INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CIVIL AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
Volume 2, No 4, 2012
© Copyright 2010 All rights reserved Integrated Publishing services
Research article
ISSN 0976 – 4399
In-plane shear behaviour of Brick Masonry – A Literature Review on
experimental study
Freeda Christy C1, Tensing D2, Mercy Shanthi R3
1- Karunya University, Coimbatore, TamilNadu, India, 641 114
2- ASL Paul’s College of Engineering, Pollachi, TamilNadu, India 642 109
3- Karunya University, Coimbatore, TamilNadu, India, 641 114
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Masonry buildings are brittle in nature and one of the most vulnerable among the different
types of structural buildings under strong earthquake shaking. Horizontal loads, induced by
earthquake causes severe in-plane and out of plane forces in wall. A wall topples down easily
if pushed horizontally at the top in a direction perpendicular to its plane (out – of plane), but
offers much greater resistance if pushed along its length (in-plane). The lateral load resistance
of masonry buildings is mainly due to in-plane shear resistance of the masonry elements/piers.
Therefore detailed investigation on the in-plane shear behaviour of masonry thus becomes
necessary. Earthquake performance of a masonry wall is very sensitive to the properties of its
constituents, namely masonry units and mortar. The shearing strength of masonry mainly
depends upon the bond or adhesion at the contact surface between the masonry unit and the
mortar. Thus, it is very important to improve the shear behaviour of masonry buildings. The
primary gap identified through literature review was the lack of experimental research that
addressed the response of masonry shear walls. This paper contains a review on the shear test
conducted to improve the lateral load resistance of masonry walls.
1. Introduction
Housing is one of the basic requirements for human survival. For a normal citizen owning a
house provides significant economic and social security and status in society. In India 83% of
the population live in villages and about 73% of the rural population reside in unreinforced
masonry structures. Masonry is a composite material of brick units and mortar joints and
interface between mortar and unit. The behaviour of masonry is based on the properties of
brick units and mortar joints. Brick masonry is unified mass obtained by systematic bonding
arrangement of laying bricks and bonding them together with mortar. The shear behaviour of
masonry can be investigated at different levels as micro level and macro level. At the micro
level, the mortar and the bricks are considered separately. At the macro level the wall panels
are considered. Brick masonry is the least understood in the aspect of strength and other
performance related parameters because of its complex behaviour and its non homogeneity
even in deci-scale, (Paulo, 2006).
The weaker the mortar the lower the masonry strength (due to the unit-mortar interaction, the
masonry strength is always lower than the unit strength). Very few studies have been
identified that addressed the effect of mortar type on the in-plane response of masonry walls.
Bridging this knowledge gap require additional experimental research. The research review
was classified into two different categories: first being the study of physical and mechanical
behavior of brick masonry and its assemblages; second the response of the in-plane shear
behaviour of the masonry wall elements.
Received on March, 2012 Published on May 2012
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In-plane shear behaviour of Brick Masonry – A Literature Review on experimental study
Freeda Christy C, Tensing D, Mercy Shanthi R
1.1 Study on the behavior of brick masonry and its assemblages
The unreinforced masonry is brittle in nature. Earthquake performance of masonry wall is
very sensitive to the properties of its constituents, namely masonry units and mortar. Shear
rupture occurs either as a diagonal splitting or as step-pattern sliding along the mortar joints,
depending on the characteristics of the constituent materials (mortar and bricks). Therefore,
in order to predict properly the masonry shear capacity, it is necessary to first identify the
failure mechanism based on the knowledge of the involved materials. Masonry mechanical
properties depend on the characteristics of the constituent elements (bricks and mortar) as
well as on the workmanship and the interface interaction within the assemblage.
1.2 Brick
A variety of masonry units are used in the country using clay bricks (burnt and unburnt),
concrete blocks (solid and hollow), stone blocks. Burnt clay bricks are most commonly used.
The properties of these materials vary across India due to variation in raw materials and
construction methods. The main mechanical properties of the bricks were compressive and
tensile strength. The characterization and the properties of local low modulus bricks, table
moulded bricks and wire cut bricks, mortars and masonry were compared (Sarangapani etal,
2002). Maximum flexural strength was obtained by immersion of bricks in water for ten
minutes before use which influenced the flexural tensile strength (Choubey, 1993). the usage
of flyash in bricks was introduced, as it has good shear strength properties and relatively less
compressibility, (Dayal, 1995). The flyash bricks are of two types: (i) non-calcinite bricks
(flyash mixed with bonding agent) and (ii) calcinite bricks (flyash clay brick). The use of
flyash offered a considerable saving of coal consumption which had been found to vary in the
range of 3t – 7t of grade I coal per 105 bricks. The bricks cannot be manufactured with highly
swelling soils without additives and flyash were added to soil for making good bricks with
the soil in varying ratio’s as 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%, (Krishnamoorthy et al,
1994). The properties of strength and water absorption of bricks made with replacement of
soil by 50% of flyash were reasonably good and the strength were ranging from 9.8 to 11.5
N/mm2 but for the country brick it was about 3.5N/mm2 and no marked improvement was
there with more addition of flyash. good quality of light weight bricks were produced from
the flyash of Seyitomer power plant, Turkey, (Tayfun Cicek and Mehmet Tanrıverdi, 2007).
The compressive strength, unit weight, water absorption and thermal conductivity of the
flyash–sand–lime bricks obtained under optimum test conditions were 10.25 MPa, 1.14g/cm3,
40.5% and 0.34W m-1 K-1 respectively. The brick made of pure flyash was developed by
Henry Liu, (Henry Liu etal, 2009) and the manufacture of the brick does not involve high
temperature heating in kiln, in contrast to manufacturing clay bricks. Consequently, using
greenest brick not only eliminates waste disposal of flyash and saves landfill space, it also
saves much energy and eliminates all the air pollution and global warming problems caused
by burning fossil fuel in kilns to manufacture clay bricks. Flyash bricks made from flyash do
not emit mercury into air. On the contrary, they absorb mercury from air, making the ambient
air cleaner. Flyash brick do not emit radon gas as compared to 50% of that emitted from
concrete blocks. Thus it was considered safe to use flyash bricks more than concrete blocks in
buildings. Leaching of pollutants from flyash bricks caused by rain was negligible. In
addition, long-term observation of the compacted flyash bricks revealed that the long-term
growth of strength in flyash bricks is due to carbonation caused by absorption of CO2 from
the atmosphere and bring relief to global warming. Emeritus and Hendry reviewed masonry
materials clay, concrete and calcium silicate in which a wide variety of brick unit sizes, forms
and colours were produced, (Emeritus and Hendry, 2001). Clay bricks are obtainable in
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In-plane shear behaviour of Brick Masonry – A Literature Review on experimental study
Freeda Christy C, Tensing D, Mercy Shanthi R
strengths of up to 100 N/mm2 and much lower strengths; say 2 – 4 N/mm2 are generally
sufficient for domestic buildings and for cladding walls for taller buildings. Concrete blocks
have lower apparent compressive strengths in the range 2.8-35 N/mm2. The tensile strength
of masonry units both direct and flexural has an influence on the resistance of masonry under
various stress conditions but is not normally specified except in relation to concrete blocks
used in partition walls where typically a breaking strength of 0.05 N/mm2 is required.
Although mortar accounts for as little as 7% of the total volume of masonry, it influences the
performance of the masonry. It is inadvisable to use a stronger mix than necessary to meet the
structural requirements. Hardened and sufficiently strong mortar develop adequate adhesion
to the units and also set without excessive shrinkage which would reduce the resistance of the
masonry to rain water penetration or even cause cracking of the units. Masonry wall
construction had undergone considerable change in the course of the last few decades with
the introduction or extended use of lightweight materials and new types of units. In
comparison with alternative materials achieved to an excellent future for the continued use of
masonry construction.
1.3 Mortar
Mortar, a pasty material formed by the addition of water to a mixture composed of an
aggregate (sand) and a binding material (cement or lime) which may be handled with a trowel.
Mortar unites the individual bricks together and takes up all irregularities in the bricks.
Generally, mud mortar, cement mortar, lime mortar, cement lime mortar are in use. Mud
mortar is used for the temporary construction. Cement mortar is used for permanent
structures. Pitre et al utilized the waste materials - flyash, kiln ash, surkhi, cinder and
crushed stone in building construction along with lime and cement (Pitre et al, 1995). Flyash
mortars with un-slaked lime developed more strength than those with slaked lime and mortars
with surkhi and slaked lime gains more than with the un-slaked lime. Lime mortars with kiln
ash attained higher strength than all other mortars therefore, it was recommended as a viable
substitute to cement sand mortar. Lime mortar with surkhi and flyash developed adequate
compressive strength and recommended for use in building construction. The poor bond and
low bond strength is a major weakness of brickwork, (Reda Taha and Shrive, 2010). The
bond was affected by many interrelated factors associated with both masonry units and
mortar. The Lime present in masonry mortar as a by-product of cement hydration,
particularly at the mortar-unit interface where it produces a weak layer. Hence introduction of
varying amounts and types of pozzolans (flyash types F, C and slag) which reacts with the
lime, produce strong calcium silicate hydrates and enhance the bond strength of the masonry
by altering the microstructure of the mortar-unit interface. Statistically significant increases in
bond strength were measured at 28, 90 and 180 days with 20% substitution of flyash in the
cementitious materials. No increases were observed with slag. Pozzolonas as a mineral
admixture in masonry mortar were environmentally friendly and beneficial from the
rheological, economic and structural points of view. The flyash mortar improved the longterm bond strength in masonry. Partial replacement of the portland cement and lime with
class F flyash significantly improved masonry bond strength. Class C flyash provided limited
enhancement to the long-term bond strength. Both materials provided more cost-effective,
high durable, environmental friendly mortar than mortar without flyash. The flyash and silica
fume showed different surface features compared to Portland cement which effected on
compressive strength of mortar, (Yilmaz kocak, 2010). The ternary use of flyash and silica
fume provided the best performance, when the compressive strength properties of the cement
mortars were taken into account. During hydration of cement mortars, Cement hydration
formation is reduced due to flyash and silica fume substitution, therefore a lower compressive
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In-plane shear behaviour of Brick Masonry – A Literature Review on experimental study
Freeda Christy C, Tensing D, Mercy Shanthi R
strength was obtained at the early ages when compared to Portland cement. During
subsequent days of hydration, flyash and silicafume having pozzolanic structure bind calcium
hydrate in time and turn it into new (pozzolanic) C-S-H gel and cause the strength values to
reach that of Portland cement. Rafat Siddique, partially replaced fine aggregate (sand) with
five percentages (10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50%) of class F flyash by weight and had no
delayed early strength development but rather enhanced its strength on long-term basis,
(Rafat Siddique, 2003). This study explored the possibility of replacing part of fine aggregate
with flyash as a means of incorporating significant amounts of flyash. Compressive strength,
split tensile strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity of cement mortar with fine
aggregate (sand) replaced with flyash mortar continued to increase with age for all flyash
percentages. The maximum compressive strength occurred with 50% flyash content at all
ages. It was 40.0 MPa at 28 days, 51.4 MPa at 91 days, and 54.8 MPa at 365 days. It was
suggested that class F flyash could be very conveniently used in structural mortar.
1.4 Behaviour of Shear Walls
Masonry is now generally classified into six categories, historic (or load) bearing,
unreinforced structural masonry, confined masonry, retrofitted masonry, reinforced masonry
and pre-stressed masonry. Unreinforced masonry has been widely used as a construction
material for housing, flats, and commercial premises across large areas of the world and has
been common in those parts of the world identified as intra plate zones which covers the
interior of the tectonic plates. A shear walls capacity derives from a high moment of inertia
about one axis, high compressive strength brickwork, and some tensile capacity, preferably
augmented with a compressive stress generated by dead load from higher storeys. In a
masonry building subjected to earthquake loads, horizontal seismic inertia forces develop in
the walls and the floor and roof slabs. The floor and roof slabs are called diaphragms where
they transfer lateral loads to the lateral load resisting system. These inertia forces are
proportional to the mass of these structural components and the acceleration at their level.
The lateral load resistance of masonry buildings is mainly due to in-plane shear resistance of
the masonry elements. Therefore detailed investigation on the in-plane shear behaviour of
masonry element thus becomes necessary. In general, brick unit - mortar combination
provides greater bond strength and also provides greater shear strength. Steel reinforcement
may be added to the masonry assemblage to increase the shear strength. Shear reinforcement
should be provided parallel to the direction of applied shear force. Two types of test were
characterized by the way the load is applied: the shear compression test, as well as the
diagonal compression test, was designed in order to evaluate the shear strength of the
masonry wall, (Van Vliet, 2004).
Pankaj Agarwal and Thakkar demonstrated the differences in the behaviour of brick masonry
model subjected to either shock table motion or quasi-static loading. The shock model
responds with a significantly higher initial strength and stiffness as compared to the quasistatic model subjected to equivalent lateral displacements. Severity of damage was greater in
quasi-static test due to increased crack propagation. The shock test suggested that at low
levels of excitation at the base, acceleration gets amplified at the roof, with an almost elastic
behaviour of the model. Marked reduction in both strength and stiffness has been observed
when the model was loaded statically rather than dynamically. The crack patterns obtained
under both the test methods were nearly similar, (Pankaj Agarwal and Thakkar, 2001).
Essy Arijoeni Basoenondo concluded that the capacity of wall under cyclic loads is 50% less
than that under monotonic and repeated lateral in-plane loads. All walls collapsed in brittle
failure mechanism, without the presence of ductility. It was also recorded that the presence of
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In-plane shear behaviour of Brick Masonry – A Literature Review on experimental study
Freeda Christy C, Tensing D, Mercy Shanthi R
surface mortar plaster as wall confinement system increased the stiffness of wall, but did not
affect the improvement of wall ductility, (Essy Arijoeni Basoenondo, 2008).
Corradi et al performed tests on the walls in the laboratory and in-situ under compression,
diagonal compression and shear–compression. These tests involved the use of panels of two
different dimensions: 120x120 cm2 for the diagonal compression tests and 90x180 cm2 for
the compression and shear–compression tests. All panels were cut using the diamond-wire
technique and isolated from the remaining masonry walls in order to leave the panels
undisturbed. Regarding the solid brick panel, it was significant to note that the particular
brick texture caused a nominal shear strength τk of 0.069 MPa, (Corradi et al, 1999).
Choubey found that the behavior was almost similar for all panel specimens irrespective of
the type of mortar (1:3, 1:4.5, and 1:6) and size of panel. But the specimens made of richer
mortar mixes showed lesser deflections, (Choubey, 1993).
2. Retrofitted masonry wall
Mustafa Taghdi et al retrofitted to strengthen the un-reinforced walls and partially reinforced
walls using a steel strip system consisting of diagonal and vertical strips that were attached
using through-thick bolts. All walls were tested under combined constant gravity load and
incrementally increasing in-plane lateral deformation reversals showed that the complete steel
strip system was effective in significantly increasing the in-plane strength and ductility of
low-rise un-reinforced and partially reinforced masonry walls and lightly reinforced concrete
walls. The capability of un-reinforced masonry walls to resist lateral loads was limited by the
strength of both masonry brick units and bed joint mortar. (Mustafa Taghdi et al, 2000).
Shambu Sinha retrofitted by applying a layer of reinforced shotcrete to one surface
strengthened to provide earthquake resistance by applying a 76mm thick layer of shotcrete to
either the outside or inside surface of the walls. The shotcrete greatly increased the strength
of the un-reinforced brick panels. Panels reinforced with the welded wire fabric showed a
significant increase in strength after first cracking and large inelastic deflection capacity. The
shotcrete along with reinforcement permitted the panels to deflect in-elastically and to remain
intact even after the full reversed cycle loading. Bond strength between the shotcrete and
bricks directly influenced the strengthening of the structural panels, including its stiffness
properties, (Shambu Sinha, 2006)
Gabor et al strengthened the unreinforced masonry panels by fibre reinforced polymer (FRP)
composite strips and tested in diagonal compression. Three types of FRP composites are
employed: a unidirectional glass fiber (noted RFV), a unidirectional carbon fiber (noted RFC)
and a bidirectional glass fiber (noted RFW). The global behaviour was described by the
applied load vs. strain along the compressed diagonal curve, is quasi elastic with a very weak
yield plateau. Indeed, the failure strength was conditioned by the shear strength induced by
the interaction of the mortar notches with the internal wallettes at the brick/joint interface.
The load corresponding to the elastic limit and the ultimate load of the reinforced panels are
much higher than the one of the unreinforced panels. The gain in strength was quite
remarkable: 42% for the RFV reinforcement and over 65% for the RFW. The deformations
corresponding to the maximum loads of the reinforced walls are three times higher than those
of the unreinforced walls. Therefore, the seismic behaviour was enhanced, (Gabor et al,
2006). Maria Rosa Valluzzi proposed a strengthening technique based on the insertion of
steel bars in the bed joints. It is particularly suitable for regular brick masonry showing a
critical crack pattern due to high compressive loads. Experimental tests and numerical
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International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering
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In-plane shear behaviour of Brick Masonry – A Literature Review on experimental study
Freeda Christy C, Tensing D, Mercy Shanthi R
analyses showed that the presence of the bars allows control of the cracking phenomena,
keeping the structure in the desired safety conditions. Both experimental and numerical
analyses showed that the most significant result concerns the reduction of the tensile stresses
in the bricks and of the dilatancy of the wall, (Maria Rosa Valluzzi, 2005).
Navaratnarajah Sathiparan et al retrofitted wallettes by polypropylene (PP) band meshes. The
retrofitted wallettes achieved 2.5 times larger strengths and 45 times larger deformations than
the non-retrofitted wallettes. In out-of plane tests, the mesh effect was not observed before
the wall cracked. After cracking, the mesh presence positively influenced the wallettes
behaviour. In the retrofitted case, although the initial cracking was followed by a sharp drop,
atleast 45% of the peak strength remained. After this, the strength was regained by
readjusting and packing by PP band mesh. The final strength of the specimen was equal to
1.2 kN much higher than initial strength of 0.6kN. The retrofitted wallettes achieved 2 times
larger strengths and 60 times larger deformations than the non-retrofitted wallettes,
(Navaratnarajah Sathiparan et al, 2005).
Mohamed Elgawady etal presented preliminary comparisons between the test results of the
dynamic and static cyclic tests. The test specimens are half-scale specimens built using halfscale hollow clay masonry units and weak mortar. The specimens, before and after
retrofitting, are subjected to a series of either synthetic earthquakes or static cyclic test runs.
The tests showed that the composites improve the cracking and ultimate load of the retrofitted
specimen by a factor of 3 and 2.6, respectively. The lateral resistance of the reference
specimen measured in the static cyclic tests is 1.2 times the lateral resistance of the similar
reference specimen measured in the dynamic test. In spite of relatively poor mortar, the
specimen friction coefficient exceeded 1.0, (Mohamed Elgawady etal, 2004).
Haroun etal evaluated the in-plane shear behavior of masonry walls externally reinforced
with fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite laminates. The wall specimens were built
with a height-to-length aspect ratio of 1:1 to promote a shear dominated behavior under inplane loading. The control as-built wall was cyclically tested to failure and demonstrated a
pure shear mode. The failure of the specimen was initiated by diagonal shear cracks and
developed a diagonal strut action resulting in the crushing of the wall edge boundaries. When
the performance of the repaired wall is compared with that of the as-built wall, it becomes
clear that the repair technique has improved the strength and energy dissipation of the wall. It
not only succeeded in restoring the capacity of the original wall, but also increased to a level
of 120 % that of the original wall capacity. The energy dissipation observed for repaired
specimen was also increased to 167 % that of the control wall. The ductility of the
carbon/epoxy repaired specimen was 1.7 times that of the as built specimen. For the
retrofitted specimens, the enhancement in the ductility ranged from 3.4 times that of the asbuilt in case of double-side carbon/epoxy retrofit to 6 folds in the case of pre-cured
carbon/epoxy strips. Despite the premature failure caused by localized compression failure of
the masonry at the wall toes, notable gains in strength, stiffness and ductility were achieved
by applying the FRP laminates to either one or two sides of the walls, (Haroun etal, 2005).
Steel bracing is a highly efficient and economical method of resisting horizontal forces in a
frame structure. Bracing has been used to stabilize laterally the majority of the world’s tallest
building structures as well as one of the major retrofit measures. A bracing system improves
the seismic performance of the frame by increasing its lateral stiffness and capacity. Steel
bracings can be used as an alternative to the other strengthening or retrofitting techniques
available as the total weight on the existing building will not change significantly. Steel
bracings reduce flexure and shear demands on beams and columns and transfer the lateral
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In-plane shear behaviour of Brick Masonry – A Literature Review on experimental study
Freeda Christy C, Tensing D, Mercy Shanthi R
loads through axial load mechanism. Displacement due to seismic load is decreased by 72%
with the X bracings compared to the unbraced frames, (Viswanath etal, 2010)
From the literature, it has been found that the load-deformation response and failure patterns
of the shear walls are affected by various factors. Reinforcement, vertical compression,
aspect ratio and material properties are some of the main parameters that significantly affect
the behaviour of the shear walls.
3. Conclusions
In some cases, the diagonal compression test and the shear–compression test were carried out
for the in-plane behaviour of masonry wall. Based on the brief review of literature, it is noted
that unreinforced masonry walls showed sudden brittle failure and were unable to maintain
further load. It is this brittle failure that poses significant danger to building occupants during
earthquakes. Retrofitted masonry walls allowed specimens to maintain load after initial
failure of the masonry and prevented the loss of debris, even after the failure of several straps.
The effect of horizontal reinforcement in bed joints on shear behaviour was not investigated.
Reinforced masonry with low cost, high availability, relative simplicity and improved
properties of strength of brick, mortar and reinforcement could be of important, especially for
masonry structures in seismic areas. There are several reinforcement materials (FRP
laminates or bars) and different types of mortars (synthetic materials) can be used. The main
objective of the reinforcement is to enhance the earthquake resistance of masonry structural
elements, in order to avoid failure modes that manifest in brittle and unforeseen manner, as
suggested by Carrodi, (Carrodi, 2003). Therefore, the knowledge of the parameters which
govern the shear behavior needs to be investigated. It is proposed to investigate the structural
shear behaviour of clay brick masonry walls and flyash brick masonry walls in 1:6 cement
mortar with partial replacement of fine aggregate with flyash and also reinforced with
hexagonal woven wire mesh along the horizontal bed joint in alternate bed course. The
experimental tests are to be conducted to determine the effectiveness of the reinforcement
scheme in terms of strength and behaviour to the failure modes at the low cost. The wire
meshing technique along the bed joint may potentially be used to prevent/delay brittle
collapse of masonry structures under seismic loading.
4. References
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In-plane shear behaviour of Brick Masonry – A Literature Review on experimental study
Freeda Christy C, Tensing D, Mercy Shanthi R
6. Essy Arijoeni Basoenondo, (2008), Lateral load response of Cikarang Brick wall
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In-plane shear behaviour of Brick Masonry – A Literature Review on experimental study
Freeda Christy C, Tensing D, Mercy Shanthi R
18. Rafat Siddique, (2003), Effect of fine aggregate replacement with Class F flyash on
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characteristics of bricks, mortars and masonry, Journal of structural Engineering,
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bricks”, Construction and Building Materials, 21, pp 1295–1300
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25. Yilmaz kocak, (2010), A study on the effect of flyash and silica fume substituted
cement paste and mortars” Scientific Research and Essays, 5(9), No 4, pp 990-998.
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