancement projects
•
Identify and pursue sources of funding for enhancement projects
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5.
Habitats
Climate, soils, drainage, geology and proximity to the sea all have an influence on the habitats
and species present. The mild climate and exposure to salt spray influence the species
composition of the vegetation, and exposure to the prevailing westerly winds results in
stunted growth forms. The geology influences the overlying soils, which in turn influence the
habitats through the preference of plants for certain levels of acidity and the availability of
essential minerals. Soil structure and drainage, or lack of it, also influence the distribution of
habitats.
The habitats present in the Natural Area have also been heavily influenced and much
modified by human activity over the millennia. There is evidence of human settlement on the
Cornish peninsula since Mesolithic times. Extensive woodland clearance took place during
the Bronze Age and at this time, with a warmer climate than that of today, upland areas were
enclosed and farmed. The removal of woodland cover and later deterioration in climate led to
the expansion of heathlands, which were subsequently used as a source of rough grazing and
fuel.
Table 2 shows the percentage landcover of the main habitat types which occur in the West
Penwith Natural Area today. The Natural Area is characterised by the occurrence of heath
and bracken on the moors, by farmland on the lower lying coastal platform, and by the
general absence of trees. Approximately 70% of the land area is devoted to agricultural
production. The northern part of the Natural Area lies within an Environmentally Sensitive
Area (ESA). Here, farmers and landowners are paid a subsidy towards managing the land in
an environmentally sensitive way. The farmland is dissected by Cornish hedges and stream
valleys containing mire, willow carr and some woodland. Some of the heathland, mire and
willow carr is associated with previous mineral workings, where tin streaming and related
activities have resulted in a hummock-hollow terrain. The habitat distribution of the Natural
Area is shown on Map 4.
Coastal habitats such as sea cliffs and beaches are key features in the West Penwith
landscape and are important habitats for wildlife; however these are not dealt with in detail
here as they are described in full in the profiles of the adjacent Maritime Natural Areas.
Some of the key habitats described in the following pages have been identified in the UK
Steering Group Report on Biodiversity (1995) as key habitats for which costed action plans
have been prepared. These are habitats for which the UK has international obligations, which
are at risk or are rare, which are functionally critical, or which are important for key species.
The names of habitat types used here may not correspond exactly with the UK Biodiversity
Action Plan names; a table relating the different habitat names with each other and with other
standard habitat nomenclatures is provided in Appendix 1.
NA 96 West Penwith
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Table 2. Main habitat types in the Natural Area* (provisional figures)
Habitat
Heathland
Wetland (including wet heath)
Broadleaved woodland (including
willow carr)
Conifers
Grassland
improved
possibly unimproved
unimproved
Arable
Open water
Scrub
Bracken
Disturbed ground
Other
Total
Area(ha)
1450
214
714
%
7.9
1.2
3.9
48
9604
675
13
3121
62
561
894
5
974
0.3
52.4
3.7
0.1
17.0
0.3
3.1
4.9
(0.03)
5.3
18335
100.1
* In order not to overlap too much with the adjacent Maritime Natural Areas, these figures have been
derived by looking at all the habitat types inland of a line half a kilometre from the high water mark.
The key habitats found within the Natural Area are:
•
Lowland heathland. Lowland heathland is generally found below 250m above sea
level and was formed when prehistoric man cleared the primeval forests for fuel and
timber. It is a rare and threatened habitat nationally, but Cornwall holds 11% of the
national total, the second largest area of any of the counties. Heathland covers
approximately 8% of the Natural Area - a very high figure when compared with the
adjacent Cornish Killas and Granites Natural Area, which is only 0.5% heathland. All
dry heaths are listed under Annex I of the EC Habitats Directive.
Heathland habitats in the Natural Area range from wet to dry and from maritime to
terrestrial. The most common type within the Natural Area is humid heath (or western
heath) dominated by heather, bristle bent and western gorse. Heathland is often found
in a mosaic with mire and willow carr, especially in areas where former tin-streaming
activity has resulted in a hummock-hollow topography. Heathland habitats support
diverse invertebrate and bird populations, and drier heaths are important within the
Natural Area for common reptiles such as the adder and common lizard.
•
Mire. Within the Natural Area, mire is often found associated with wet heath and
willow carr (see above/below), especially in former tin streaming areas. It is formed on
wet, boggy ground with impeded drainage and is characterised by purple moor grass,
Sphagnum, soft rush and bog asphodel.
Mires provide important habitat for many insect species, such as the nationally scarce
small red damselfly and the nationally scarce marsh fritillary butterfly.
NA 96 West Penwith
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•
Willow carr. Wet woodland in West Penwith is dominated by grey willow with
occasional alder. The ground flora characteristically comprises abundant yellow flag,
greater tussock sedge, hemlock water dropwort and opposite-leaved golden-saxifrage,
and ferns such as lady fern and royal fern. The willows themselves support abundant
mosses, liverworts and lichens. This type of habitat is found in wet areas with a high
water table, such as valley bottoms and stream sides, and in mosaics with wet heath
and mire.
•
Improved grassland. Most of the Natural Area consists of agricultural land, much of
which is given over to permanent, improved or semi-improved pasture supporting
cattle and sheep. Livestock require hedges for shelter, so many remain intact on
pasture land (see below). A distinctive feature of some of West Penwith’s fields is the
occurrence of huge half-buried granite boulders, which support communities of
lichens and mosses. Farmland in the Natural Area has been identified as regionally
important for biodiversity and supports significant populations of some wintering
birds, such as golden plover.
•
Arable. Within the Natural Area, only 25% of farmland is given over to crops,
compared with a national average of 40%. Crops grown here include early potatoes
and daffodils. Uncommon arable weeds such as the nationally rare purple viper’sbugloss are restricted to field edges, where competition from the crop and the input of
herbicides is lower.
•
Cornish hedges. Cornish hedges are of conservation significance as they provide
shelter for a diversity of invertebrates, small mammals and birds. They fulfil an
important role in the countryside as "wildlife corridors", acting rather like linear strips
of woodland edge or other semi-natural habitat in a sea of agricultural land. They also
function as nature conservation refugia; some hedges in Penwith exhibit woodland
ground flora communities including species such as wood anemone and bluebell even
though there has been no woodland present in the vicinity for centuries. Hedges are
also important for their communities of ferns, bryophytes and lichens.
The appearance and construction of Cornish hedges varies throughout Cornwall. In
West Penwith, they are typically constructed from granite boulders cleared from the
fields. The amount of vegetation cover and its composition is very variable and
depends on a number of factors, including the age of the hedge, the nature of the raw
materials, the aspect and past and present management regimes. Some are ancient,
showing field boundary patterns which have been in existence for over 2,000 years;
many more date from the mediaeval period. Some are virtually drystone walls,
supporting plants such as English stonecrop, wild thyme and lichens. These hedges are
a typically Cornish landscape feature, as this type of field boundary can otherwise be
found only in Devon and occasionally in Brittany. Maintenance of Cornish hedges is
encouraged within the ESA through financial incentives, and outside the ESA through
schemes such as Countryside Stewardship.
•
Unimproved grassland. There is very little unimproved grassland in the Natural Area.
Much of it is found in the upland areas and derives from overgrazed heathland. It
typically comprises red fescue and common bent with frequent tormentil. The
predominantly acidic soils render the grassland relatively species-poor. Unimproved
NA 96 West Penwith
20
grassland is found along the cliff tops (described in the profiles of the adjacent
Maritime Natural Areas), and there is a gradual transition from maritime communities
to terrestrial communities further inland.
•
Broadleaved woodland. There is very little woodland in the Natural Area. Some of
the woodlands in the Natural Area are ancient semi-natural woodland meaning that
they have had continuous tree cover since before 1600AD. Only two of these are
more than 2 hectares in extent. Most of the broadleaved woodlands occur in the river
valleys and pockets survive in depressions inland. These woodlands are important for
populations of lichens, invertebrates and birds.
•
Mixed and coniferous woodlands. Mixed and coniferous woodlands have replaced
some of the broadleaved woodlands. Although not supporting the diversity of species
that ancient and other broadleaved woodlands support, mixed and coniferous
woodlands are nevertheless of importance in a landscape where habitats other than
agricultural land are increasingly fragmented, as they provide continuity of woodland
habitat. They also provide food and shelter for a number of common bird and insect
species.
•
Rivers and streams. The West Penwith Natural Area contains approximately 300km
of watercourses. Due to the small size of the peninsula, the streams and rivers are
short, and the impervious nature of the rocks leads to a relatively high density of
watercourses. The geology also affects the relative acidity of the water, which in turn
affects the species found in the watercourses. The Natural Area's rivers and streams
support populations of many common invertebrates and fish, as well as species of
conservation concern such as the otter.
In the Natural Area, rivers and streams are mainly acidic. Some suffer from poor
water quality brought about by minerals leached from mine workings or by
agricultural runoff, but water quality is good overall. Riparian, or riverside, habitat is
an integral part of the freshwater ecosystem and many species depend on it for food
and shelter. It also plays a vital role as a buffer between the watercourse and adjacent
agricultural land.
•
Standing fresh water. There is very little natural open water habitat in the Natural
Area, most of it lying in man-made reservoirs, china clay pits or quarries. Ponds are
found scattered throughout the Natural Area, especially on farmland, wet heaths and
mires and some derelict mine sites. Open water habitats are important for aquatic
invertebrates and plants, and provide feeding or breeding grounds for a number of bird
species.
•
Mines and derelict land. Much of the derelict land within the Natural Area is
associated with old mines. Derelict mine sites are often havens for wildlife. Many
have been colonised by heathland vegetation or scrub, which provide important
habitats for invertebrates and birds. They are often too unstable to be developed, and
the spoil and bare ground on many sites is contaminated by metals such as tin and
copper. As a result, vegetation has been slow to colonise some former tin and china
clay mine sites, benefiting certain scarce and rare species of mosses, liverworts and
damselflies.
NA 96 West Penwith
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Many old mineshafts and adits also occur within the Natural Area. The inherent risks
associated with access and development around mineshafts and adits mean that these
sites are often relatively undisturbed. The numerous mine shafts in the Natural Area
provide important roost sites for bats, all of which are protected by British and
European legislation.
•
Scrub and bracken. Scrub is widespread in the Natural Area, occurring in association
with many of the other habitat types. It often comprises dense thickets of small
shrubby trees, especially hawthorn and blackthorn, and/or woody shrubs and climbers
such as European gorse, bramble and honeysuckle. Scrub often marks the successional
development of open habitat such as grassland or heathland into woodland, and can
provide a valuable transition zone between these habitat types. Scrub is usually
composed of plants which have plentiful edible flowers or fruit; this, combined with
the often dense nature of this habitat provides excellent feeding opportunities and
shelter for a wide range of common and less common insects, birds and small
mammals.
Dense stands of bracken occur on the margins of the uplands, where the heathland is
undergrazed. Bracken often forms a dense scrub community with bramble in these
areas.
•
Quarries. There are a few small quarries within the Natural Area. Some provide rock
face habitat where crevice-dwelling plants and invertebrates thrive. Some birds of
prey, such as peregrines and kestrels, occasionally nest on quarry ledges.
•
Coastal habitats. Most of the coastal habitats found within the Natural Area, such as
the intertidal zone, cliff slope, maritime heath and maritime grassland are described in
the profiles of the adjacent Start Point to Land's End and Land's End to Minehead
Maritime Natural Areas.
However another potentially very important habitat within the West Penwith Natural
Area is coastal farmland. Much of the coast of West Penwith is made up of a strip of
semi-natural habitats such as maritime grassland and maritime heathland sandwiched
between the marine environment on one side and agricultural land on the other. Much
of this semi-natural habitat is either largely unaltered by humans due to its
inaccessibility, therefore providing a refuge for many different species of plants and
animals, or was traditionally grazed and is now neglected, scrubbing over with gorse.
On the north coast especially, the farmland abutting this strip has an important role to
play in the provision of feeding and hunting grounds for birds such as the peregrine.
6.
Habitat issues and objectives
Since World War II, agricultural practices have intensified considerably, and areas
formerly not worth cultivating can now be made more fertile by drainage and the
application of fertilisers, leading to loss or degradation of semi-natural habitat such as
heathland, mire and unimproved grassland. At the same time, grazing of “rough” grassland
and heathland has decreased, leading to a reduction in species diversity and an increase in
NA 96 West Penwith
22
scrub and bracken. Since the designation of the West Penwith ESA in 1987, the pace of
intensification in the northern part of the Natural Area has slowed, but semi-natural habitat
is still being lost in the areas not covered by the ESA or other agri-environment schemes. In
the period 1988 to 1995 alone, half of the semi-natural habitat lost was converted to
agriculture (CCC & CWT, 1997).
Development also puts pressure on the natural environment. It nibbles away at small areas
of wildlife habitat, resulting in a large cumulative loss. Road improvement schemes threaten
hedgerows in particular. Tourism, one of Cornwall's most important industries, increases
the population substantially when flows in the rivers and streams are at their lowest, putting
a strain on the water resource. Recreational activities also have an influence in localised
"honeypot" areas, through erosion of footpaths and development. Yet more rich habitat is
lost or damaged through neglect or mismanagement. However, opportunities for habitat
restoration and management are available through agri-environment schemes such as
Countryside Stewardship and the Environmentally Sensitive Area. The latter scheme has
been particularly successful in the Natural Area, with an excellent uptake.
The major issues which cause loss or damage to the key habitats in the West Penwith
Natural Area are outlined in Table 3, and objectives for their conservation are set out in
Table 4.
Table 3. Habitat conservation issues
•
Agricultural policy
- Intensification of arable and grassland management
- Application of fertilisers and pesticides
- Drainage of wetlands
- Loss of semi-natural habitat to arable or improved pasture
- Removal or inappropriate management of hedgerows, disrupting wildlife corridors
- Lack of funding for immediate work, eg repairs to Cornish hedges
- Abstraction for irrigation reducing flows in watercourses
- Lack of incentives at the correct level for more sustainable, less intensive farming
•
Development
- Road improvement schemes (potential)
- Erosion caused by surface water runoff from impermeable surfaces such as roofs and car parks
- Landscaping of derelict mine sites
- Unsustainable development
•
Recreational pressures
- Erosion by walkers, motorbike scrambling, mountain bikes etc.
- Mineshaft capping (for safety reasons)
•
Pollution
- Heavy metals in watercourses from old mine workings
- Agricultural runoff causing siltation and eutrophication of streams and rivers
- Localised organic pollution from sewerage misconnections and poorly maintained septic tanks
- Cessation of disposal of sewage sludge at sea in 1998 could increase loading to land
•
Inappropriate habitat management
- Neglect of habitats, eg scrub invasion on heathlands
- Mismanagement, eg overgrazing/undergrazing, inappropriate burning
- Removal of management regime
- Lack of funding for habitat management
- Lack of buffer zones between areas of semi-natural habitat and intensive agriculture
NA 96 West Penwith
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•
Lack of information/awareness of importance of semi-natural habitats, despite general public support
- Lack of co-ordinated advice to farmers and landowners on habitat management
- Only “best” examples of semi-natural habitat protected
- Lack of data on certain habitats
•
Habitat creation schemes
Increase semi-natural habitat resource
Schemes sometimes sited in inappropriate areas, eg ponds in wetland sites
Often not enough emphasis on native species of local provenance
Country-wide schemes not necessarily appropriate to local area
•
Invasion of non-native species which choke out native vegetation
- eg Japanese knotweed, Azolla, etc.
Table 4. Habitat conservation objectives
General objectives
•
Encourage further research into habitats
Identify all important areas of semi-natural and farmland habitat in the Natural Area
Monitor habitat change at specific sites which are being managed for wildlife, and continue to monitor
change in the Natural Area as a whole
Carry out research into the ecologies of under-documented habitats
•
Seek to protect sites which support important habitat types
- Liaise with English Nature and Cornwall Wildlife Trust over the designation of SSSIs and the
identification of Cornwall Nature Conservation (CNC) sites
- Protect habitats in the wider countryside which lie outside designated sites
- Encourage conservation organisations to purchase important sites
- Agree conservation sites and conditions through review of Minerals Planning Permissions
- Prevent further loss of important habitat types to agricultural improvements or development pressures
•
Seek to influence agricultural policy to benefit wildlife
- Develop biodiversity targets for agri-environment schemes
- Promote sustainable farming practices and the benefits to both humans and wildlife of low intensity and
mixed farming
- Increase incentive rates for schemes which benefit wildlife on farms, including making funds available
immediately for works such as hedge repair
- Promote importance of farmland for wildlife (see below)
•
Increase public awareness of the importance of semi-natural habitats
- Inform landowners if they own or manage areas containing important habitats
- Obtain funding to provide co-ordinated management advice to farmers and landowners
- Inform farmers/landowners of financial incentives available for habitat management
- Promote benefits of sustainable agriculture and sustainable development to the public
- Increase awareness of knock-on effects of pollution and habitat mismanagement
- Promote importance and proper management of Cornish hedges to highways authority and parish councils
- Liaise with recreational, archaeological, geological and other interests over management of sites
- Increase influence of conservation concerns upon development policies
•
Promote habitat restoration/re-creation schemes in appropriate areas
Identify areas suitable for habitat creation, particularly areas which recently supported semi-natural
habitat or could provide links between areas of semi-natural habitat
Target funding to areas which would most benefit from habitat creation schemes
Review uptake of all incentive schemes for environmental management and restoration and determine
why, with the exception of the ESA, there is a poor uptake in Cornwall
NA 96 West Penwith
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Habitat-specific objectives
•
Promote and enhance the wildlife value of farmland
- Promote and re-instate links between areas of semi-natural habitat in the rural countryside
- Promote wildlife value of Cornish hedges and encourage appropriate management
- Promote long term survival of current extensive network of Cornish hedges
- Promote importance and appropriate management of arable areas (especially on coastal farmland) for
key species, eg by providing winter stubble, not using herbicides, cereal field margin management
- Promote importance and appropriate management of arable areas (especially on coastal farmland) for
key species, eg by providing winter stubble, not using herbicides, cereal field margin management
- Promote low-intensity agriculture, especially adjacent to semi-natural habitat of nature conservation
value
- Promote the creation of farm ponds in appropriate locations
•
Maintain and manage existing areas of lowland heathland for wildlife and increase extent of heathland in
Natural Area
- Ensure lowland heaths are managed appropriately by grazing and/or burning
- Ensure wet lowland heaths continue to be fed by adequate supplies of unpolluted water
- Identify areas of heath damaged by recreational pressure and manage access as necessary
- Target heathland re-creation to sites which have recently lost extensive tracts of heath, which have high
re-creation potential and which will help link existing heathland fragments
7.
Species
The range of semi-natural habitats in the West Penwith Natural Area supports a diversity of
plants and animals. Physical factors such as climate, exposure, soils and drainage greatly
influence the species present in the Natural Area. The mild climate encourages several
plants and animals which are near the northern limit of their range in Europe. The
proximity to the marine environment favours salt-tolerant species, especially where
exposure to salt spray is greatest. The soils and drainage influence the species diversity of
vegetation through the availability or otherwise of nutrients and water.
Human activity has had a profound influence on the species of the Natural Area, through
our exploitation of the natural resources and more recently through pollution. Humans have
been present on the Cornish peninsula for several thousand years, and in that time have
drastically altered the natural species composition through woodland clearance, minerals
exploitation and agriculture.
The Natural Area supports several scarce or rare plants and animals, some of which are
restricted by climatic preferences to Cornwall or South West England. The Natural Area’s
rivers and streams support populations of otter, an internationally protected species. The
heathland and Cornish hedges are important for common reptiles such as the adder. The
farmland supports increasingly rare birds such as skylark and linnet. Over 100 species of
national or international conservation importance are to be found here. Still more are
highly valued by the public as they form part of people's perceptions of the Natural Area.
Key species of West Penwith can be selected using the following criteria:
•
Species that are believed endemic to the UK and which have viable populations in
West Penwith Natural Area.
•
Species which are threatened on a global or European scale (ie which are included in
the long list of globally threatened/declining species in the UK Biodiversity Steering
NA 96 West Penwith
25
Group Report (1995)) and which have significant populations in the West Penwith
Natural Area.
•
Species which are rapidly declining throughout Great Britain (ie which have
undergone a 25-100% decline in numbers or range in Great Britain in the last 25
years) and which have a stronghold in West Penwith.
•
Species which are threatened in Great Britain, being listed in the relevant Red Data
Book.
•
Species which are highly characteristic of West Penwith, being seldom found in such
numbers elsewhere in England, and which are popular with the general public.
The species groups represented by key species in the Natural Area are:
•
Lower plants. This group comprises algae, stoneworts, lichens, bryophytes (mosses
and liverworts) and fungi. The Natural Area is particularly important for its
communities of lichens and bryophytes, through a combination of its mild and wet
climate and the habitats present (such as bare mine spoil) and its relatively clean air.
Some of the bryophytes found within the Natural Area are colonists of bare substrates.
The high levels of heavy metals associated with derelict tin and copper mines often
render the ground at these sites sterile to higher plants, leaving this ecological niche
open to metal-tolerant bryophyte species. Disused china clay workings within the
Natural Area support populations of western rustwort, which is found only in West
Cornwall in Britain. This liverwort is protected under Schedule 8 of the Wildlife and
Countryside Act 1981 and listed as a priority species on Annex II of the EC Habitats
Directive.
•
Ferns and flowering plants. The mild climate and the habitats present in West
Penwith determine which species thrive here. The nationally rare purple viper’s
bugloss, which only occurs in West Penwith and the Isles of Scilly in Britain, is found
in the far west of the Natural Area. Coral necklace, a nationally scarce plant, is found
in damp areas of heathland within the Natural Area. Other uncommon plants with
western distributions, such as hay-scented buckler fern and royal fern, are found here.
•
Insects and other invertebrates. Again, many of the invertebrates found in the
Natural Area are dependent on climatic conditions and/or particular habitat
requirements. For example, the nationally scarce marsh fritillary favours damp and
marshy places where the caterpillar’s food plant, devil’s-bit scabious, grows.
•
Fish. The Natural Area’s rivers and streams provide ample habitat for many common
species of fish, particularly eel and brown/sea trout.
•
Amphibians and reptiles. West Penwith’s ponds support strong populations of
common frog and common toad. The dry heathland and grassland habitats of the
Natural Area are ideal for reptiles, particularly the adder, and Cornish hedges provide
excellent habitat for the common lizard.
NA 96 West Penwith
26
•
Birds. The Natural Area supports a range of common but declining farmland birds
such as skylark, song thrush and linnet. The coastal cliffs and adjacent terrestrial
habitats are important for populations of stonechat, peregrine and raven. The moors
support small numbers of wintering hen harrier and breeding nightjar. West Penwith
also acts as a stopping-off place for several migratory bird species in spring and
autumn.
•
Mammals. The diversity of habitats in the Natural Area provides food and shelter for
many small mammal species. Many bats find shelter in the disused mineshafts and
adits. Otters are present in small numbers within the Natural Area. Badgers are very
common in Cornwall, although thought to be declining on an international level.
All the key species, selected using the criteria given above, are listed in Appendix 2.
Because of the limitations on human and financial resources it is impractical to focus
conservation attention on them all. Priorities for action must therefore be identified. This
does not mean that other equally deserving species will be neglected, as the habitat
conservation measures put in place by definition will go a long way to conserving the
remaining species which rely on those habitats.
Table 5 lists 10 species that may be regarded as "priority action" species for West Penwith.
These have been selected from the list of key species in Appendix 2 as being those which are
most vulnerable, those whose conservation will ensure the survival of a number of other key
species at the same time, and those which contribute essentially to the character of the
Natural Area.
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Table 5. Priority Action Species
Latin name
Marsupella profunda
English name
Western rustwort
Reasons for selection
Only found in West Cornwall in
Britain.
Habitat requirements
Bare or lightly shaded substrate.
Found on china clay waste in
Natural Area.
Echium plantagineum
Purple viper’s-bugloss
Edges of potato and barley fields.
Ranunculus tripartitus
Three-lobed watercrowfoot
Only native in West Penwith in
Britain; casual elsewhere.
Declining rapidly. Restricted to
south and southwest England.
Eurodryas aurinia
Marsh fritillary
Declining throughout Europe due to
habitat loss and fragmentation. Still
Widespread in southwest England
and Wales.
Breeds in damp grassland and
marsh.
Lymnaea glabra
a pond snail
Alauda arvensis
Skylark
Shallow seasonal pools and
ditches.
Mixed, low-intensity farmland.
Caprimulgus europaeus
Nightjar
Lepus europaeus
Brown hare
Lutra lutra
Otter
.Rhinolophus
ferrumequinum
Greater horseshoe bat
Significant population in Natural
Area. Declining nationally.
Dramatic decline over last 25 years
mirrors decline of other common
farmland birds. Susceptible to
changes in farming practices.
Threatened by scrubbing over of
heathland.
80% decline nationally this century,
due to changes in agricultural
practices. Status in Natural Area
uncertain.
Now expanding in numbers and
range after widespread drastic
decline. Popular with general
public.
Estimated 98% decline nationally
this century.
Mud and shallow seasonal pools
on heathland.
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Objective
Safeguard at extant sites. Promote
research into ecological and habitat
requirements to ensure effective
conservation management.
Maintain populations at known sites.
Research status and distribution.
Maintain known populations. If feasible,
restore to one former site by 2004.
Halt current decline and maintain
present range. Maintain at least five
metapopulations. Ensure minimum
number of colonies are protected within
SSSIs.
Halt and if possible reverse the decline.
Halt decline in numbers.
Open heathland with some bare
areas and some small trees.
Mainly mixed farmland; also
moorland, woodland and marsh.
Maintain and increase population.
Rivers, lakes and coasts.
Continue to extend range and increase
populations. Promote as indicator of
good water quality
Pasture and broadleaved
woodland near suitable roost
sites. Known to roost in
mineshafts in Natural Area.
Protect and maintain all existing roost
sites. Encourage breeding in Natural
Area. Increase current population by
25% by 2010.
Research status and distribution. Halt
and if possible reverse decline. Extend
range.
A number of species are thought to have become extinct within the Natural Area this
century, a selection of which are shown in Table 6. The number of species now believed to
be extinct highlights the need to avoid complacency about the state of biodiversity within the
area; constant vigilance will be required to prevent further extinctions.
Table 6. Species which have become extinct in the Natural Area this century
Latin name
Argynnis adippe
Coenagrion mercuriale
Crex crex
Miliaria calandra
Numenius arquata
Perdix perdix
Insects:
Birds:
English name
High brown fritillary
Southern damselfly
Corncrake (breeding)
Corn bunting (breeding)
Curlew (breeding)
Grey partridge
(breeding)
Dartford warbler
(breeding)
Lapwing (breeding)
Red squirrel
Sylvia undata
Mammals:
8.
Vanellus vanellus
Sciurus vulgaris
Date last recorded
1950s
1957
early C20th
1980s
early C20th
early C20th
1930s
early C20th
ca. 1973
Species issues and objectives
The intensification in agricultural practices since World War II has resulted in the loss and
degradation of large areas of semi-natural habitat, which in turn has led to a reduction in
species diversity and numbers. Other land uses such as mineral extraction, development and
tourism have also led to habitat loss this century but continue to have an influence on the
nature conservation interest by creating new habitats, eg flooded disused quarries can be
quickly colonised by damselflies and dragonflies. Some human activities may affect species
populations through disturbance, eg cutting hedgerows during the bird nesting season.
There are opportunities to halt the declines in certain species populations through reintroduction, appropriate habitat management and restoration under schemes such as
MAFF’s Environmentally Sensitive Area and Countryside Stewardship schemes and English
Nature’s Species Recovery Programme.
Issues affecting the species numbers and diversity of the West Penwith Natural Area are
outlined in Table 7. Objectives for Priority Action Species have already been proposed (see
Table 5) and objectives for the conservation of all species numbers and diversity in the
Natural Area are outlined in Table 8.
NA 96 West Penwith
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Table 7. General species conservation issues
•
Pollution
- Decline in species health, leading to local extinctions, eg air pollution sensitive lichens
- Genetic change over time caused by persistent toxins, eg pesticide residues
- Reduction in species diversity through application of chemicals both to land and to farm animals
- Roadside species compositions altered and diversity reduced by pollutants, eg salting roads
- Build-up of organic compounds in food chain causing long-term problems, eg eggshell thinning
- Possible over-use of chemicals in gardens
•
Loss or damage to habitats
- Loss or damage to habitats (for reasons described in Section 4) which provide, shelter, food or breeding
sites
- Fragmentation of habitats leading to isolation of species populations
- Disruption of wildlife corridors (such as hedges) restricting movement of species through the
countryside, with threat of possible extinctions.
- Replacement of traditional mixed farming with intensive grazing or monoculture crops reducing species
diversity
- Restoration of derelict land and buildings causing loss of barn owl and bat roosting sites and lower plant
species
•
Inappropriate habitat management
- Inappropriate habitat management (for reasons described in Section 4) leading to deterioration of habitat
quality for many species
- Lack of co-ordinated advice to farmers and landowners on habitat management
•
Lack of knowledge of ecology and habitat requirements of certain species groups
Lack of understanding of certain habitats
- Lack of data on certain species groups, eg fungi, mammals
•
Lack of public awareness despite general public sympathy
Effect of disturbance due to human activity on breeding success
- Road kills
- Lack of understanding of effects of human activities, eg ring-barking, picking wild flowers etc
- Lack of understanding of knock-on effects of human activities, eg spraying garden with insecticides
•
Re-introductions
- Helps ensure nationally declining populations remain viable in the long term
- Danger of focussing too much attention on re-introducing rare or extinct species
•
Species protection
Only some rare species statutorily protected
•
Invasion of alien species which out-compete native flora and fauna
Table 8. General species conservation objectives
•
•
•
Encourage further research and surveys into key species groups
- Promote research into under-recorded species groups, eg mammals, invertebrates, fungi, fish
- Identify sites which support important species populations
- Promote research into habitat requirements of key species
- Survey sites to determine whether certain species are now extinct in the Natural Area
Protect sites which support key species populations
- Liaise with English Nature, Cornwall Wildlife Trust and others over the designation of SSSIs and the
identification of CNC sites
- Promote sustainable natural resource management by relevant organisations
Maintain and enhance populations of key species through appropriate habitat management
- Maintain viable (meta)populations of all Priority Action Species at all current locations
- Create conditions suitable for Priority Action Species where new sites are needed to ensure the species’
viability in the Natural Area
- Halt decline in diversity and quality of habitats within the Natural Area
- Increase levels of funding for environmental management which benefits wildlife
Develop biodiversity targets for agri-environment schemes
NA 96 West Penwith
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-
•
•
•
9.
Encourage change towards sustainable, mixed, low-intensity farming
Encourage creation and maintenance of buffer zones between semi-natural habitats and intensive
agriculture
- Re-instate, manage and enhance wildlife corridors between areas of semi-natural habitat in the
countryside to enable species dispersal
Promote appropriate habitat management
- Co-ordinate land management advice
- Increase funding for land management advice
- Liaise with highways authority over appropriate management of roadside habitats
- Liaise with appropriate ministries to reduce pollution levels and promote sustainable development
- Provide education/information to the general public
- Emphasise habitat management for the common species in order to keep them common
- Increase awareness of knock-on effects of pollution and unsustainable use of natural resources, etc.
Consider the re-introduction of species which have recently been lost from the Natural Area when
appropriate conditions have been established
Increase protection for rare species
Prime biodiversity areas
Prime Biodiversity Areas (PBAs) are areas where limited financial resources can be targeted
most effectively so that the key habitats and species of the Natural Area can be maintained
and enhanced (Batten, 1994).
In West Penwith, the area containing the highest overall biodiversity and which best
represents the character of the Natural Area is the Environmentally Sensitive Area designated
by MAFF (see Map 5).
NA 96 West Penwith
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NA 96 West Penwith
32
10. Appendices
1.
Relationship between the different nomenclatures for habitat types
2.
Key species of the West Penwith Natural Area
NA 96 West Penwith
33
1.
Relationship between the different nomenclatures for habitat types
West Penwith Natural Area
habitat type
UK Biodiversity broad habitat
type
Improved grassland
Improved grassland
Arable
Cornish hedges
Arable
Boundary features
Lowland heathland
Lowland heathland
Cereal field margins
Ancient and/or species rich
hedgerows
Lowland heathland
Mire
Fens, carr, marsh, swamp and
reedbed
Grazing marsh
Purple moor grass and rush
pasture
Fens
Willow carr
Fens, carr, marsh, swamp and
reedbed
Unimproved neutral grassland
Acid grassland
Broadleaved and yew woodland
Lowland hay meadow (P)
Lowland dry acid grassland (P)
Upland oakwood?
Wet woodlands (P)
Unimproved grassland
Broadleaved woodland
Mixed and coniferous
woodlands
Rivers and streams
UK Biodiversity costed/
proposed costed (P) habitat
type
Phase 1 habitat type
National Vegetation
Classification
B4 Improved grassland
B6 Poor semi-improved
grassland
J1 Cultivated/disturbed land
B2 Boundaries
MG6,7
D1 Dry dwarf shrub heath
D2 Wet dwarf shrub heath
D3 Lichen/bryophyte heath
D5 Dry heath/acid grassland
mosaic
D6 Wet heath/acid grassland
mosaic
B5 Marsh/marshy grassland
E1 Bog
E2 Flush and spring
E3 Fen
F1 Swamp
A1 Woodland
A2 Scrub
B1 Acid grassland
B2 Neutral grassland
A1 Woodland
H4,7,8
M15,16
Planted coniferous woodland
A1 Woodland
-
Rivers and streams
F2 Marginal and inundation
G2 Running water
-
NA 96 West Penwith
34
-
M5,6,10,14,15,16,21,23,25,28,29
MG6,7,8,13
S4,12,20,27
W1,4,5,6,7
MG1,5,8,10
U3,4
W6,7,8,10,11,16,17
West Penwith Natural Area
habitat type
UK Biodiversity broad habitat
type
UK Biodiversity costed/
proposed costed (P) habitat
type
Mines and derelict land
-Standing fresh water
Scrub and bracken
Quarries
Coastal habitats
Standing open water
Mesotrophic lakes
Eutrophic standing waters (P)
Phase 1 habitat type
I2 Artificial exposures and
waste tips
G1 Standing water
A2 Scrub
C1 Bracken
I2 Artificial exposures and
waste tips
--- Refer to Maritime Natural Area Profiles ---
NA 96 West Penwith
35
National Vegetation
Classification
W1,22,23,24,25
-
2.
Key Species of the West Penwith Natural Area
The following is a list of species recorded since 1950, excluding those which are now known to be extinct in the area, thought to be "key". Refer to Section 5 for key species
selection criteria.
UK Biodiversity lists: S = short list, M = middle list, L = long list
RDB/threatened species: RDB1 = endangered, RDB2 = vulnerable, RDB3 = rare, RDBK = insufficiently known (using original IUCN Red List categories); CR = critically
endangered, EN = endangered, VU = vulnerable (using 1994 IUCN Red List categories); p = proposed RDB status
EC Directive: I = Birds Directive Annex I; II = Habitats Directive Annex II; IV = Habitats Directive Annex IV
Wildlife & Countryside Act: 1 = Schedule 1; 5 = Schedule 5; 5* = Schedule 5, protection against sale only; 8 = Schedule 8
? = insufficiently known
Latin name
English name
Lichens
Teloschistes flavicans
Golden hair-lichen
Bryophytes (mosses and liverworts)
Fissidens algarvicus
Fissidens serrulatus
Fontinalis squamosa var. curnowii
Grimmia decipiens
Leucodon sciuroides var. morensis
Cephaloziella calyculata
Marsupella profunda
Telaranea nematodes
Pterydophytes
Dryopteris aemula
Osmunda regalis
Thelypteris thelypteroides
Flowering plants
Calluna vulgaris
Chrysanthemum segetum
UK Endemic
a moss
a moss
a moss
a moss
a moss
a liverwort
Western rustwort
a liverwort
UK Biodiversity list
Declining
rapidly in
GB
RDB/
threatened
species
L
*
VU
Characteristic species
EC
Directive
Wildlife &
Countryside
Act
8
RDB3
RDB3
RDB3
*
S
Hay-scented buckler fern
Royal fern
Marsh fern
*
RDB3
RDB3
CR
RDB1
II
*
*
*
Heather
Corn marigold
*
*
NA 96 West Penwith
36
8
Latin name
English name
Echium plantagineum
Erica cinerea
Hypericum undulatum
Illecebrum verticillatum
Juncus capitatus
Ranunculus tripartitus
Ulex gallii
Purple viper's-bugloss
Bell heather
Wavy St John's-wort
Coral necklace
Dwarf rush
Three-lobed crowfoot
Western gorse
Insects
Ceriagrion tenellum
Platycleis albopunctata
Larinus planus
Opatrum sabulosum
Cryphia muralis
Eurodryas aurinia
Microdon mutabilis
Small red damselfly
Grey bush cricket
a weevil
a darkling beetle
Marbled green
Marsh fritillary
a hoverfly
Molluscs
Ashfordia granulata
Helicella itala
Lymnaea glabra
a gastropod
a snail
a pond snail
Fish
Salmo trutta
Brown/sea trout
Amphibians
Bufo bufo
Rana temporaria
Triturus helveticus
Common toad
Common frog
Palmate newt
L
L
L
Reptiles
Anguis fragilis
Lacerta vivipara
Slow worm
Common lizard
L
UK Endemic
UK Biodiversity list
Declining
rapidly in
GB
RDB/
threatened
species
Characteristic species
EC
Directive
Wildlife &
Countryside
Act
II
5*
RDB2
*
*
*
RDB3
S
L
S
L
L
*
*
?
?
?
?
?
*
?
*
*
*
RDB2
*
5*
5*
5*s
?
5
*
NA 96 West Penwith
37
Latin name
English name
Natrix natrix
Vipera berus
Birds
Accipiter nisus
Acrocephalus schoenabanus
Acrocephalus scirpaceus
Alauda arvensis
Anas crecca
Anas penelope
Anas platyrhynchos
Anthus pratensis
Asio flammeus
Aythya ferina
Aythya fuligula
Buteo buteo
Caprimulgus europaeus
Carduelis cannabina
Carduelis carduelis
Carduelis chloris
Certhia familiaris
Circus cyaneus
Circus pygargus
Corvus corax
Delichon urbica
Emberiza citrinella
Emberiza schoeniclus
Falco columbarius
UK Endemic
UK Biodiversity list
Declining
rapidly in
GB
RDB/
threatened
species
Characteristic species
Grass snake
Adder
L
L
?
?
*
Sparrowhawk
Sedge warbler
Reed warbler
Skylark
Teal
Wigeon
Mallard
Meadow pipit
Short-eared owl
Pochard
Tufted duck
Buzzard
Nightjar
Linnet
Goldfinch
Greenfinch
Treecreeper
Hen harrier
Montagu’s harrier
Raven
House martin
Yellowhammer
Reed bunting
Merlin
L
L
L
S
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
M
M
L
L
L
L
L
*
*
EC
Directive
Wildlife &
Countryside
Act
5
5
*
I
*
*
*
I
*
I
I
1
1
I
1
*
L
L
M
L
NA 96 West Penwith
38
*
Latin name
English name
Falco peregrinus
Falco tinnunculus
Gallinago gallinago
Hirundo rustica
Larus argentatus
Larus fuscus
Locustella naevia
Lymnocryptes minimus
Motacilla alba
Muscicapa striata
Parus ater
Parus caeruleus
Parus major
Phylloscopus collybita
Phylloscopus trochilus
Picus viridis
Pluvialis apricaria
Prunella modularis
Pyrrhula pyrrhula
Regulus regulus
Saxicola torquata
Scolopax rusticola
Sitta europaea
Strix aluco
Sylvia atricapilla
Sylvia communis
Tringa ochropus
Peregrine
Kestrel
Snipe
Swallow
Herring gull
Lesser black-backed gull
Grasshopper warbler
Jack snipe
Pied wagtail
Spotted flycatcher
Coal tit
Blue tit
Great tit
Chiffchaff
Willow warbler
Green woodpecker
Golden plover
Dunnock
Bullfinch
Goldcrest
Stonechat
Woodcock
Nuthatch
Tawny owl
Blackcap
Whitethroat
Green sandpiper
UK Endemic
UK Biodiversity list
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
M
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
M
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
NA 96 West Penwith
39
Declining
rapidly in
GB
RDB/
threatened
species
Characteristic species
EC
Directive
Wildlife &
Countryside
Act
I
1
*
*
*
*
*
I
*
*
*
I
1
Latin name
English name
Turdus philomelos
Tyto alba
Vanellus vanellus
Mammals
Lutra lutra
Meles meles
Mustela erminea
Mustela nivalis
Myotis brandti
Myotis mystacinus
Myotis nattereri
Nyctalus noctula
Pipistrellus pipistrellus
Plecotus auritus
Rhinolophus ferrumequinum
Rhinolophus hipposideros
Sorex araneus
Sorex minutus
UK Endemic
UK Biodiversity list
Declining
rapidly in
GB
Song thrush
Barn owl
Lapwing
S
L
L
*
*
*
Otter
Badger
Stoat
Weasel
Brandt's bat
Whiskered bat
Natterer's bat
Noctule
Pipistrelle
Brown long-eared bat
Greater horseshoe bat
Lesser horseshoe bat
Common shrew
Pygmy shrew
S
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
S
L
S
L
L
L
NA 96 West Penwith
40
RDB/
threatened
species
Characteristic species
EC
Directive
Wildlife &
Countryside
Act
1
II,IV
5
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
IV
II,IV
II,IV
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
*
*
*
*
*
11. Bibliography
BALL, S.G. 1995. Recorder 3.21b. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.
BARTON, R.M. 1969. An Introduction to the Geology of Cornwall. Truro: D. Bradford
Barton Ltd.
BATTEN, L.A., BIBBY, C.J., CLEMENT, P., ELLIOTT, G.D., & PORTER, R.F, eds. 1990
Reed Data Birds in Britain. London: T & AD Poyser Ltd.
BATTEN, L. 1994. Natural Areas and their zones of opportunity. (Internal report.)
Peterborough: English Nature.
BRATTON, J.H, ed. 1991. British Red Data Books: 3. Invertebrates other than insects.
Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.
BRISTOW, C.M. 1996. Cornwall’s Geology and Scenery: an introduction. St. Austell:
Cornish Hillside Publications.
BROAD, K. 1989. Forestry Commission Handbook 4: Lichens in southern woodlands.
London: HMSO.
BROWN, A., & GRICE, P. 1996. List of Birds of Conservation Importance. (Press release
29 May 1996.) Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.
CORDREY, L, ed. 1996. The biodiversity of the South-West: an audit of the South-West
biological resource. Exeter: South-West Biodiversity Partnership.
CORDREY, L, ed. 1997. Action for biodiversity in the South-West: a series of habitat and
species plans to guide delivery. Exeter: South-West Biodiversity Partnership.
CORNWALL COUNTY COUNCIL. 1994. Cornwall Landscape Assessment 1994. (Report
to Countryside Commission.) Truro: Cornwall County Council.
CORNWALL COUNTY COUNCIL & CORNWALL WILDLIFE TRUST (CCC & CWT).
1997. Habitat loss between 1988 and 1995 extracted from the LIFE GIS. Truro: Cornwall
Wildlife Trust.
CORNWALL WILDLIFE TRUST (in prep.) Key Mammals in Cornwall. Truro: Cornwall
Wildlife Trust.
CORNWALL WILDLIFE TRUST (in prep.) Key Odonata Sites in Cornwall. Truro: Cornwall
Wildlife Trust.
COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES (CEC). 1979. Council Directive
79/409/EEC on the conservation of wild birds [referred to as EC Birds Directive]. Official
journal of the European Communities: L103
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41
COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES (CEC). 1992. Council Directive
92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and
flora [referred to as EC Habitats Directive]. Official journal of the European Communities:
L206
ELLIS, N.V, ed., BOWEN, D.Q., CAMPBELL, S., KNILL, J.L., MCKIRDY, A.P.,
PROSSER, C.D., VINCENT, M.A., & WILSON, R.C.L. 1996. An Introduction to the
Geological Conservation Review. GCR Series No. 1. Peterborough: Joint Nature
Conservation Committee.
ENGLISH NATURE 1994. Rocks, Landforms and Planning. An advice note for Local
Authority Planners. Peterborough: English Nature.
ENVIRONMENT AGENCY. 1996. Fish records. Bodmin: Environment Agency.
FALK, S. 1991. A review of the scarce and threatened bees, wasps and ants of Great
Britain. Peterborough: Nature Conservancy Council.
FLOYD, P.A., EXLEY, C.S., & STYLES, M.T. 1993. Igneous Rocks of South-West
England. GCR Series No. 5. Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.
GIBBONS, D.W., REID, J.B., & CHAPMAN, R.A. 1993. The New Atlas of Breeding Birds
in Britain and Ireland: 1988-1991. London: T & AD Poyser Ltd.
HOLYOAK, D.T. 1996. A Register of Rare Bryophytes in Cornwall. (Unpublished report to
Cornwall Wildlife Trust.) Truro: Cornwall Wildlife Trust.
HOLYOAK, D.T. 1995. Report on a survey of bryophytes on some derelict mine sites in
Cornwall. (Unpublished report to English Nature.) Redruth: Cornish Biological Records Unit.
JOHNSON, N., & ROSE, P. 1983. Archaeological Survey and Conservation in West
Penwith, Cornwall. Truro: Cornwall Committee for Rescue Archaeology.
KERNEY, M.P, ed. 1976. Atlas of the Non-Marine Mollusca of the British Isles.
Cambridge: Institute of Terrestrial Ecology.
KING, A., GLASSER, N., LARWOOD, J., LITTLEWOOD, A., MOAT, T., & PAGE, K.
1996. Earth heritage conservation in England: A Natural Areas perspective. Peterborough:
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MARGETTS, L.J., & SPURGIN, K.L. 1991. The Cornish Flora Supplement 1981-1990. St.
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MENNEER, R. 1994. Wildlife Revival in Cornish Hedges. Redruth: Dyllansow Truran
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Edition). Lincoln: Royal Society for Nature Conservation.
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Peterborough: Joint Nature Conservation Committee.
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(CSD Report No. 1089). Peterborough: Nature Conservancy Council.
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Nature.
NA 96 West Penwith
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12. Glossary
Biodiversity
The variety of life forms that we see around us. The term
encompasses the whole range of mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, fish, insects and other invertebrates, plants, fungi and
micro-organisms.
CNC site
Cornwall Nature Conservation (CNC) sites are non-statutory
designations given by the Cornwall Wildlife Trust to areas of
semi-natural habitat of at least county importance.
EC Habitats Directive
The short name for Council Directive 94/43/EEC on the
conservation of natural habitats and of wild flora and fauna.
Habitats and species of international importance are listed on this
directive. Its protective legislation is implemented by domestic
legislation in the member states.
ESA
Environmentally Sensitive Areas (ESAs) are areas of the
countryside where traditional farming methods have helped to
create a distinctive landscape, wildlife habitats or historic
features. ESAs are designated by the Minister for Agriculture,
Fisheries and Food (MAFF).
Geological
Conservation Review
A comprehensive review by the Nature Conservancy Council of
the key Earth heritage sites in Britain, completed in 1990.
Metamorphism
Alteration of rocks under high temperatures and pressures.
Metapopulation
A set of local populations linked together through dispersal.
Nati onally rare
Occurs in 15 or fewer 10km squares of the national grid.
Nationally scarce
Occurs in 16-100 10km squares of the national grid.
Periglacial
Cold and dry conditions such as are found in the Arctic today,
where soils and rocks are affected by frost, ice and wind.
Red Data Book
Flora and fauna which are rare in Britain are listed in the British
Red Data Books.
RIGS
A RIGS is a Regionally Important Geological/Geomorphological
Site, a non-statutory designation.
SSSI
Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) are statutory designated
sites where features of nature conservation importance are at
their best and/or most concentrated. They include geological
interest as well as flora and fauna. SSSIs are designated by
English Nature and protected under the Wildlife and Countryside
Act 1981 (as amended).
NA 96 West Penwith
44