Military Service in the Life Course
Author(s): Alair MacLean and Glen H. Elder Jr.
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Annual Review of Sociology, Vol. 33 (2007), pp. 175-196
Published by: Annual Reviews
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Military
Course
Alair MacLean1
Service
in the Life
and Glen H. Elder, Jr.2
1
Department of Sociology,Washington StateUniversity,Vancouver,
Washington 98686; email: [email protected]
2
Department of Sociology, University ofNorth Carolina, Chapel Hill,
North Carolina 27516; email: [email protected]
Annu. Rev. Sociol. 2007.33:175-96
Fim published online as a Review inAdvance on
March 19,2007
TheAamuURntiew ofSochhgf isonline at
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htqK//aoc.annualicview5*oty
Tins articles dot*
10.11467annurev3oa33.040406.131710
Reviews.
Annual
? 2007fay
Copyright
All rights reserved
036O-O572A)7/O811-O175$20.00
KeyWords
crime,health,marital status, social inequality,war
Abstract
review researchpublished in thepast 15 years thatexplores the
relationshipbetweenmilitary service and the lifecourse,focusing on
criminal careers,marital status, lifelonghealth, and socioeconomic
attainment.Throughout the review,we note the extent towhich
We
historical periods, rangingfromWorld War II to themore recent
voluntary armedforces. The effectsofmilitary service depend on
whether health, criminal, socioeconomic, or marital outcomes are
considered.They also depend on the timingand era of service, and
veterans9 familybackground and individual characteristics such as
race and .delinquency.Nevertheless, the evidence to date suggests
one general conclusion: Veterans exposed t? combat have suffered
worse outcomes thannoncombatVeterans and thannonveterans.
We
conclude with suggestionsfor futureresearch including a tighter
integrationof the research questions and strategies thathave been
employed to examine thedifferentoutcomes.
175
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INTRODUCTION
the terrorist
following
than one
11, 2001, more
In the first four years
attacks
of September
million
U.S.
zones
war
served in the
personnel
military
of Afghanistan
and Iraq (O'Hanlon
& Kamp 2006). Collectively, the global war
on
terror
gagement
is the first large-scale
for which
the United
recruited
soldiers
of the National
en?
military
States has not
a draft.
using
units
Instead,
and reserves
Guard
have
been
mobilized for active duty.By the fallof 2006,
2800
nearly
of the voluntary
U.S.
had
troops
been killed,with more than 20000 injuredby
hostile
more
fire. Thousands
have
been
evacuated
from
treatment.
psychological
members
who
survive
forces and become
the experiences
a
in
of duty
leave
the
armed
veterans.
How
will
today
affect
their
they have
than
tours
will
combat
troops
zones
for
of the service
Many
civilian lives in the future?
More
of these
combat
their
and Afghanistan
Iraq
decade
has
since
passed
Modell & Haggerty's (1991) ARS review of
"The
Social
ofWar,"
Impact
which
examined
how military
service affected the
psycholog?
ical health
and economic
of vet?
attainment
erans who
served
tervening
15 years,
been
renewed
by
in wartime.
interest
and, more
events,
from
the continuing
and Iraq. U.S.
engagements
no
citizens
Afghanistan
longer face the prospect
ing drafted,
yet
the past
has
to the firstPersian
recently,
in
the in?
During
in this topic
a series of world
the end of theCold War
Gulf War
several
of be?
years
have
highlighted thepotential inequitiesof the all
volunteer
Recent
armed
forces.
work
addresses
questions
regard?
between military
service
ing the relationship
so?
and inequality. Does
service
make
military
or less
cieties more
How
does
mili?
equal?
tary service
affect veterans'
and
marriages
likelihood that theywill divorce? How
it affect
their health
tus? Does
it increase
that veterans
the
armed
and
ij6
socioeconomic
or decrease
will
commit
forces
produce
crimes?
the
does
sta?
has made
military
on its
service
affects the life course,
focusing
careers, marital
to criminal
relationship
socioeconomic
and
status,
health,
lifelong
attainment.
Throughout,
we
note
the extent
towhich studies find that these effectsdiffer
for veterans
in different
serving
focus on
historical
on the effects
research
periods. We
in the United
of service
States armed
forces
published in the 1990s and the early 2000s
(forwork published before 1990, seeModell
& Haggerty 1991). Generally speaking, this
views
literature
a
in one
service
as
and
experience
on
military
general
bat. Research
exposure
as a
service
ans'
and criminal
to com?
general
affects veter?
service
how
explores
socioeconomic
as
of two ways:
experience
careers
(e.g.,
Angrist 1990, Bouffard 2005). By contrast,
studies
of
combat
consequences
of
mental
investigate
the
physical
and
for marital
sta?
exposure
combat
outcomes
health
for
and
bility (e.g.,Gimbel & Booth 1994, Fontana
&
Rosenheck
to these
Some
patterns.
of
consequences
are
There
1998).
combat
exceptions
at the
look
studies
outcomes
(Savoca
& Rosenheck
2000, Vogt
et al. 2004).
Other
studies
ine how
service
military
in
health (Bedard & Deschenes
& Wilmoth 2006).
Over
the past
sequences
ined
decade
of military
in the fields
history, medicine,
and
service
so?
for
exposure
cioeconomic
exam?
affects
general
2006, London
a half,
have
the con?
been
of criminology,
exam?
economics,
and psychology.
psychiatry,
Relatively littlework has been conducted by
sociologists,
on
principles
& Shanahan
and
still less has
of life course
explicitly
theory
drawn
(Mortimer
the impact
2003). Nevertheless,
on lives is well
of the military
suited to a life
course
theoretical
orientation. Within
limits,
choose
is shaped
between
agency.
by human
the armed
joining
entering
the labor
force,
(Mare
ing their education
same time, the
experience
et al.
military
In sum, do
People
important
in
advances
substantive
service.
studying the impact of military
In view of these
this review
developments,
in understanding
how
surveys recent advances
the chance
or dis?
advantage
In response
to
life course?
in the
advantage
these questions,
research
MacLean
and
methodological
forces,
service
? Elder
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
and continu?
1984). At
of serving
the
in the
military is profoundly influencedby political
con?
states and
by historical
with the life course principle
between
relations
text, consistent
of location inhistorical timeand place (Mayer
ex?
take an extreme
1989). To
Schoepflin
the difference
between
serving in the
armed forces during peace
and war can mean
the difference between
life and death. In addi?
&
ample,
tion, the timingofmilitary service in the life
of a person
who
typically alters its effect. Veterans
were
the armed forces when
they
joined
in their thirties were more
by their service
affected
negatively
those who
joined when
than
theywere younger (Elder 1986, 1987; Elder
et al. 1994, Sampson & Laub 1996,Wright
et al. 2005).
The
effects of military
service also
ties, as underscored
by the
of linked lives. For exam?
principle
on
social
depend
life course
veterans
combat
ple,
tively affected
by their wartime
encountered
greater
when
support
et al.
core
rather
less nega?
trauma
than
1997a,b;
of military
service
of life course
principles
if they
lesser
they returned home
et al. 1997).
Johnson
studies
ways,
to be
appear
social
In these
the
(a) hu?
man agency, (b) location in time and place, (c)
timing, (d) linked lives, and (e) lifelong de?
velopment (Elder & Johnson 2002, Giele &
Elder 1998).
We begin by describing studies in two do?
criminal
mains,
that draw
explicitly
turn to
analyses
next
and
careers
socioeconomic
of military
impact
and marital
on
life course
stability,
theory. We
in two domains,
outcomes,
service
but
the
that do not
di?
course
The
find?
apply life
principles.
in
two
areas
are
these
latter
relevant
be?
ings
cause
our
enhance
of
how
they
understanding
service has shaped the life course. We
military
this order
partly
because
we
want
to
highlight the insightsof lifecourse theory to
the study
cause one
of
service, and partly be?
military
can view the outcomes
in the first
two domains
itary service
two domains.
Some
ofthe
past
as
the effects of mil?
mediating
on the outcomes
in the second
studies
otherwise.
ar?
studies
other
However,
a
envi?
provides
bridging
some veterans
ronment
experience
by which
more
than they would
have
positive outcomes
had they not served in the armed forces. Gen?
that the military
eralizing from the findings, the net effectof
service on social
military
inequality
depends
on whether
or vol?
is
recruitment
mandatory
is at war or
the nation
untary and whether
it appears
veterans,
Among
peacetime
that military
service improved
the life chances
peace.
of African
chances
in the era of a peacetime
service
Thus,
have
more
the
eroding
life
of the draft
much
During
of men
served in the military.
era, a majority
may
while
Americans,
of whites.
decreased
racial
inequality.
draft
In
the
recent
disad
era, relatively
voluntary
have been more
vantaged
people
likely than
resources
to serve
those with greater
family
on
service
clear. Among
in this era,
then,
is less
veterans,
preliminary
that military
service had a
suggests
effect on most of those who were ex?
evidence
negative
posed
inequality
wartime
to combat.
the extent
To
veterans
disadvantaged
to combat,
exposed
increased
that
were more
service
military
relatively
to be
likely
therefore
the net
social
inequality. Thus,
service on social
pact of military
inequality
on location
in time and
pends
place.
im?
de?
health
that assess
rectly
adopt
rienced
gue
in themilitary.The overall effectofmilitary
(Fontana
highlight
theory:
to
service led veterans
that military
experience
worse
outcomes
than they would
have expe?
the consequences
exploring
six decades
of military
service find
THE CONTEXT
SERVICE
As with
tal data,
any work
research
OF MILITARY
based
on
on
military
nonexperimen
con?
service
fronts the problem
of
social se?
distinguishing
lection from causation
2004, George
(Caspi
2003,Heckman 2005,Moffitt 2005,Winship
& Morgan 1999). Selection into themilitary
takes place
both on the part of individuals
and on the part of the institution.
People may
to serve in the armed forces or to
choose
apply
for combat roles on the basis of both measured
and unmeasured
decide
to serve,
characteristics.
the armed
Once
forces
people
determine
?
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177
to accept. For ex?
of potential
enlistees
recruits who do
ample, they exclude potential
or mental
not meet
certain physical
require?
ments.
also use the results of mental
ap?
They
which
All-Volunteer
Force
In
(AVF):
1973, the United
States army changed
from conscription
to
voluntary
recruitment of
tests to choose
titude
troops. AVF
the U.S. military and
service in the U.S.
military between
1973 and the present
which
of the
accepted
to
assign
context
over
changed
of
this
dual
selection
For
has
the three
a
can use
eliminates
veterans
the
causal
teristics
that cause
con?
or have
been
through
scription.During approximatelyhalf of that
time,
the
that
time,
the
at war.
was
country
policies,
and mental
tests,
on
cutoffs
and
during
the draft?
of
requirements
deferment
Also
target
the physical
the U.S.
1973,
has
military
with
operated
an
All-Volunteer Force (AVF).
The fact that both the individual and the
institution
one
select
on
for research
another
poses
the life course
problems
forces
armed
as well
as a substantive
mine
one
how
a
present
interprets
methodological
deter?
problem. They
an observed
associa?
tion between
service and an outcome.
military
For example, World War
II veterans have
long
to earn more
been observed
than nonveterans.
the armed
However,
with
lower
smarter
average,
ans
independent
military.
There
problem
are
of
serve
This
recruits
rejected
and more physical
im?
veterans
should be, on
and healthier
of the time
than nonveter?
people
the characteristics
who
have
served
to the
exam?
that differ?
or who
may
in the
from those who have not.
military
makes
the characteristics
that
approach
cause
MacLean
people
to be selected
a
that not
techniques
ser?
of military
all of the charac?
to be
people
It
measured.
can
selected
is the preferred
counter-factual
pursuing
analysis (Angrist& Krueger 2001, Halaby
2004, Heckman 2005,Winship & Morgan
the review, we
searchers
are often
analyses
selection
they consider
story, not as a nuisance.
substantive
out
course
Life
1999).
note
the ways
not
and have
have
sue of selection,
both
causal.
of the
part
Through?
re?
in which
the is?
addressed
and
methodologically
substantively.
question
MILITARY SERVICE, THE LIFE
COURSE, AND CRIME
The
of sub
that most
line of work
on a life course
framework
draws
consistently
on the rela?
focuses
between military
service and crime.
to com?
lead veterans
service
military
or fewer crimes than nonveterans?
mit more
tionship
Does
Do
foster particular
as substance
policies
military
criminal
behavior,
men
while
and
forces? The
as well
women
as on
are
in
at hand
between
relationship
criminal careers
types of
such
evidence
the
abuse,
the
armed
indicates
that
service and
military
on historical
context
depends
the timing
of service
in the life
course.
in the
they spent
two
general
approaches
selection.
First, one can
ine and model
entiate
forces
intelligence
Therefore,
pairments.
These
effect
in studies
approach
re?
between
effects of mil?
between military
itary service. An association
service and a particular
outcome
stem
may
from the
per se or from
experience
military
the preservice
of the people
characteristics
serve. The
who
factors that select
into
people
the military
and into combat
in
roles once
the
assume
and
However,
quotas?shifted
the differences
and nonveterans.
on
focus
vice
forces
approach
that methodologically
technique
or
filled
countries,
(Flynn 1993). Since the end of the draft in
178
It is the preferred
in life course research (Caspi 2004, George
2003, Elder & Shanahan 2006). Second, one
along with many
the ranks of the armed
other
focuses
veterans
between
differences
decades between 1941 and 1973, theUnited
States,
in this vein
interest. Research
and nonveterans.
duces
60 years.
the past
mili?
particular
taryroles (Fancher 1985).
The
refers to
to
service members
stantive
on the measured
The
role
of
the military
in criminal
ca?
reershighlights theproblem of selection into
the
armed
course
forces.
studies
measured
proach
The
discussed
between
Research
on
above,
focused
primarily
differences
nonveterans.
sequences
As
have
on
veterans
the criminal
life
the
and
con?
of military
service pursues
this ap?
to address
the problem
of selection.
armed
? Elder
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forces
during
the Vietnam
and
eras drew
AVF
men
had
who
and
police
Vietnam
the
least some men
arrests.
the
service inVietnam did not have a similarly
records
War,
of
teenagers)
to
nondelinquents
enter
(men
likely
et al. 2005).
to serve
the
inVietnam
this pattern
Indeed,
ar?
likely than
armed
forces
in themilitary, they
(Bouffard 2003). Once
were more
of
During
juvenile
delinquents
were more
as
rested
(Wright
in
remained
the early years ofthe AVF; preservice
criminal
was a
of
stronger predictor
offending
military
service than was patriotic
(Bouffard
opinions
2005, Johnson& Kaplan 1991). For example,
a man
a
with
arrest was
preservice
3.49
times
more likely to join themilitary in the late
than aman
1970s
who
described
no more
such an arrest. Men
without
as
were
patriotic
than were
those who
themselves
to enlist
likely
did not (Johnson& Kaplan
observed
association
1991).Thus, an
between
service
military
and crime might
reflect the fact that people
to commit crimes are also
who are more
likely
more
to enter the armed forces.
likely
Nevertheless,
been
service
military
during
II provided young men who had
World War
arrested
in their
teens with
a
positive
turningpoint: Such service changed their life
course
for
trajectories
Shanahan
came
2006).
the better
the extent
To
(Elder
&
that these men
from
homes,
therefore,
disadvantaged
II service increased
social equal?
were
ity. At least some
juvenile
delinquents
less likely to commit
crimes as adults if
they
served
II era, and par?
during theWorld War
World
War
ticularly
if
overseas
they served
(Sampson
&
Laub 1996). Picking up on earlier theoryand
research,
Sampson
&
is because
military
service
vious
a
experience,
to a
negative
Laub
shifting
positive
tory(Brotz& Wilson
2003). On
ses
suggest
AlthoughWorld War II serviceprovided at
numbers
disproportionate
of contact with
histories
the other
assert
"knifes
that
off"
delinquents
life course
this
pre?
from
trajec?
1946,Laub & Sampson
hand,
that
military
lives of other World War
provided
a venue
continue
their preservice
qualitative
analy?
service disrupted
the
II veterans,
and also
in which
could
delinquents
criminal
offending
(Laub & Sampson 2003, Sampson & Laub
1993).
a
with
positive
constant
effect. Holding
Vietnam
positive
veterans
lice contacts,
as
nonveterans
comparable
turning
point,
po?
juvenile
were
as
likely
later civil?
to have
ian contact with the police (Bouffard 2003,
Bouffard& Laub 2004). Men who served in
were more
to report increases
likely
than
drinking and marijuana
smoking
or those
those who did not serve in Vietnam
Vietnam
in their
who
not
did
serve
at all.
In
addition,
peo?
entered
the armed forces when
ple who
they
were older
in their
increases
reported greater
use of alcohol
and drugs
than those who
were
entered
when
younger
they
(Wright
et al. 2005). The marked
differences
between
World
II-
War
suggest
outcomes
and Vietnam-era
that the effects of
military
careers
criminal
and, more
service
broadly,
on
on
social
inequalitydepend on historical time and place
as well
as on
In the AVF
have
increased
erans
compared
ans are more
the timing
of service
era, military
service
in lives.
to
appears
of vet?
offending
nonveterans.
AVF veter?
the criminal
with
to commit violent offenses
likely
than are comparable
nonveterans.
Those
who
were
to their service are par?
delinquents
prior
to commit crimes after
ticularly likely
serving
in themilitary (Bouffard2005).
an open
It remains
as to
question
why
the effect of
on criminal
ca?
service
military
reers varied
across
these different eras. One
possible
explanation
stem from differences
For
example,
juvenile
is that these
in selection
delinquents
listed duringWorld War
differences
across
eras.
who
en?
II may have had
that made
itmore
likely that
to
would
be
able
reform
after
their ser?
they
vice. Another
is
that the
possible
explanation
stem from differences
differences
in
military
service over time. The
military
training and
characteristics
of the Vietnam
and post-Vietnam
experience
eras may have fostered more
criminal behav?
ior than did the
of the
training and experience
II era. A third
War
possible
explanation
is that the economy
of the immediate
post
World
World
War
II era offered more
opportunities
?
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17p
to
veterans
returning
later eras may
DIVORCE
the economic
veterans
to criminal
turned
of
offend?
area
life course
of
principles
these
Among
combat were more
who
did not. Veterans
were
older were
those who
entered
In the more
the
and
combat
focus on
primarily
II and the Vietnam
those who
to divorce
to divorce
they
voluntary
saw
than those
entered when
likely
when
recent
were
they
than
younger.
era, military
ser?
vice has decreased the likelihood that service
members
African
will
if they are
particularly
American.
Much
itary
divorce,
of the
service
life course
and
divorce
research
has
on mil?
focused
on
the hasty marriage
among World
hypothesis
II veterans. This
states that
War
hypothesis
1990). Veterans
who
mar?
have divorced
by 195 5 than those who married
war.
the
who married
during
Couples
during
were
the war understood
what
they
getting
into and were
better
able to withstand
the
hardships
did not
of wartime
anticipate
service
the
than couples
potentially
who
disruptive
force ofwar. The generality of thisfinding is
limitedby themiddle-class background ofthe
18o
divorce
among
eras
Vietnam
at
Age
World
War
MacLean
those
who
before
married
veterans
(Ruger
the Korean
of
and
et al. 2002).
service
entering military
during
II also appears
related to marital
who
entered
the armed forces
stability. Men
were older than 30 were more
when
they
likely
to divorce
than those who entered when
they
were
At
least in the middle-class
younger.
California
before
Terman
the
disruptive
sample, with birth dates
service was more
1920s, military
men
for these
be?
relatively older
cause they leftbehind more established lives
(Pavalko & Elder 1990). Thus, the relation?
ship
to divorce may
service
de?
military
on the
in veterans'
timing of service
of
pend
lives.
Combat
perience
veterans
Elder
and
II were
War
least during this era, soldiers may
into
have entered
that they regret?
marriages
ted after the war. The
rel?
timing of marriage
ative to service had no effect on the odds of
Teachman
&
results. Veter?
during World
the war. At
sample of high-ability men, the timing of mar?
service
riage relative to the timing of military
affected the odds that veterans would
divorce
ried beforeWorld War II were more likelyto
married
nonveterans
are more
marry during wartime
couples
to
their
rush
and conse?
marry
likely regret
are more
to divorce.
quently
likely
According
to research based on the
longitudinal Terman
who
(Pavalko
different
provide
in?
which
from a vari?
veterans
by
provided
ety of wars,
or decrease
timing,
who
more
data
the National
more likelyto get divorced thanwere
slightly
veterans,
likely
cludes
on
and Households,
the associ?
War
War.
of Families
concerns
vary by race,
These
studies
exposure?
veterans
of World
Survey
in California.
based
ans who
probability of divorce? And how do these re?
lationships
origins
analyses
that draws
it increase
Does
their residential
research
Does
service increase
ing questions:
military
or decrease
the likelihood
that veterans will
get married?
by their late age when World
II began (median age, 31 years), and by
Indeed,
service and family re?
military
in this area
the follow?
explores
between
lations. Work
study members,
War
options.
AND MARRIAGE
active
Another
ation
have
of a lack of other
ing because
on
than did
of later eras. Thus,
circumstances
in a
exposure
led veterans
to face
of eras has
variety
increased
marital
diffi?
culties (Gimbel & Booth 1994, Pavalko &
Elder 1990,Ruger et al. 2002; but see Call &
1991,
1996).
Data
from
the Cen?
tersforDisease Control (CDC) Vietnam Ex?
there
Study, which
surveyed enlisted Army
from the Vietnam
that
era, suggest
is a
between
relationship
difficulties. Veterans
who
marital
enced
combat were more
such
problems,
tery, and domestic
1994).
Veterans
ety of eras,
Vietnam,
of combat
as
likely
who
stretching
experienced
on marital
2002).
? Elder
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came
had
and
experi?
to have marital
divorce,
separation,
violence
combat
(Gimbel
of age
from World
&
adul?
Booth
in a vari?
War
II to
a similar
negative
effect
stability
(Ruger
et al.
the case with
As was
some
research
the association
stems
from
between
combat
This
selection.
are much more likely to divorce (Lundquist
outcomes,
the possibility
and
research
that
divorce
divorce
also
untary
fo?
be?
differences
identifying measured
veterans
and nonveterans,
rather than
tween
methodologically
differences.
veterans
for unmeasured
controlling
Studies
that focus on Vietnam
that the association
suggest
combat
divorce
and
on
pend
preservice
and noncombat
ans were
more
emotional
at least in the vol?
by race,
has differed
era.
may
differences
veterans.
problems
had
de?
com?
even
Yet,
accounting
Vietnam
combat
ferences,
more
to
likely
than
noncombat
more
for preservice
veterans were
experience
veterans.
to commit
likely
marital
work
acts
after
and using
arrested
in a
fight. These
of the association
between
still
were
also
They
such as being
their service,
dif?
difficulties
antisocial
acts
explain much
combat
exposure
weapons
and postwar divorce (Gimbel & Booth 1994).
In addition,
combat
veterans
and
those with
stress disorder
were
(PTSD)
post-traumatic
more
to behave
toward
their
likely
violently
et
et
al.
Orcutt
al.
1992,
(Jordan
partners
Savarese
2003,
portion
exposure
that combat
veterans
veterans
noncombat
commit
et al. 2001).
the relationship
and divorce may
of
know
the
stem from
were
more
between
relationship
in the post-Vietnam
a
that have
divorce
voluntary
than
to
explored
service
(Angrist
of the
armed forces
voluntary
to get divorced.
than civilians
in this era reversed
gap
between
African
are less
likely
ser?
Military
the marital
dissolution
Americans
and whites.
In theAVF, blacks are less likely thanwhites
to divorce,
whereas
among
civilians,
also
the extent
explores
trajectoryof PTSD
blacks
ac?
the ways
lives has
to which
of the research
avoidance
fo?
memories
the
response)
iden?
service
affected mental
and phys?
negatively
veterans were
ical health,
when
particularly
to combat.
exposed
The
bulk
health
first
of
Stress Disorder
research
This
was
disorder
in the Diagnostic
and Statis?
in 1980 as a consequence
of
included
tical Manual
research
the Vietnam
following
literature
War
1985). However,
effects of combat
negative
a
part of
veterans'
concerning
on PTSD.
focuses
have
exposure
the
been
recount?
since Homer's
ing of combat
experience
during
War
and of Odysseus's
difficulties
the Trojan
in return?
ing home (Shay 1995, 2002). Recent his?
torical work
of wartime
ity, nostalgia,
documents
neuroses
shell
the
enduring
called
variously
shock,
and
nature
combat
insan?
fa?
tigue in engagements including theCivilWar
(Dean 1997),World War I (Babington 1997),
andWorld War II (Linderman 1997).Within
the psychiatric literature,PTSD
is defined
as a mental
disorder
event, which
leads
a traumatic
caused
by
to the
of the
reexperiencing
combined with avoidance
event, or flashbacks,
?
www.annualreviews.org Military Service in theLife Course
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
of the
(e.g., insomnia and
startle
exaggerated
tifies positive
effects. In addition,
studies look
at how
service
and
combat
exposure
military
affected short- and long-term
mortality. With
few exceptions,
this work finds that
military
Post-Traumatic
of
event, combined
with hyperarrousal
focuses
some
effects of combat,
reexperiencing
(flashbacks) and
that
ismoderated by linked
most
lives. Although
on the
negative
(Kulka 1990, Trimble
& Johnson 2000, Lundquist 2006). Accord?
ing to data from theNational Longitudinal
Study of Youth 1979 (NLSY79), members
vice
regarding
leads to
the most
affects veterans'
the fact
and
era
of research
clinical
violence.
of two studies
a half,
and
combat
likely
than nonveterans
and
acts of domestic
at least
Thus,
between
a mental
(PTSD):
disorder, caused by a
traumatic event, that
cused on health. The bulk of thiswork fo?
cuses on PTSD and its links to health. This
preservice
in school,
and problems
decade
service
military
veter?
Combat
to have
likely
partly
between
the past
tive area
Post-traumatic
stress disorder
COMBAT EXPOSURE AND
LIFELONG HEALTH
Over
between
at least
which partly explained their greater likeli?
hood of latermarital difficulties(Gimbel &
Booth 1994).
We
on
service
the effect of military
Thus,
2006).
on
cuses
bat
criminal
explores
181
of the event,
of memories
insomnia
including
response.
and exaggerated
startle
to the National
Vietnam
According
Veterans'
Readjustment
of veterans
25%?30%
et al.
and hyperarousal,
Study,
who
approximately
inVietnam
served
had experienced the disorder in the first two
after service
decades
Most
research
Vietnam
veterans.
these veterans,
Among
with a number
of negative
is associated
PTSD
health
outcomes,
tive
ranging
(Barrett
functioning
creased
from
lower
et al.
1996)
disturbances
sleep
1998), worse
(Neylan
and more
health,
physical
cogni?
to in?
physical limitations(Zatzick et al. 1997).
Additional studies show that PTSD has
veterans
affected
War
Vietnam
et
al.
1994,
veterans
Some
showed
other
Rosenheck
evidence
years
after
their
1994,
Spiro
et al.
1994).
the
Falk
1994).
War
40
average
than
et al. 2001,
from World
and Vietnam
et al.
of conflicts
(Dirkzwager
Fontana
&
II, Korea,
on
of PTSD
service
(Aldwin
from
Data
the
Normative Aging Study,which is based on a
men who
sample of healthy
at a
of Veterans
Department
were
outpatients
Affairs
(VA) hos?
pital between 1961 and 1968, provide some
into
insight
the
long-term
effects
of
com?
bat. Between 3% and 6% of still-living
World
II veterans
War
posure
PTSD
were
approximately
et al. 1994). Veterans
(Spiro
ex?
heavy
as
having
after the war
classified
40 years
from
eras
other
et al. 2001),
(Erickson
depressed
less well adjusted
in their work
and
The
between military
service
relationship
on
and
health
histori?
may depend
general
cal context, as shifts between
eras of war and
alter
the context
of only
two papers,
compare
the health
ferent eras
MacLean
(Fontana
of service. We
however,
had
greater
traumatic
and
exposure
across
to PTSD
lated
II
of combat
were
re?
significantly
all cohorts of veterans,
trau?
between
that the relationship
and PTSD
has been the same
suggesting
matic
Yet measures
veterans.
exposure
veterans
for combat
the wars
of
regardless
inwhich they fought (Fontana & Rosenheck
1994).
Trauma
Social
relations
effects
that
Lives
and Linked
or moderate
may mediate
on health.
of combat
ans who
the
veter?
Vietnam
social
greater
as measured
by
of their fam?
reported
experiencing
at their
homecoming,
the availability
and willingness
support
ilymembers to help and talkwith them, also
fewer
reported
of PTSD
symptoms
(Fontana
et al. 1997a,b). Along with level of support,
perceptions
negative
fights with
erans' own
and
The
of homecoming
from relatives
or anger were
shame
associated
strongly
1997).
insults
with PTSD
effects
For
the most
considered
found
to be
(Johnson
et al.
exposure
at
networks
to
of traumatic
on
least partly depend
return.
veterans
which
the social
part, work
alternative
in this area has not
of the re?
explanations
between
social support
et al. 1999). However,
lationship
(but see Ren
may
causality
as
such
and vet?
and health
the direc?
run from health
to social
support,
rather than the reverse. Veterans
who
returned
with
may
have
elicited
fewer
greater
of PTSD
symptoms
social
support.
(Lee
long
in
peace
veterans
Vietnam
and Korean
were
family lives than veterans without PTSD
et al. 1995). Thus,
combat
has
exposure
term effects on veterans'
health.
182
treat PTSD,
tion of
and were
zone
exposure to combat than didWorld War
thanVietnam who had PTSD also had worse
mental and physical health (Ren et al. 1999),
more
of war
sample
veterans seeking help fromVA clinics that
to
with moderate
to combat
a
Among
1997), more
et al.
(Beckham
smoking
and
nightmares
et al.
1990, pp. 32-33).
(Kulka
on PTSD
on
focuses
2002).
know
explicitly
effects of serving in dif?
& Rosenheck
1994, Villa
Positive
In
Effects of Combat
to
addition
several
quences,
exposure
may
veterans'
identifying
papers
have
lives. Much
that combat
suggest
some
conse?
negative
positive
of this research
effects
on
draws
on
earlierwork byElder & Clipp(1988a,b;
that shows
that, in addition
sequences,
veterans
? Elder
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
with
to
negative
combat
1989)
con?
experience
also
increased
reported
a
silience.
To
combat
depends
and
re?
effect
of
camaraderie
certain
the
extent,
on how
veterans
who
Studies
perceived
their combat
veterans
associates
Two
Aldwin,
experiences.
Spiro, and
et al. 1994,
et al.
(Aldwin
Spiro
1994) use theNormative Aging Study to show
veterans
that combat
and Korean
from
in a positive
effects, such as
ing desirable
with
PTSD
II
War
their mil?
perceived
as hav?
light and
them to
teaching
to
and
peace,
cope
itary experiences
to
cooperate,
theWorld
eras who
War
appreciate
fewer
expressed
adversity,
of
symptoms
than thosewho did not perceive such
effects. These
positive
into
the
sight
for mental
of human
importance
and physical
in?
provide
findings
in war
dies
agency
health.
across
differed
have
also
Korean
investigate
after
recent
on
vice
they
papers
their
the effects of ser?
explore
data, veterans
Census
ically
recruiting
military
to be more
tended
a
complex,
between
situation-specific
pre?
relationship
service characteristics
and
in com?
mortality
bat. Several
studies assess the relationship
be?
has
revealed
increased
that af?
disability
After accounting
the basis of
phys?
tween familybackground and the likelihood
On
wartime
during wartime.
and the
combat,
make
They
rates
higher
of
a
that
of
substan?
result,
mortality
topic
tive interest. This work continues
a tradition
selection
that
into
stretches
ing whether
to the
back
1950s
service
military
class bias (Mayer& Hoult
American
War
were
soldiers
slightly
who
poor
neighborhoods
borhoods
(Barnett
Vietnamese
in the North
in the war
men
likely
than from
1992).
rich
from
neigh?
contrast,
By
to serve
likely
to die
and
military
more
Vietnamese
if
by
in the Vietnam
to come
et al.
were
is governed
they had
relatively
more
edu?
cancer
lung
after their service.
rates
mortality
to die
likely
than are non
in
stemmed,
service completed
average, military
during
led to increased
later life
mortality.
The
increased risk of death among
veterans
wartime
that
likelihood
may
stem from
veterans
these
the greater
suffered
from
PTSD. The disordermay have weakened the
health
of veterans,
1955). Indeed, the World War
died
more
of examin?
II and Korean
that
part, from military
practices
encouraged
recruits to smoke (Bedard & Deschenes
2006).
that soldiers
died
and
greater
fact that veterans
to be more
two to five decades
veterans
The
are found
disease
This
requirements.
the
physical fitness masked
were more
to have a
likely
fected their ability to work.
on
for this positive
selection
veterans
phys?
because
of
nonveterans
than
healthy
of heart
work
service.
War
II and
among World
mortality
veterans
War
(Bedard & Deschenes
ical health, bothWorld War
Recent
among
mortality
completed
2006, London & Wilmoth 2006). According
to an analysis based on the 1980 and 1990
War
Mortality
time and
place.
risk than
greater
with
long-term
II veterans with PTSD
those without
results.
were at
the disorder
of dying from cardiovascular diseases (Kang
et al. 2006).
Research
veterans with PTSD
risks
in their
(2006)
matches
the CDC's
later
also finds
civilian
lives.
the information
Vietnam
that Vietnam
faced higher mortality
Experience
Boscarino
in
contained
Study
be?
cated fathers (Merli 2000). During the first gun in 1985 with data from theVA, the So?
of the Iraq war, African Americans
were
to serve in the combat
branches
likely
and the Army)
than they were
(the Marines
in the other branches.
Consequently,
they
at a rate
suffered casualties
to
proportionate
year
less
their
in
the population
but
smaller
than their repre?
disproportionately
in the armed forces at
sentation
large (Gif
ford 2005). Thus,
the factors that determine
representation
cial Security Administration,
and theNational
Index to ascertain whether
veterans had
Death
died by 2000. According to thiswork,Vietnam
War veterans initiallydiagnosed with PTSD
were more
the 15 years
veterans
ing from
external
to die in
likely than other veterans
assessment.
their
These
following
faced
an
increased
cardiovascular
causes,
likelihood
disease,
such as accidents
of
cancer,
dy?
and
and suicides.
?
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
183
War
World
Among
II veterans,
were
combat
experienced
to have
veterans
noncombat
those who
more
than
likely
phys?
declining
ical health or to die in the 15 years follow?
war. This
effect of
ing the end of the
negative
of
the ef?
exposure was
independent
fect of self-rated health at the end of the war
combat
et al. 1997). Therefore,
(Elder
outcomes
of veterans'
account
have
in life must
veterans
of the fact that combat
died
the past decade
vious
two decades,
and a half, as in the pre?
studies
have
the socioeconomic
investigate
may
EFFECTS
SOCIOECONOMIC
Over
take
in the life course.
early
relatively
effects of mili?
tary service,
the relationship
tween
and
emphasizing
the armed
forces
to
continued
be?
social
inequal?
focuses on veterans'
primarily
it also
although
explores educational
ity.This
ent
attainment,
that might
lead them to differ?
careers
later in life. For
nonveteran
peers
in
likely
lower-status
ever,
in the more
poor
families
recent
nisms
ser?
that explain
the effects of
military
as
educational
benefits,
training,
and officer status. In
studies show that
general,
service has
affected the at?
military
negatively
such
vice,
of some veterans,
tainment
particularly
during
from
people
were
Americans
more likely to serve in themilitary (Seeborg
the volunteer
1994). Thus,
armed
sim?
forces,
ilar toprisons (Western 2002), have tended to
from
draw people
economic
contrast
In
other
ploring
the lower
to most
research
ex?
examining
the
service
and
the
between
military
outcomes
tries
differences
veter?
use
four
analyses
instrumen?
approaches:
fixed
functions,
effects,
of the method?
to the
of esti?
problems
on observational
data
approaches
based
causality
feasible
account
between
full account
A
and matching.
to
These
basic methodological
tal variables,
control
ological
of
work
outcomes,
relationship
socioeconomic
mating
is not
end of the socio
distribution.
Some
the mecha?
AVF,
and African
riods.
on
1995).
(Wilson
were
Contrary
popular
not
the
among
army troops
over-represented
who
served in Vietnam
(Mazur
1995). How?
ans and nonveterans.
focuses
worked
nonwhites
belief,
for unmeasured
attention
were
They
fathers who
occupations
to
groups,
time pe?
less
slightly
1995).
(Mazur
to have
social
and
were
veterans
Vietnam
likelyto hold college degrees thanwere their
status,
employment,
occupational
and mobility.
It investigates whether
the con?
of service differ across
sequences
individuals,
types of service,
sys?
of nonveter?
that
socioeconomic
example,
work
earnings,
from
differed
tematically
ans in ways
of veterans
the life history
eras,
also more
any assessment
later
In many
here.
reviews
Comprehensive
have recently been published (Halaby 2004,
the attainment
Heckman 2005, Moffitt 2005, Smith 2003,
influencing
standing themeaning behind these findings Winship & Morgan 1999). In what follows,
the Vietnam
and AVF
eras, while
positively
of others. Under?
entails
the
between
disentangling
relationship
selection
and causality. For this reason, we be?
how research
gin this section by describing
outcomes
in this domain
has ad?
examining
dressed
ically.We
the question
of selection
methodolog?
then turn to the
key findings.
we
been
causal
for Dealing
As
with
work
Instrumental
attainment
differences
ans
184
examining
studies
many
net
outcomes,
investigating
of veterans
attempt
between
veterans
measured
to account
and
for
nonveter?
characteristics.
variables.
studies
have
Since
used
the
to
mid
vari?
instrumental
to estimate
the effects of military
service
of unmeasured
vet?
differences
between
erans
and nonveterans
(Angrist
1990; Angrist
& Krueger 1994; Bedard & Deschenes 2006;
the socioeconomic
by considering
MacLean
ables
with Selection
other
service as it relates
military
later civilian attainment.
effect of
veterans'
1980s,
Methods
of how these
examples
techniques
in work
used
that examines
the
present
have
Hearst
et
der Klaauw
al.
1986,
1995).
1991;
Details
Imbens
about
&
Van
instrumen?
talvariable techniques have been published in
? Elder
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the econometric
for example,
and
literature
statistical
et al.
Angrist
(see,
will
vidual
case
the treatment,
experience
but
service,
military
the outcome
rectly affect
of this research
di?
interest. Much
the fact that under
or less
likely
their birth dates. For
on
solely
the Selective
Service
mented
System
imple?
the Vietnam
War
conscription
during
a
in which men were drafted
by using
lottery
on the basis of the
were born.
day they
Cap?
italizing
on
more
the random
of
aspect
assignment
on
the effect of Vietnam
estimate
com?
less
somewhat
mon
for dealing with selection
technique
service is based on Heckman's
military
& Navarro-Lozano
Heckman
or
the control
function
outcomes
various
Hirsch & Mehay
a selection
ing
requires
model.
The
underlying
outcomes
receives
this rate
including
Recent
work
yses.
the
use
technique
rate (or inverse
as a variable
then
the hazard
that the variables
requires
the treatment
include
pre?
a variable
that
is excluded from the causal model predicting
the outcome
&
(for more
a selection
Moffitt
2004,
Winship & Morgan
use
see Heckman
details
Navarro-Lozano
2005,
1999). Several papers
lambda without
identifying
an
excluded variable (Sampson & Laub 1996,
Teachman & Tedrow 2004). Other papers
have used
& Call
preservice
military
plans
(Teachman
1996) and parental military service
(Bouffard2005) as excluded variables.
Fixed
effects.
nique
for
itary
model.
A much
dealing
service
is to
This
model
trol for time-invariant
with
less
uses
common
selection
estimate
similar
the
to each
that are
to
thought
& Navarro
(Heckman
the Reserve
includes
pare
earnings
data
Component
on veterans who
Survey,
served
three decades
during
covering
eras.
com?
the voluntary
They
on
reservists
who
served
among
to those who did not. This
duty
analy?
sis relies on the fact that
in this
people
sample
in the armed forces had
who
served actively
active
similar
to those
characteristics
who did not.
in the sample
in the anal?
that
suggests
rate calculation
dicting
and
which
the draft and
of estimat?
treatment,
is to compare
are
ways
for selection
(e.g.,
Mills ratio) indicating the probability that an
individual
2003). The basic principle
in important
in the reserves
basic
a hazard
calculating
service on
effect of military
is matching
1998,
(Angrist
this approach
of people who
into
lambda
2004)
method
the causal
Lozano 2004). For example,Hirsch & Mehay
later earnings.
A
A final technique that is used to
Matching.
(2003)
function.
veterans.
Vietnam
account
Control
In two pa?
sociology.)
ser?
to assess the effect of
fect design
military
on
vice
among
earnings and years of schooling
other
to assess
service
(Halaby
pers,Teachman (2004, 2005) uses a fixed ef?
thissystem,
Angrist (1990) uses date ofbirthas
military
within
generally
an instrument
era
service.
2004 reviewshow thismethod has been used
were more
to serve based
example,
of
on
relies
the draft, certain men
in this
not
that does
into the treat?
selection
in this case
military
ment,
1996, Wooldridge
2002). The basic approach is to identifya vari?
able that increases the likelihood thatan indi?
cause
istics that may
tech?
into mil?
a ?xed
effects
data
to con?
panel
unmeasured
character
The
Effects ofMilitary
in recent
Only
causal
years
have
Service
studies
to examine
techniques
used
these
find?
previous
the effect of
service.
ings regarding
military
For example,
earlier studies found thatWorld
War
II veterans
veteran
Rosen
quarter
peers
&
earned more
(Martindale
Taubman
of birth
1982).
is used
military
no more
service, World
veterans
even without
than their non
&
However,
as an
War
Poston
1979,
when
instrument
II veterans
for
earned
than comparable
and
nonveterans,
less.World
War
II veterans
may have earned
most
on
abilities
average,
greater
likely had,
and thus would
have earned more
than non
1994).
Krueger
II appears
War
veterans'
their service
(Angrist &
In short, service
to have
had
during World
a neutral effect on
attainment.
?
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185
Research
service
ment
shows
consistently
the
impaired
veterans
of white
era.
the Vietnam
that military
socioeconomic
who
Studies
attain?
served
during
published
shortly
after the end of the Vietnam War
that veterans
of that war
to their nonveteran
found
lost ground
relative
because
counterparts
of
their service (Card 1983, Rosen & Taubman
1982,Veterans Administration 1981).More
recently,Angrist (1990) revisits this ques?
tion and
shows
15%
earned
erans
service.
their
not
did
ian work
the
than
to a decade
up
pleted
service
that white
less
veterans
Vietnam
nonvet?
comparable
after
He
directly
As with
for civil?
other
on
of military
service
attainment
has varied across
time and
Military service also disrupted the livesof
both male
veterans,
recent
the
based
on
white
male
era.
AVF
social
and
in
female,
to research
According
records,
earnings
in the
earned more while
security
veterans
military but less in their later civilian lives,
with
compared
nonveteran
their white
coun?
that time
evidence
studies
However,
veterans
male
the more
of
that fe?
suggest
recent AVF
era
did not benefit from their service. Using
the
large
number
Census,
some
female veterans
AVF
veterans
earned
least
at a socioeconomic
nonveter?
served
veterans
era
at
that
nonveterans
female
in the
available
find
comparable
who
nonveterans
2000). White
did
to
the Vietnam
comparable
had
were
than
less
lar age, whereas
during
papers
relative
disadvantage
ans. Female
cases
of
two
1990
the
during
of simi?
who
served
more
earned
&
(Prokos
than
Padavic
female veterans of the AVF
lower
and family income
earnings
nonveterans
comparable
(Cooney
than
et al.
2003).
ans
to nonveterans,
the duration
MacLean
of the research
on
socio
veter?
simply compares
some studies
report
of military
service
that
also matters
and
than
from
away
spent
civilian
Combat Exposure
and
Socioeconomic
Outcomes
some
to which
tent
exposure
attainment.
Most
(Prigerson
find
studies
&
Savoca
socioeco?
in a war
if they served
et al. 2002,
so?
affects
lower
experienced
attainment
the ex?
examines
research
combat
veterans
nomic
zone
Rosenheck
2000). Studies of the relationship between
combat
and
exposure
comes
primarily
out?
socioeconomic
on Vietnam
focus
to data from
According
tion
Survey, Vietnam-era
if they served
earnings
veterans.
the Current
veterans
Popula?
had
in Vietnam
lower
than
if
theydid not (Cohany 1992). Similarly,among
attained
who
served
the Vietnam
era,
during
to combat
inVietnam
exposed
fewer years
served
of schooling
or were not
elsewhere
than
those
to
exposed
et al. 2006). This
in?
evidence
(Lyons
dicates
that at least part of the
ef?
negative
on socio
fect of
service
in general
military
combat
economic
attainment
stem from combat
may
exposure.
However,
tradict
the
erans
not
Vogt
notion
later
impacts
cording
Veterans
et al.'s (2004)
from
Readjustment
did not differ
serve
service
in Vietnam
job
that
negatively
outcomes.
Ac?
the National
Vietnam
Study, Vietnam
from veterans who
in their
satisfaction
and
levels
killing
a
variety
and
of domains
educational
lower
but
? Elder
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satisfaction
similar
attainment
did
of post
sta?
those who
veterans,
Among
or
nessed
in atrocities
participated
had
vet?
occupational
Vietnam
civilians
con?
findings
combat
socioeconomic
to data
tus.
much
Although
outcomes
economic
than
earnings
the lives of veterans.
life disrupts
those who were
of female
months
nonveterans (Bryant& Wilhite 1990, Bryant
et al. 1993).This findingprovides additional
twins who
the experiences
explored
lower
had
for shorter periods
served
terparts (Angrist 1998). Relatively little re?
has
spent more
who
forces
search
veterans.
186
those who
that
socioeco?
place.
all white
in the armed
cioeconomic
outcomes,
effect
nomic
veterans
NLSY79,
In addition,
that military
substitute
experience.
com?
they had
argues
(Bryant& Wilhite 1990, Bryant et al. 1993,
Fitzgerald 2006). According to data from the
wit?
such
as
across
occupational
to those who did
not
such
experience
events.
traumatic
Vogt
et al. (2004) conclude that,despite higher lev?
els of PTSD,
contrasts with
neutral
the
finding
and may
findings of other researchers
the fact that this research uses different
negative
reflect
measures
other
not
labor mar?
in the civilian
penalized
necessarily
ket. This
were
veterans
combat
many
success
of socioeconomic
than have
studies.
sure of the success of theGI Bill is that, for
the decade
able,
when
was not
funding
men were
such
avail?
ambitious
academically
signif?
icantlyless likelyto attend and graduate from
if
college
they entered
the armed
forces
than
if they did not (MacLean 2005). Policies in?
to ameliorate
tended
veterans
the impaired
earnings of
that at least some veterans
ensured
as a
their service
experienced
positive
turning
point.
most
Although
economic
AVF
nomic
of
are also
veterans
attainment
socio
negative
service,
military
ex?
For
reported.
their socioeco?
improve
use
if they make
in the civilian
of their
labor market.
military
training
One month
of military
counteracts
training
the negative
effect of five months
spent in
the armed
ans who
higher
forces. With
have more
all else
months
equal,
of training had
fewer months
of training (Bryant& Wilhite
etal.
veter?
than those with
earnings
and uncontested,
positive,
finding
is that veterans benefited from the educational
funding provided by the 1944 Servicemem
Readjustment
as
known
commonly
who
and
the GI
its successors,
Bill.
Since
the
served
ficers who
World
tary educational
some
Veterans
benefits
the govern?
1965,
form of educational
who
after serving
period beginningwithWorld War
tained more
education
used mili?
and had
in every
II have at?
higher
earn?
ings than thosewho did not (Angrist 1993,
Sampson & Laub 1996, Stanley 2003). The
1973 Occupational
Changes
information
about
provides
attainment
time that GI
as those who
had been
GI
Bill
of veterans
who
Veterans
Bill benefits were
began
stopped.
increased
serving
According
attainment
with
their
service.
Vietnam
after
had
educa?
civilian
la?
lives of those who
education
also
benefited
who
served
from
in
the
out of
after dropping
than
eight
years
of edu?
than comparable
earnings
& Tedrow
In
(Teachman
2004).
higher
African
addition,
white
less
receiving
veterans
American
benefited
and
other
from
financially
non
their
service in theAVF (Angrist 1998) and from
service
inWorld
nonveterans
Nonwhite
as
War
II relative
(Teachman
&
Tedrow
veterans
earned
Vietnam
nonveterans
comparable
had
of higher
as officers
served
high school (Bryantet al. 1993,Cohany 1992)
and thosewho served duringWorld War II
the AVF
tion by 15% to 20% amongmen born in the
1920s and early 1930s (Stanley 2003). A mea
&
(Hirsch
preservice
eras
and AVF
addition,
just after the funds
to these data, the
less
Veterans
the
during the
as well
available
who
veterans
nonwhite
African
served
service
in the postwar
itive turning point
in the
achieved
officer status.
in a Generation
educational
such
bor market than did nonofficers (Dechter &
Elder 2004). Military serviceprovided a pos?
nonveterans
and
1955
earned more
duty service
II veterans
War
decade
between
between
had active
had greater
mobility
cation
has provided
to veterans.
funding
II
2003). Consistent with this finding,
Mehay
end of
World War II,with the exception of the
ment
ben?
sample of reservists
the 1960s and 1990s, of?
than officers without
and
Act
also
In a matched
to the AVF.
1990, Bryant
1993).
Another
bers'
as officers
served
efitedfrom their service,fromWorld War
find
consequences
outcomes
positive
ample,
studies
who
Veterans
Effects of Service
Positive
2004).
as much
(Angrist 1990).
female veterans
American
similar
to nonwhite
earnings
In
of
to their nonvet?
eran
et al. 2003). These
counterparts
(Cooney
are consistent with a view of
findings
military
service as a positive
in the so?
turning point
cioeconomic
attainment
of people from dis
advantaged
military
decreased
backgrounds.
service
social
may
suggest
They
have
at
least
that
partly
inequality.
?
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i8j
FUTURE RESEARCH
is one
If there
a half of research
one
that the past
thing
and
decade
is no
it is that there
shows,
answer
to the
"what is the effect
question
of military
service?" nor even to the question
ser?
"what is the association
between military
answers to these
vice and the life course?" The
questions
on the outcome
depend
sideration
the era and
and
under
con?
timing of service
on whether
or
in
lives. They
people's
depend
not veterans
saw combat, utilized
or
benefits,
as officers.
on the
also depend
They
and family resources
that veterans
personal
to their service,
and on the
brought
family
and friends to whom
these veterans
returned.
served
These
differences
imply that the effect of ser?
lies in its larger social context,
the forces
to serve in the
that impel people
the
military,
factors that shape the
political
expe?
military
afforded to ser?
rience, and the opportunities
vice
vice members
and
during
after their tours of
duty.
researchers
Nevertheless,
the
of military
impact
nomic,
have
criminal,
health,
on
socioeco?
outcomes
and marital
a number
produced
between
relationship
life course.
examine
who
service
Viewed
of insights into the
service and the
military
as a whole,
the findings
from previous work shed light on how lo?
cation
in time
and
place
life course
shapes
trajectories.
The
existing
combat
ans'
all
exposure
evidence
had
lives regardless
of time and place. Across
veterans
have
had worse
combat
eras,
also suggests
that
the same effect on veter?
health and were more likely to get divorced
than
veterans
noncombat
and
nonveterans.
In addition,
combat
preliminary
findings suggest
veterans had lower socioeconomic
that
at?
tainment.
These
find?
consistently
negative
further
underscore
the
of
lo?
ings
importance
cation in time and place because
the likelihood
that service members
has varied
across
Nonetheless,
For
example,
and Hispanic
188
MacLean
were
different
gaps
in the literature
very few studies
origin
to combat
exposed
historical
examine
differences
eras.
persist.
gender
in the rela
tionship between military
ious outcomes. Women
service
and
the var?
and Hispanics
to serve in the
have
only recently begun
military
in
Future
research
should fo?
large numbers.
cus on trends in how
service affects
military
female veterans
and the extent to which
these
trends differ from
erans.
In addition,
plore
the extent
those
applying
future research
to which
differently
by
African
Americans
and whites.
the areas
cus on different
can
vice
research
as separate
main
to which
af?
are
than
that fo?
strengths that
areas. To date,
ser?
how military
stability,
socioeconomic
attain?
Yet
research
these domains
should
in one
effects
or moderate
mediate
ex?
are
marital
domains.
are linked. Future
extent
on
careers,
and
outcomes,
ment
have
in the other
focuses
affects criminal
health
service
of research
outcomes
inform work
most
their
vet?
should
Hispanics
fected
In addition,
to male
the
explore
or another
do?
the effects of mil?
itary service in the other domains.
In a related
is
vein, more
integration
needed
the research
used
among
approaches
to examine
the variation
in specific outcomes.
studies of the
of
example,
relationship
to health
service
out?
and marital
military
For
comes
to the effects
attention
give much
on combat
of combat. More
work
exposure
our
could
enhance
of life course
knowledge
in other areas, such as socioeco?
trajectories
nomic
attainment
of the research
general
suggests
service
and
comes
differs
and criminal
careers. Much
exploring military
that the association
socioeconomic
across
and
eras.
service
criminal
These
in
between
out?
different
a consequence
of the fact that
findings may be
veterans
or less
of different eras were more
to be
to combat.
In the
likely
exposed
language
of causal
veterans
to
analysis,
maybe
subjected
on when
different treatments
and
depending
in what
capacity
they served. Serving
during
or in noncombat
peacetime
roles, even during
a
have
effect on peo?
wartime,
may
positive
their skills, contribut?
lives, increasing
to their health,
and
them with
ing
providing
benefits. By contrast,
in
combat
roles
serving
ple's
during wartime
increases
? Elder
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the risks of impaired
mental and physical health, which makes
to civilian
life problematic.
We
a
in this area represents
promis?
readjustment
think analysis
for future
ing direction
than were
general
topic for additional
concerns
the mechanisms
behind
search
effect of military
re?
marital
and
fect
socioeconomic
veterans.
nonwhite
To
the
on
general
outcomes
among
in
service
some
the ef?
extent,
in
service
has dif?
military
general
race.
fered
nonwhite
the
veterans,
Among
by
on
effects of service
and occupa?
earnings
status have been
or at least
tional
positive,
not
of
as
negative
as for white
veterans.
and
decreases
the odds
therefore,
have
may
that they will
reduced
We
like to see more
would
research
equality.
that
the
mechanisms
behind
this ef?
explores
fect. For example,
rates of
the
relatively high
interracial marriage
in the armed forces may
account
vice
for the positive
effect of military
know from previous
on divorce. We
search
that the armed
forces
have
ser?
re?
a
achieved
uniquely high degree of integration (Moskos
&
Butler
duce
1996).
In addition,
bases
re?
military
and neighborhood
segregation,
in turn, may
reduce
racial inequality
school
which,
more
In the future, we would
broadly.
see more
attention
like to
to the links between
paid
the experience
of military
service and its effect
on racial
inequality.
We
would
re?
also like to see additional
search
and
the
regarding
less well-educated
extent
towhich
nonwhite
veterans
experienced
service as a positive
in
military
turning point
terms of their nonsocioeconomic
outcomes.
Few
studies
have
ical question:
Does
in
mortality
whether
and
race
from
races have
been
the
that
different
determine
are
should
health.
to race
find
a
positive
effect
of non whites'
armed
ca?
higher
com?
than
average,
better health
white
veterans
may
If this is the case,
service
military
have reproduced
the social struc?
simply
ture, and may
racial
have
date, most
inequality.
to correct
characteristics
focuses
effect on
research
that
on unmea?
for selection
attempts
sured
a net neutral
had
To
on whites
(but
see Lundquist 2004).
to this and
Attention
causality
military
research
would
on
related
questions
of
future work
on
strengthen
in the life course.
service
the
relationship
Although
between
mili?
tary service and socioeconomic
consequences
a
for
explores
variety of methods
specifying
the distinction
between
selection
and causal
this
effects,
of other
is not
outcomes
role of selection
attend
the
should have lower capabilities and perhaps
worse
of studies
that do
into
whereas
nonveterans,
parable
armed
selected
positively
In other words,
black
on
have,
and perhaps
pabilities
the
groups. Whites
are
blacks
et al. 1993).
(Teachman
in
racial
selected
negatively
stem
also
mechanisms
serves
who
forces, whereas
veterans
life
stem
may
may
selection
different
among
between
outcomes
assigned.
association
positive
from
and positive
veterans
in the
occupa?
military
service members
of different
ing (but see Bouffard 2005). Nor do we know
nonsocioeconomic
dif?
in the
differences
to which
tions
service
nonwhite
among
For
race
investigated whether
effects differ
to
locale,
exposure
by service
or
few studies of
combat,
age at entry. The
racial
variation
reflect
of military
outcomes
investigated
how military
service affects nonwhite
veterans
in terms of their health
and criminal offend?
that have
the observed
likelihood of combat exposure? Indeed, the
association
forces
in?
racial
less
nonveterans
nonwhite
comparable
ference
This
divorce (Lundquist 2004, 2006).Military ser?
vice,
era were
(London & Wilmoth 2006). This raises a log?
Prelim?
service in?
inary studies suggest that military
creases
the odds that African Americans
will
marry
vet?
nonwhite
likely to die four decades after their service
research.
Another
positive
service. For
military
example,
erans who
served in the Korean
example,
(or may
not)
the case
(but
for most
studies
see
2004).
Lundquist
into combat
roles may
to the associations
contribute
selection
combat
and various
into combat
outcomes.
remains
The
an open
question.
In addition,
comes
effects
have
studies
explored
are moderated
health
regarding
the extent to which
by
social
support
out?
these
or
?
www.annualreviews.org Militajy Service in theLife Course
This content downloaded on Tue, 15 Jan 2013 10:02:17 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
i8p
lives. For the most
part, the
interdependent
asso?
for the observed
explanation
prevailing
ciation posits that extensive
social support ex?
erts a
effect against negative
health
protective
outcomes.
is that
An alternative
explanation
veterans who were
less negatively
affected by
their
service
cial
have
may
when
support
received
returned
they
so?
greater
to civilian
Another
more
in studies
of
to veterans'
of service. As mentioned
studies
that explore
little about
how
the timing
in this
the effects of age
health
and
socioeconomic
dition,
more
research
of service
alters
outcomes.
In ad?
on how
is needed
the
effects of military
service in all these domains
over the life course.
change
We
that the data to address these
recognize
are
questions
limited. Many
cross-sectional
tionalized
do
information
gather
are
who
currently
detailed
swering
tions problematic.
veys will
which
population,
not
enlisted.
questions
We
and
longitudinal
the institu?
exclude
surveys
hope
means
that they
individuals
than
greater
that of other
social
increased
a
from
nomic
broad
relatively
In some
backgrounds.
vice may
taged
have
men
by drawing
of socioeco?
range
equality
enabled
to
origins
those from wealthy
among
of the popular
service may
have
time
richer
and
the rich
and schools (Goffrnan1961). Prisons, ingen
this peace?
phrase,
led
to get
the poor
to get poorer.
However,
research
the positive
preliminary
regarding
on officers
service
effects of military
sug?
at least some
that people
with
pre?
gests
liminary
advantages
may
from
proportionately
have
the potentially
Nonetheless,
of service
not
come
a universal
experience.
in all
who
experienced
creased
overall
vations
are
combat,
speculative,
effect
equalizing
most
likely has
as our
such
eras,
con?
not
does
is far from
In addition,
wartime
eras
negative
social
dis?
service.
service
and military
military
had predominately
benefited
their military
service
Finally,
more
address
the broader
directly
question
of the
between
service
relationship
military
and social
In this
it
may be
inequality.
regard,
to put the armed
con?
in
forces
the
helpful
text of other total institutions,
such as prisons
In
backgrounds.
a reversal
subpopula?
that future sur?
will
mobility
and increased the riskof downwardmobility
a draft,
research
from disadvan
upward
duct
this oversight.
that future
hope
this ser?
cases,
those
experience
own,
makes
in?
total
the
stitutions,
an?
This
about
redress
we
tus individuals (Cookson & Persell 1987).To
an extent
during peacetime
into play
during
when
the government
from
sta?
higher
have
outcomes
individual
long-term
examine how
service affects
military
outcomes.
and marital
But we know
criminal
among
privilege
in?
and
primarily
reproduce
as a rule,
schools,
Boarding
life
the health
consequences
at entry
attention
the timing of military
service
and socioeconomic
and
trajectories
review,
for future research
direction
giving
help
2002).
order
at the bottom
remain
that people
(Western
to
of the social
from the bottom
ensure
and
impact of the army barracks
on the life course
and on social
inequality
on
context.
historical
Peace?
has depended
time military
service during the draft era may
society.
volves
eral, draw
appears
to have
effects on
which
may
These
inequality.
as definitive
those
have
in?
obser?
answers
the relationship
between military
concerning
service and social
have yet to be
inequality
obtained.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The
authors thankBrian Gifford, David B. Grusky, JenniferHickes Lundquist, Michael J.
and
Shanahan,
Center
Glen
for
H.
the members
helpful
Elder,
comments
Jr., received
of
life course
at the Carolina
group
working
Population
drafts of this review. In the
of this review,
preparation
from the Spencer
Foundation
through his senior scholar
the
on earlier
support
award.
ipo
MacLean
? Elder
This content downloaded on Tue, 15 Jan 2013 10:02:17 AM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
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