The Research Rationale: Why DOVE Works
Why Teach Vocabulary?
Vocabulary knowledge becomes increasingly important as students progress through the
grades. Coyne, Kame’enui, and Carnine (2007) reported that underdeveloped language
skills—including vocabulary—are highly correlated with academic failure for diverse
learners. Understanding academic vocabulary is crucial for school success, especially for
English language learners (Carlo, August, & Snow, 2005; Marzano, 2004).
We know that vocabulary is primarily acquired through wide independent reading (Nagy,
Herman, & Anderson, 1985) and that less skillful students who avoid reading make
inadequate vocabulary growth. For these students, vocabulary development is a productive
way to spend instructional time. In fact, results of a landmark meta-analysis (Stahl &
Fairbanks, 1986) revealed that as instructional minutes allocated to vocabulary increased,
reading comprehension also increased (r = .65, p <.001). According to Moats (2009, p. 8),
vocabulary “is the single most important factor for comprehension once children have
learned the alphabetic code.”
Clearly, some students—English learners and those
who are not avid and fluent readers in particular—
must depend on a teacher to illuminate language.
Likewise, the teacher must depend on well-designed
instructional materials. With the right tools and
the right instruction, vocabulary may expand
in both depth and breadth—resulting in better
comprehension.
The limits of my language
mean the limits of my world.
(Wittgenstein, 1922)
Academic Language and Scholarly Vocabulary
DOVE was designed to promote the use of academic language. Students in grade 4
and beyond are inundated with relatively inaccessible academic terms such as analyze,
distribution, or transfer. Low-income students in particular experience the “fourth-grade
slump” because they have great difficulty understanding abstract, academic language (Chall
& Jacobs, 2003). Textbooks become progressively more challenging, in large part due to
the high concentration of scholarly terms. In fact, more than half the words in school texts
for grades 3–9 are multisyllabic and morphologically complex (Nagy & Anderson, 1984).
Many of them are abstract and academic in nature, increasing the complexity of the passage
(Carver, 1994). If students could more readily read and understand these words, they would
approach textbooks and assessments with greater confidence and competence.
Word Selection
DOVE targets words that are academic and abstract, and that appear frequently in varied
textbooks. In addition, most of the target words belong to morphological “root” families
(e.g., symbol, symbolize, symbolic). In fact, 82% of the words have a Spanish cognate
with a shared root. Words that belong to a large morphological root family may be more
rapidly processed, promoting retrieval (Carlisle & Katz, 2006; Reichle & Perfetti, 2003).
Word selection was primarily based on the most common listings in An Academic Word List
(Coxhead, 2000). In addition, the authors referenced the Living Word Vocabulary database
(Dale & O’Rourke, 1981). Finally, to ensure that target words appear frequently in text, the
authors consulted the Educator’s Word Frequency Guide (Zeno, Ivens, Millard, & Duvvuri,
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1995). This word-selection approach is very similar
to secondary intervention research conducted by
Curtis and Longo (2001).
Networking With Related Words
English language learners
benefit from instruction
that shows how words can
be grouped together in
meaningful ways, including
synonyms, antonyms, and
word family associations.
DOVE vocabulary is contextualized within a rich
network of related words, including synonyms,
antonyms, cognates, derivations, and other
conceptual associations. Thus, new meanings are
(Echevarria, Vogt, & Short, 2004)
learned in association with semantically related
words (Durso & Coggins, 1991; Stahl, 1999, 2005).
This has bearing on how words are remembered, or retrieved. In an adult memory study,
Alloway (2007) found that semantic associations such as synonyms promoted sentence
recall. Additionally, words are remembered through morphological relationships—words
with the same root tend to activate one another (Dorfman, 1998; Nagy et al., 1989; Riechle
& Perfetti, 2003). This is why DOVE is built around networks of morphologically and
semantically related words (e.g., alternate, alternative, alternatively, alternator, switching,
changing, turning).
Student-Relevant Context
What is required is a
Students need practice using new words and
clear and deliberate focus
applying them to a variety of contexts so they
on facilitating students’
become sufficiently confident with them and
creation of meaningful
gradually absorb them into their speaking and
contexts for the word
writing lexicons. In other words, multiple exposures
in varying contexts facilitate word learning (Stahl &
meanings they are
Fairbanks, 1986). DOVE is designed to give students
learning, and a frequent
numerous opportunities to interact with each word
and consistent emphasis
on multiple levels, in various forms and in multiple
on helping them make
contexts. Potentially dry or pedantic academic
connections to what they
words are made interesting and memorable through
already know.
whimsical, doggerel, or thought-provoking poetry,
narrative diary entries, interesting quotations, and
(Curtis & Longo, 2001)
informational passages. Relevant topics engage
the interest of older students (e.g., obtaining your
first car, listening to familiar tunes, constructing a skating ramp). Because partners are
frequently asked to generate their own context—verbally, and in writing—the potential
for student-relevancy is high.
The Language-Processing Areas of the Brain
Comprehension of academic material is no simple task. In fact, reading anything—even
beginning text—requires several neural systems in the brain to work together (Adams,
1990; Scarborough, 2001; Shaywitz, 2003). Apparently, the four main areas of the brain that
process language are the phonological processing system (speech sounds), the orthographic
processing system (spelling/print), the meaning processor (definitions), and the context
processor. Working together, these four neural systems facilitate comprehension (Rayner,
Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg, 2001). DOVE provides sounds, spellings,
definitions, networks of related words, and varied context, activating all four components of
this model. This approach to vocabulary instruction is recommended by Glaser and Moats
(2008).
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The Rationale for Rhyme: Motivation, Memory, Variety
There may be a strong motivational effect at work in
songs and perhaps in rhymes (Scruggs & Brigham,
1991). Songs or rhymes may engage the brain
(Samson & Zatorre, 1991). The short verses in DOVE
may interest students who would eschew lengthy or
weighty poetry. DOVE provides students with brief
but rich and playful experiences with language.
With explicit instruction, this should promote
metalinguistic awareness (Nagy, 2007).
While singing has resulted
in even greater recall,
rhythmical reading of
rhyming verse also yielded
significant effects on
memory.
(Wallace, 1994)
In addition to its motivating and metalinguistic
potential, rhymes trigger memory (Alloway, 2007).
According to Tsur (1996), “Rhyme exploits and enhances sensory information” (p. 84).
However, this is not always the case, so narrative and expository passages are also included
in DOVE. Furthermore, students with specific language impairments may not notice rhymes;
teachers must point them out to prompt metalinguistic insight ( Joffe, 1998; Nagy, 2007).
DOVE includes illustrations because imagery is a strong memory aide (Sousa, 2001).
Forming a visual image of a word and linking it to an acoustical clue, such as a rhyme, can
help the learner retrieve a vocabulary word, as demonstrated in the mnemonic keyword
method (Pressley, Levin, & Delaney, 1982). In fact, imagery is a very strong predictor of
recall (Wallace & Rubin, 1988). Thus, teachers are
encouraged to have their students form a mental
image of the targeted vocabulary scene, and/or
A stable rhyme unit may
to draft a simple sketch. This is also effective for
enhance sentence recall; it
students with learning disabilities.
may activate fading memory
DOVE includes a variety of jazzy jingles and short
poems. To optimize learning, read in chorus with
a strong beat. Convey meaning through word
emphasis, role play, and visualization.
traces in adults.
(Alloway, 2007, p. 611)
An example from DOVE Unit 8 (target vocabulary word is immigrate) is shown below:
A poem for two voices or two groups, to be read across each row with expression.
Group 1
Immigrants migrate into a nation
Leaving behind their place of birth,
Immigrants move to a new location
Leaving behind their place of birth,
Group 2
Hoping for a home and an occupation,
Seeking out freedom, safety, worth!
Hoping for friends and an education,
Looking for a better home on Earth!
(all) Immigrants immigrate! Bringing their kin! Making adjustments! Settling in!
Rhyme, Quotations, Narratives, and Informational Text
Quotations, narratives, and informational passages augment the poems in DOVE, providing
diversity and breadth of context. This variety will hopefully resonate with differing
personalities and preferences in the classroom. Poems and quotations are intended to be
spoken aloud with expression.
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A Transition to Academic Language
DOVE also includes more scholarly informational passages, because students need to
understand the language of the textbook (and the test). However, arriving at this goal is not
easily done, especially for students with limited academic vocabulary. Thus, DOVE uses the
mediums of poetry, narrative, and quotations—all of which fold in academic vocabulary—as
a scaffold toward the lexical density of a textbook.
In the highly verbal learning environment of primary school, oral language prevails.
Rhyming verse resounds and the primary classroom is alive with language. The learning
atmosphere is highly verbal and linguistically playful. However, by fourth grade, print
prevails. To some extent, the spoken word is stifled. At the expense of listening and
speaking, reading and writing dominate, which contradicts what has been shown to help
second-language (L2) learners master English. This abrupt transition into the dense Latinate
language of textbooks may perplex any learner (Berninger & Richards, 2002). One way to
ease the transition is through student-friendly and engaging rhythm and rhyme.
Another way to ease the transition to academic density is through narrative diary entries
and short quotations. Some students might be quite willing to recite a quotation. They may
feel comfortable reading someone else’s words aloud expressively. The following quotation
appears in DOVE Unit 8 (target vocabulary word is assemble):
All parts should go together without forcing. You must remember that the
parts you are reassembling were disassembled by you. Therefore, if you can’t
get them together again, there must be a reason. By all means, do not use
a hammer. (IBM maintenance manual, 1925)
Benefits of Discussion (Partner Practice Pages)
In a word-rich classroom, oral language potentially
boosts vocabulary (Biemiller, 2003; Graves,
A robust approach to
2006), and the voice itself can offer an important
vocabulary involves directly
cognitive clue (Creel, Aslin, & Tanenhaus, 2008).
explaining the meanings of
Conversation is one essential component of oral
words along with thoughtlanguage. Vocabulary-specific peer discussions
provoking, playful, and
have been shown to benefit diverse learners (Bos
interactive follow up.
& Anders, 1990; Gersten et al., 2001; Jenkins &
O’Connor, 2003; Torgesen et al., 2007; Vaughn,
(Beck, McKeown, &
Gersten, & Chard, 2000), but relevant discussion
Kucan, 2002, p. 2)
is not easy to implement without the right tools.
With DOVE, teachers are provided with effective
tools to facilitate vocabulary-specific peer discussion and debate. In drafting DOVE’s Partner
Practice Pages, the authors consulted the work of vocabulary experts (e.g., Beck et al.,
2002). Discussion-rich activities include semantic sorting, graphic organizers such as the
Frayer 4-square Model, sentence generation, critical word comparisons, and other effective
methods.
Partner Practice Pages prompt everyone to participate in the discussion. Every teacher
knows the frustration of asking for volunteers and seeing the same hands go up time and
time again. Even if a teacher foregoes volunteers to call on specific students, only one
student at a time is actively responding while the rest of the group is passively listening or
waiting. Working with a partner ensures all students respond at least half the time, with no
one dominating the group and no one able to abstain.
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Many students are reluctant to respond in front of a large group—some even prefer to claim
they don’t know the answer, rather than risk feeling humiliation if they make a mistake
in front of their peers. According to Anita Archer (Hughes & Archer, in press) the partner
dynamic of the Partner Practice Pages provides
many benefits:
• Students get immediate feedback from their
partner—providing validation or an opportunity
for self-correction.
• Students are more likely to remain engaged
when talking with a classmate than listening to a
teacher. More time on task equals more learning.
Novel words were learned
more efficiently when spoken
aloud by two different
voices, rather than one
voice.
(Creel et al., 2008)
• Anxious or shy students are able to respond in a
low-risk, one-on-one setting with a peer.
• English learners who might hesitate to try out unfamiliar vocabulary in front of a larger
group are afforded multiple opportunities to practice in a low-risk setting.
• Students who respond quickly, as well as those who need time to reflect, are allowed
the time they need.
Articulated and Vocalized to Promote Oral Fluency
It is important to bring academic language into each student’s expressive speaking and
writing vocabulary. However, students are often reluctant to use academic language in
spoken conversation, in part because they are uncertain about how to say the word.
Before making themselves vulnerable, wary adolescents need to feel confident about a
word’s pronunciation, as well as its basic meaning.
Durso and Coggins (1991) found that expressive
Fluency will improve
vocabulary grew when students were asked to
articulate related words. With DOVE, each word is
through multiple readings,
modeled (pronounced) by the teacher and practiced
including oral readings,
aloud by the students as the teacher encourages
following an expressive
correct articulation with explicit feedback. In
model.
addition, each passage is modeled (read aloud)
(Hasbrouck, Ihnot, & Rogers, 1999)
by the teacher, then echoed by the students in
choral reading. The next day, partners discuss and
debate interesting vocabulary-specific questions
and activities, then respond in writing, using the target words. Words are reinforced through
multiple learning channels—including listening, speaking, reading, and writing—and are
frequently reviewed. Thus, vocabulary is more likely to be absorbed and assimilated into the
student’s productive lexicon.
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Distributed Review and Assessment
Students encounter targeted words an average of 51
times as they progress through DOVE. Distributed
The process of word
practice is more effective than massed practice
learning is incremental,
because retention is higher (Willingham, 2002).
involving gradations of word
Students with learning disabilities require ongoing
knowledge, especially for
distributed practice with explicit feedback (Swanson
abstract
or academic words.
& Hoskyn, 2001). With DOVE, words appear in
(Nagy & Scott, 2000)
successive passages, reviews, and assessments,
so that new learning is not lost. Unit reviews
and assessments are provided, as well as four
Assessments for Learning (AFLs) and two major cumulative reviews and assessments. With
multiple exposures over time, words are more likely to be remembered.
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