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H<5H D9F=C8 6IH =B H<9 B9LH D9F=C8 H<9F9 5F9 BC <=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@HG &C6C8M K=@@ 69 K=@@=B;
HC 7CBHF=6IH9 H<9 ;CC8QG 65G9 J5@I9 K=@@ 69 5B8 H<9F9 KCI@8 69 BC F95GCB :CF =B8=J=8I5@G
HC >C=B +<9 ;FCID KCI@8 795G9 HC 9L=GH @@CK=B; H<9 7<=@8F9B HC :F99F=89 =G B979GG5FM :CF
H<9 ;FCIDQG GIFJ=J5@
+ (&#" # %%%& " #(& $' #%!'#"
.9 BCK 9L5A=B9 K<9H<9F H<9 D5FH=5@ :F99F=89F 9EI=@=6F=IA 9L=GHG K<9B BCB7CBHF=6IHCFG
7CI@8 69 7CGH@9GG@M =89BH=O98 5B8 9L7@I898 :FCA H<9 F9@=;=CIG ;FCID
!5BB577CB9QG CF=;=B5@ KCF? 9LD@5=BG K<M F9@=;=CIG ;FCIDG <5J9 8=V7I@HM =89BH=:M=B; 5B8 9L7@I8=B;
:F99F=89FG M9H H<9 7CGH@9GG 9L7@IG=CB 75G9 =G 5B =BH9F9GH=B; H<9CF9H=75@ CB9 6975IG9 577CF8=B;
HC H<9 GD=F=H C: H<9 CF=;=B5@ GH=;A5G7F99B=B; @C;=7 =B =H K9 A=;<H 9LD97H HC G99 H<9 @95GH
5ACIBH C: :F99F=8=B;
CK9J9F 5G K=@@ BCK 69 G<CKB H<9 8MB5A=7 DFC79GG C: F9@=;=CIG
75D=H5@ :CFA5H=CB 75B 69 GC =ADCFH5BH :CF 5 F9@=;=CIG ;FCID HC GIFJ=J9 H<5H =H A=;<H 5@@CK
:F99F=8=B; 9J9B K<9B =H 75B 7CGH@9GG@M =89BH=:M 5B8 9L7@I89 :F99F=89FG
+C A5?9 H<9 <=;<9GH DCGG=6@9 G5B7H=CB GIDDCG9 H<5H BCB7CBHF=6IH=B; 7<=@8F9B 5B8 BCB
7CBHF=6IH=B; 58I@HG 75BBCH 7CBGIA9 H<9 ;CC8 5B8 5@GC H<5H 5BM 7<=@8 K<C 8C9G BCH 7CB
HF=6IH9 5G 5 7<=@8 75BBCH 7CBGIA9 H<9 ;CC8 5G 5B 58I@H 9J9B =: G<9 7CBHF=6IH9G 5G 5B 58I@H
!B H<=G 9EI=@=6F=IA 957< 58I@H <5G <=;< 75D=H5@ 5B8 H<9 65G9 J5@I9 C: H<9 ;CC8 =G 69
75IG9 9J9FMCB9 7CBHF=6IH9G
<=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@H F979=J9G D5MCW =: G<9 89J=5H9G 6M BCH
7CBHF=6IH=B; K<=@9 G<9 F979=J9G 6M 7CBHF=6IH=B; +<IG G<9 K=@@ 7CBHF=6IH9 =:
+<9 7<=@8QG D5MCW HC BCH 7CBHF=6IH=B; =G HC85M 6IH 5@GC HCACFFCK 6975IG9 G<9 KCI@8
BCH 69 5@@CK98 HC >C=B +<IG <9F D5MCW HC 7CBHF=6IH=B; AIGH BCK 7CBG=89F 6CH< D9F=C8G
!: H<9B G<9 K=@@ 7CBHF=6IH9 5G 5B 58I@H CB@M =: G<9 7CBHF=6IH9G 5G 5 7<=@8 +<IG
H<9 D5MCW G<9 7CBG=89FG K<9B A5?=B; <9F 7CBHF=6IH=CB 7<C=79 =G +<=G D5MCW =G ;F95H9F H<5B K<9B
!: =G GIV7=9BH@M @5F;9 H<9B H<9 F=;<H <5B8 G=89 K=@@ 69 @9GG H<5B 5B8 H<9 :I@@
7CBHF=6IH=CB 9EI=@=6F=IA K=@@ 9L=GH
CK9J9F =: =G @5F;9 6IH BCH HCC @5F;9 5B8 =G GA5@@
H<9B H<=G 9EI=@=6F=IA K=@@ BCH 9L=GH !B 9W97H 6975IG9 H<9 IH=@=HM C: 7CBGIADH=CB =G 8I9 =B
D5FH HC F9@=;=CIG 75D=H5@ 5B8 BCH >IGH 7CBHF=6IH=CBG 9L7@IG=CB K=@@ BCH KCF? =: H<9 75D=H5@ =G
HCC GA5@@
09H H<9 D5FH=5@ :F99F=89F 9EI=@=6F=IA K=@@ 9L=GH =B H<=G G79B5F=C 975IG9 9L7@I8=B; H<9
;CC8 :FCA BCB7CBHF=6IH=B; <=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@HG A5M <9@D :CGH9F 7CBHF=6IH=CBG 5GGIA9 H<9
;FCID 8C9G GC &CK H<9 58I@H K=@@ 69 K=@@=B; HC 7CBHF=6IH9 =:
+<9 7<=@8 K=@@ >C=B 6IH BCH 7CBHF=6IH9 =:
! 500/3% %8#,53)/. )3 #/34,%33 (% %8)343 )& !.$ G=AD@9 9L5AD@9 89ACBGHF5H9G K<9B H<9 () 9EI=@=6F=IA 9L=GHG 5H H<9 G5A9 H=A9 H<9
:I@@ 7CBHF=6IH=CB 9EI=@=6F=IA 8C9G BCH *IDDCG9 ,G=B; CIF 5B5@MG=G 56CJ9 H<9 :I@@
5B8 H<9 () 9EI=@=6F=IA 9L=GHG =: =G 5 F5B;9 C:
K<=7< =G HFI9 =: =G 7CB75J9 :FCA HC H<9B !: GI7< H<5H H<9 () 9EI=@=6F=IA 9L=GHG 6IH H<9 :I@@ 7CBHF=6IH=CB 9EI=@=6F=IA 8C9G BCHU
7CBHF=6IH=CB 9EI=@=6F=IA 9L=GHG =: 9J9B K<9B :I@@ 9L7@IG=CB =G DCGG=6@9
9B79 =B H<=G 8MB5A=7 G9HH=B; K=H< F9@=;=CIG 75D=H5@
5@@CK=B; :F99F=8=B; =G B979GG5FM =B GCA9 7CB8=H=CBG 9J9B =: 9L7@IG=CB =G 7CGH@9GG
CAD5F=B; H<9 7CB8=H=CBG =B @5=AG 5B8 K9 G99 H<5H 9L7@IG=CB A5?9G =H 95G=9F HC
=B8I79 7CBHF=6IH=CBG :FCA <=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@HG H<5B K=H<CIH 9L7@IG=CB 5G =B H<9 OFGH 7@5=A
6975IG9
CK9J9F =B 9EI=@=6F=IA H<9 56=@=HM HC 9L7@I89 8C9G BCH =AD57H
H<9 7<=@8QG 897=G=CB HC 7CBHF=6IH9 +<IG =: H<9 D5FH=5@ :F99F=89F 9EI=@=6F=IA 9L=GHG =B H<9 75G9
K=H< BC 9L7@IG=CB *97H=CB =H K=@@ 5@GC 9L=GH =B H<9 75G9 K=H< 9L7@IG=CB H<=G GI6G97H=CB
H<CI;< H<9 CDDCG=H9 =G BCH B979GG5F=@M HFI9 %CF9 =ADCFH5BH@M K9 G99 H<9 G5A9 @C;=7 :FCA
*97H=CB 5H KCF? !: 7<=@8F9B <5J9 @CK 75D=H5@ H<9B H<9M K=@@ BCH 7CBHF=6IH9 K<=@9 H<9
<=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@HG K=@@ 7CBHF=6IH9 ;5=B H<9 7<=@8F9B AIGH 69 5@@CK98 HC :F99F=89 =B CF89F
:CF H<9 ;FCID HC 7CBH=BI9 H<FCI;< H=A9
.9 5@GC @95FB 5 899D9F DC=BH 56CIH F9@=;=CIG 75D=H5@ :CFA5H=CB @5=A 9GH56@=G<9G H<5H
9J9B =: :I@@ 9L7@IG=CB =G DCGG=6@9 GC @CB; 5G GCA9 DCH9BH=5@ 7CBHF=6IHCFG =9 H<9 7<=@8F9B
<5J9 GIV7=9BH@M @CK 75D=H5@ H<9B H<9 F9@=;=CIG ;FCID K=@@ GH=@@ <5J9 HC 5@@CK GCA9 :F99F=8=B;
=B CF89F :CF H<CG9 =B8=J=8I5@G K=H< J9FM @CK F9@=;=CIG 75D=H5@ HC :CFA <=;<9F F9@=;=CIG 75D=H5@
+<=G OB8=B; 89ACBGHF5H9G H<9 :IB85A9BH5@ FC@9 C: F9@=;=CIG 75D=H5@ :CFA5H=CB 5B8 GHF5H9;=7
A5B5;9A9BH C: :F99F=8=B; =B F9@=;=CIG ;FCID GIFJ=J5@ F99F=8=B; =G 7FI7=5@ :CF H<9 ;FCID HC
7CBH=BI9 9J9B =: :F99F=89FG 7CI@8 69 D9F:97H@M 9L7@I898 !: BC6C8M 9J9F :CFAG <=;< 75D=H5@
GC H<5H 5@@ 58I@HG <5J9 75D=H5@ H<9B BC 58I@HG K=@@ 7CBHF=6IH9 BC F9@=;=CIG ;CC8 K=@@ 69
DFC8I798 5B8 H<9 ;FCID K=@@ BCH 7CBH=BI9 =BHC :IHIF9 D9F=C8G
@@CK=B; GCA9 A9A69FG
HC :F99F=89 =G B979GG5FM :CF H<9 ;FCID HC GIFJ=J9 CJ9F H=A9 6IH <5J=B; GCA9 7CBHF=6IHCFG =G
B979GG5FM :CF H<9 ;FCID HC 9L=GH 5H 5@@ 5H 5 ;=J9B DC=BH =B H=A9
'!&%"" *' #(& $' #%!'#"
! BCK G<CK <CK H<9 =895 H<5H GI779GG:I@ ;FCIDG AIGH 5@@CK :F99F=8=B; =G 7CAD5H=6@9 K=H<
!5BB577CB9QG GH=;A5G7F99B=B; H<9CFM +C 9L5A=B9 GH=;A5G7F99B=B; =B 5 7CBH9LH
C: F9@=;=CIG 75D=H5@ :CFA5H=CB K9 B998 HC 5;5=B 5GGIA9 H<5H :F99F=89FG 5F9 BCH 95G=@M =89BH=O98
5B8 9L7@I898 9@G9 H<9F9 =G BC B998 HC =ADCG9 5 GH=;A5H=N=B; 7CGH !B H<9 65G=7 AC89@ 56CJ9
5@@ 7<=@8F9B K<C 7CBGIA9 H<9 F9@=;=CIG ;CC8 697CA9 <=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@HG GC H<5H 5@@CK=B; H<9
:F99F=89FG HC F=89 :CF :F99 K5G 5 F=G?@9GG =BJ9GHA9BH :FCA H<9 ;FCIDQG DC=BH C: J=9K !B F95@
@=:9 <CK9J9F BCH 5@@ =B8=J=8I5@G 9LDCG98 HC H<9 F9@=;=CIG ;CC8 9B8 ID 697CA=B; <=;< 75D=H5@
58I@HG !BGH958 5BM ;=J9B =B8=J=8I5@ 7CB8=H=CB5@ CB 9LDCGIF9 HC H<9 F9@=;=CIG ;CC8 A=;<H
CB@M :CFA <=;< F9@=;=CIG 75D=H5@ K=H< GCA9 DFC656=@=HM %CF9CJ9F =B8=J=8I5@G
A=;<H 8=W9F =B H<9=F 75D=H5@ :CFA5H=CB DFC656=@=H=9G 9; :CF GCA9 5B8 *CA9
=B8=J=8I5@G <5J9 GHFCB;9F :5A=@M F9@=;=CIG H=9G ACF9 :F=9B8G K=H<=B H<9 F9@=;=CIG ;FCID CF 5
D9FGCB5@=HM 7CB8I7=J9 HC H<9 GC7=5@ B5HIF9 C: F9@=;=CB
+<9G9 8=W9F9B79G 7F95H9 5 FC@9 :CF
GH=;A5G7F99B=B; 6975IG9 BCK H<9 :F99F=89FG 5F9 5 F=G?M =BJ9GHA9BH 5B8 H<9 ;FCID A5M K5BH
HC G7F99B CIH H<CG9 :F99F=89FG K<C 5F9 @9GG @=?9@M HC :CFA <=;< 75D=H5@
M G7F99B=B; CIH
H<9 IBK5BH98 HMD9G H<9 65G9 J5@I9 C: H<9 F9@=;=CIG ;CC8 K=@@ =B7F95G9 5B8 6M 5@@CK=B; H<9
DF9:9FF98 :F99F=89FG HC >C=B H<9 ;FCID K=@@ GIFJ=J9 H<FCI;< H=A9
+C 577CIBH :CF H<9G9 7CBG=89F5H=CBG ! 9LH9B8 H<9 65G=7 AC89@ =B H<F99 K5MG
=FGH
GIDDCG9 H<5H H<9 ;FCID 75B 7<CCG9 5 GH=;A5H=N=B; 69<5J=CF M 5GGIADH=CB H<=G 69<5J=CF
8C9G BCH 7CBHF=6IH9 HC DFC8I7H=CB C: H<9 F9@=;=CIG ;CC8 6IH =H 8C9G =ADCG9 5 8=F97H 7CGH CB 5B =B8=J=8I5@ K<C >C=BG H<9 ;FCID 6975IG9 5G 89G7F=698 6M !5BB577CB9 =H
897F95G9G H<9 IH=@=HM :FCA G97I@5F 57H=J=H=9G
+<=G OL98 7CGH G=AD@=O9G H<9 ACF9 GI6H@9
GH=;A5 DFC79GG AC89@98 6M !5BB577CB9 6IH <5G H<9 G5A9 9W97H *97CB8 5B8 7CBG=GH9BH
K=H< H<9 CF=;=B5@ H<9CFM 5GGIA9 H<5H H<9 ;FCID 9L7@I89G 65G98 CB@M CB 7CAD@=5B79 K=H< H<9
C6G9FJ56@9 GH=;A5H=N=B; 69<5J=CF 5B8 BCH CB 7CBHF=6IH=CB @9J9@G K<=7< 5F9 5GGIA98 HC 69
IBC6G9FJ56@9 8I9 HC 9L79GG=J9 ACB=HCF=B; 7CGHG
+<=F8 5GGIA9 H<5H H<9F9 5F9 HKC HMD9G
C: 7<=@8F9B 6CFB 957< D9F=C8 .<=@9 5@@ 7<=@8F9B 6CFB =B 69;=B K=H< 75D=H5@ CB@M C: H<9A 75B :CFA <=;< F9@=;=CIG 75D=H5@ =: 9LDCG98 HC H<9 F9@=;=CIG ;CC8 57<
C: H<9G9 7<=@8F9B <5J9 +<9 CH<9F 7<=@8F9B <5J9 G
=G 7CAACB =B 5M9G=5B ;5A9G 5B =B ?99D=B; K=H< H<9 F5H=CB5@ 588=7H=CB G9HH=B; 957< 7<=@8
?BCKG <9F CKB HMD9 6IH H<9 ;FCID 8C9G BCH C6G9FJ9 H<9 7<=@8QG HMD9
+C ?99D H<9 GD97=O75H=CB G=AD@9 5GGIA9 H<5H =: C: H<9 HMD9 7<=@8F9B >C=B H<9B
9L57H@M C: H<9A :CFA <=;< 75D=H5@ K<9F9 =G H<9 =BH9;9F B95F9GH !B CH<9F
KCF8G 5B HMD9 7<=@8 K<C >C=BG ?BCKG H<5H H<9F9 =G 5 DFC656=@=HM H<5H G<9 =G CB9 C: H<9
=B8=J=8I5@G K<C K=@@ <5J9 <=;< 75D=H5@ =B H<9 B9LH D9F=C8 @H<CI;< H<9 9L57H BIA69F C:
=B8=J=8I5@G K<C :CFA <=;< 75D=H5@ =G ?BCKB 5:H9F H<9 897=G=CB HC >C=B =G A589 H<9 57EI=G=H=CB
C: F9@=;=CIG 75D=H5@ =G DFC656=@=GH=7 =B H<9 G9BG9 H<5H H<9 =89BH=H=9G C: K<=7< 7<=@8F9B :CFA <=;<
75D=H5@ 5F9 BCH ?BCKB ! 02)/2) 6M H<9 =B8=J=8I5@ CF ;FCID
.9 5F9 =BH9F9GH98 =B H<9 7CB8=H=CBG IB89F K<=7< H<9 :C@@CK=B; RG9D5F5H=B;S 9EI=@=6F=IA
G9D5F5H=B; 9EI=@=6F=IA =G 5 ;5A9 H<9CF9H=7 9EI=@=6F=IA =B K<=7< D@5M9FG C: CB9 HMD9 7<CCG9 5 8=W9F9BH
GHF5H9;M H<5B D@5M9FG C: 5BCH<9F HMD9 H<9F96M 5@@CK=B; CH<9FK=G9 =B8=GH=B;I=G<56@9 HMD9G HC 69 8=GH=B;I=G<98
9L=GHG
5@@ <=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@HG >C=B 5B8 7CBHF=6IH9 5@@ @CK 75D=H5@ 58I@HG 8C BCH >C=B CF
7CBHF=6IH9 5@@ HMD9 7<=@8F9B >C=B 5B8 8C BCH 7CBHF=6IH9 5B8 5@@ HMD9 7<=@8F9B 8C BCH >C=B
CF 7CBHF=6IH9
CBG=89F 5 <=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@HQG 897=G=CB "C=B=B; 5H 7CGH 5B8 7CBHF=6IH=B; =G 69HH9F :CF
5 <=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@H H<5B >C=B=B; 5B8 BCH 7CBHF=6IH=B; =B H=A9 D9F=C8 =:
+<9
H9FA 7CA9G :FCA <=;< 75D=H5@ 7CBHF=6IH=B; 58I@HG 5B8 @CK 75D=H5@ BCB7CBHF=6IH=B;
7<=@8F9B +<9 <=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@H AIGH 5@GC DF9:9F >C=B=B; 5B8 7CBHF=6IH=B; HC BCH >C=B=B; 5H
5@@
+<9 @CK 75D=H5@ 58I@H AIGH DF9:9F BCH >C=B=B; HC >C=B=B; 5B8 7CBHF=6IH=B;
+<9 @CK 75D=H5@ 58I@H AIGH 5@GC DF9:9F BCH >C=B=B; HC >C=B=B; 5B8 BCH 7CBHF=6IH=B;
+<9 HMD9 7<=@8 K=@@ >C=B 5B8 7CBHF=6IH9 5G 5B 58I@H =: G<9 :CFAG <=;< 75D=H5@ 6IH BCH
>C=B CF 7CBHF=6IH9 5G 5B 58I@H =: G<9 8C9G BCH :CFA <=;< 75D=H5@
9F 9LD97H98 D5MCW C:
6M H<9=F 57H=CBG +<9 9EI=@=6F=IA C: =BH9F9GH <9F9 =G 5DDFCDF=5H9@M 75@@98 G9D5F5H=B; 6975IG9 H<9 7<=@8F9B
7<CCG9 8=W9F9BH 57H=CBG 89D9B8=B; CB H<9=F HMD9G +<9 HMD9 7<=@8F9B 7<CCG9 HC >C=B 5B8 H<9 HMD9 7<=@8F9B
8C BCH >C=B
>C=B=B; 5B8 BCH 7CBHF=6IH=B; AIGH 69 ;F95H9F H<5B >C=B=B; 5B8 7CBHF=6IH=B;
"C=B=B; 5B8 BCH 7CBHF=6IH=B; AIGH 5@GC 69 69HH9F H<5B BCH >C=B=B;
=B5@@M H<9 HMD9 7<=@8 =B H<=G 9EI=@=6F=IA K=@@ BCH >C=B CF 7CBHF=6IH9 5G 5B 58I@H
9LD97H98 D5MCW HC BCH >C=B=B; AIGH 69 ;F95H9F H<5B >C=B=B; 5B8 BCH 7CBHF=6IH=B;
+<=G 9LD97H98 D5MCW AIGH 5@GC 69 ;F95H9F H<5B H<5H C: >C=B=B; 5B8 7CBHF=6IH=B;
9F
CB8=H=CBG 5F9 B979GG5FM 5B8 GIV7=9BH :CF H<9 9EI=@=6F=IA HC 9L=GH =B +<9M
<5J9 B5HIF5@ =BH9FDF9H5H=CBG CB8=H=CB G5MG H<5H :CF <=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@HG HC 7CBHF=6IH9
H<9=F F9@=;=CIG 75D=H5@ AIGH 69 GIV7=9BH@M @5F;9 K<=@9 577CF8=B; HC 7CB8=H=CB HMD9
7<=@8F9B AIGH <5J9 GIV7=9BH@M @CK 75D=H5@ HC BCH 7CBHF=6IH9
CB8=H=CBG 5B8 G5M
H<5H H<9 GHF=7HB9GG 7CGH AIGH 69 GIV7=9BH@M GA5@@ GC H<5H H<9 <=;< 75D=H5@ 58I@HG 5B8 H<9
HMD9 7<=@8F9B 5F9 K=@@=B; HC >C=B CB8=H=CBG 5B8 G5M H<5H H<9 GHF=7HB9GG
7CGH AIGH 5@GC 69 GIV7=9BH@M @5F;9 GC H<5H @CK 75D=H5@ 58I@HG 5B8 HMD9 7<=@8F9B K=@@ BCH
>C=B G =B CH<9F G7F99B=B; G79B5F=CG H<9 G7F99B=B; 7CGH AIGH 69 @5F;9 9BCI;< HC G7F99B CIH
H<9 IBK5BH98 HMD9G 6IH BCH HCC @5F;9 HC G7F99B CIH H<9 K5BH98 HMD9G
+C G<CK H<5H H<=G 9EI=@=6F=IA 9L=GHG K9 B998 CB@M G<CK H<5H H<9G9 7CB8=H=CBG 75B 69
G=AI@H5B9CIG@M A9H +<=G =G 95G=@M 577CAD@=G<98 6M 9L5AD@9 *IDDCG9 GC H<5H 957<
7<=@8 =G 6CFB K=H< BC 75D=H5@
+<9B =G HF=J=5@@M A9H :CF 5BM =B7F95G=B; 5B8 5B8 5F9 A9H :CF 5BM 5B8 K=@@ BCK <C@8 =: =G @5F;9 5B8
GIV7=9BH@M GA5@@ ': 7CIFG9 H<9F9 5F9 A5BM D5F5A9H9F 7CA6=B5H=CBG H<5H K=@@ G5H=G:M
H<9 7CB8=H=CBG
G @CB; 5G =G GIV7=9BH@M GA5@@ =G GIV7=9BH@M @5F;9 5B8 =G =B H<9
5DDFCDF=5H9 A98=IA F5B;9 H<=G G9D5F5H=B; 9EI=@=6F=IA K=@@ 9L=GH
! %8)343 7(%. #/.$)4)/.3 !2% -%4
FCA 7CB8=H=CBG 5B8 =H =G 7@95F H<5H H<9 G9D5F5H=B; 9EI=@=6F=IA 8C9G BCH
9L=GH K=H<CIH H<9 ;FCIDQG FI@9G H<5H ;9B9F5H9 H<9 69<5J=CF5@ 7CGH C: A9A69FG<=D .=H<CIH
GI7< FI@9G =9 H<9 D5FH=5@ :F99F=89F 9EI=@=6F=IA =B H<9 AI@H=HMD9 G9HH=B; =G 5
DCC@=B; CB9 5?=B HC H<5H =B *97H=CB =B K<=7< 6CH< 7<=@8F9B HMD9G >C=B 6IH K<9F9 CB@M
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Table 1: Classification of Some Religious Groups by Strictness
Ultra-strict
Amish
Hare Krishnas
Hasidic Jews
Strict
Assemblies of God
Jehovah's Witnesses
Latter-day Saints
Nazarenes
Orthodox Jews
Conservative
Conservative Jews
Missouri Lutherans
Seventh-day Adventists
Southern Baptist Convention
Moderate
American Baptists
Lutherans
Liberal
Episcopalians
Methodists
Presbyterians
Ultra-liberal
Reform Judaism
Unitarian Universalists
United Church of Christ
Notes: This classification is adapted from Ch. 8 of Stark and Finke (2000).
Table 2: Financial Contributions by Religious Group
(d)
(e)
Skew
(c)
Average
percent
income
contr.
Skew
Obs.
1,713.05
913.64
734.10
631.63
567.59
303.79
1.19
2.69
5.78
2.02
1.39
3.48
6.2%
5.0%
3.0%
3.4%
1.5%
2.0%
1.96
3.19
3.61
1.12
0.88
3.69
79
33
375
16
49
29
839.07
4.76
3.4%
3.29
581
Not strict
Presbyterians
United Church of Christ
Lutherans
Episcopalians
United Methodist Church
Unitarian Universalists
722.06
653.70
472.52
412.72
379.97
309.09
4.98
1.35
4.32
3.38
5.46
2.33
2.5%
2.5%
1.7%
3.5%
1.9%
0.8%
4.64
1.10
5.33
7.94
5.89
1.90
104
20
98
76
251
11
Not strict combined
472.53
5.96
2.2%
13.84
560
290.50
6.83
1.2%
13.20
878
Strict
Latter-day Saints
Assemblies of God
Southern Baptist Convention
Nazarenes
Missouri Lutherans
Jehovah's Witnesses
Strict combined
Other:
Catholic
(a)
(b)
Avg.
yearly
contr. ($)
Notes: Data from General Social Survey, 1987-1989. Only observations with the INCOME86 and TITHING variables
were included. Income variables set to middle of income range reported, with those earning more than $60,000 counted
as earning $70,000. Latter-day Saints includes those with OTHER variable 59, 60, 62, or 64 to reflect various labels of
LDS Church. Presbyterian includes those with DENOM variable 40, 41, or 42 to reflect 1983 merger resulting in the
Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). Lutheran includes those observations with DENOM variable 30, 31, or 35 to reflect
1988 merger resulting in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.
Table 3: Members' Self-reported Grades of own Religious Group
(a)
Average selfreported
Grade
Obs.
3.81
3.80
3.50
3.00
2.99
2.95
22
10
6
2
85
19
3.19
144
Not strict
United Church of Christ
Lutherans
United Methodist Church
Episcopalians
Presbyterians
Unitarian Universalists
3.11
2.97
2.86
2.71
2.60
2.33
9
31
65
21
30
3
Not strict combined
2.82
159
2.79
227
Strict
Latter-day Saints
Jehovah's Witnesses
Assemblies of God
Nazarenes
Southern Baptist Convention
Missouri Lutherans
Strict combined
Other:
Catholic
(b)
Notes: Data from General Social Survey, 1988. The question asked, "Using the school grading
system of A, B, C, D, and F for Fail, how do you rate your church or religious group in meeting your
spiritual needs?" A is counted as 4, B as 3, C as 2, D as 1, and F as 0. Latter-day Saints includes
those with OTHER variable 59, 60, 62, or 64 to reflect various labels of LDS Church. Presbyterian
includes those with DENOM variable 40, 41, or 42 to reflect 1983 merger resulting in the
Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.). Lutheran includes those observations with DENOM variable 30, 31,
or 35 to reflect 1988 merger resulting in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.