Journal of Arid Environments (2003) 54: 543–552
doi:10.1006/jare.2002.1077
Land use change and socio-environmental conflict in
the Alt Empordà county (Catalonia, Spain)
David Pavón%*, Montserrat Ventura%, Anna Ribas%, Pere Serraw,
David Saurı́w & Françoise Bretonw
%
Geography Department, Universitat de Girona, Pl. Ferrater Mora,
1, 17071 Girona, Spain
wGeography Department, Universitat Auto´noma de Barcelona,
08193 Bellaterra, Spain
(Received 17 July 2002)
The aim of the present article is to examine the processes of change in land
use over the last 40 years in a traditional, rural western Mediterranean area. It
is hoped to link these processes to the role played by such socio-economic
structural forces as agricultural modernisation, tourism, and environment
conservation policies. It is also hoped to correlate the changes in land use
with the appearance of conflicts of a social or environmental nature and
demonstrate how these changes affect the basic resources of the area. It is
therefore submitted that, to be really effective, the policies employed for the
planning and regulation of rural Mediterranean areas must take these
changes into account and assume the responsibility of attempting to resolve
the related conflicts.
# 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd.
Keywords: Alt Empordà; Spain; land use; social and environmental conflict;
littoralisation; forces of environmental change
Introduction
The aim of our study is to examine the processes of land use change from the mid1950s to the mid-1990s in a rural, west Mediterranean area. We attempt to link these
processes to socio-economic (structural) forces such as agricultural modernization,
tourism, and conservation policies. We also expect land use changes to lead to social or
environmental conflicts, and we will illustrate how these changes affect the basic
resources of the area. Finally, we argue that policies for the planning and regulation of
rural Mediterranean areas must take these changes into account and assume the
responsibility of providing solutions to the related conflicts.
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]
0140-1963/03/030543 + 10 $30.00/0
# 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd.
544
D. PAVÓN ET AL.
Map 1. Location of the study area and of the biophysical domains. 1. Pyrenean piedmont of
the Albera range and the Cap de Creus mountains. 2. Fluvial plains of the Muga and Fluvià
rivers. 3. Lowlands of the coastal zone.
The study area
The area chosen for our research includes 20 municipalities of the Catalan county, Alt
Empordà, located in the north-eastern corner of the Iberian Peninsula (see Map 1).
Alt Empordà covers 1300 km2 and had a population of 96,000 in 1996. The area has
contrasting physiography ranging from the low, sandy coastline to the Pyrenean peaks
of over 1,000 m high. The variety of landscapes in this small area has been enhanced
by centuries of intensive human intervention. Unlike the inland wooded landscape,
the plain is composed of a mosaic of crops (mostly irrigated), watercourses, canals,
marshlands, small population nuclei, and tourist and residential complexes.
In order to facilitate the collection of data and analysis of results, we decided to
select a smaller area that would represent all the different environments, changes and
processes that have occurred in Alt Empordà between the mid-1950s and mid-1990s.
Three main biophysical domains are present in this research area: the Pyrenean
piedmont of the Albera range and the mountains of the Cap de Creus, the fluvial
plains of the Muga and Fluvià rivers and finally, the lowlands of the coastal zone.
Methodology
The international land use/land cover change (LUCC) programme was the basic
reference for establishing the methodology for the study. This interdisciplinary
programme attempts to explain the changes in land cover and land use through socalled ‘structural factors’, which may be biophysical, economic, social or political
(Turner et al., 1993).
Changes in land use were obtained from the interpretation of aerial photographs at
a scale of 1/30,000 taken in 1956 and 1995, and the results were mapped using a
LAND USE CHANGES IN ALT EMPORDÀ
545
Geographic Information System. The procedure to produce such maps first involved
the delimitation of land use polygons on a base map at the same scale, followed by the
digitalization of these polygons so that they could be incorporated into a GIS. The
land use categories finally selected were two for the built environment (known as
‘traditional settlements’ and ‘tourist settlements’); two for farming (‘dryland crops’
and ‘irrigated crops’), and six for a diversity of natural features (‘lands subject to
occasional or permanent flooding’; ‘beaches’; ‘pasture land’, ‘scrub’; ‘thinly wooded
areas’, and ‘thickly wooded areas’). Because of the difficulties in discerning dryland
from irrigated crops (especially in the earlier aerial photos) we have assumed that all
dryland crops are vines and olive trees. Although some patches of non-irrigated
herbaceous crops are likley to be present in the 2 years of reference, their magnitude in
terms of land occupation does not appear significant enough to change overall
patterns. A matrix of land use changes was created in order to determine substitution
patterns during the time period studied.
Social and environmental conflicts arising from land use changes were identified by
an exhaustive study of the leading regional newspaper from 1979 onwards, and
supported by interviews with farmers, managers of local irrigation systems, and the
managers of the Empordà Wetlands Natural Park. There was no regional press
available before 1979 and, given the political situation of Spain during the first
part of the time period at least, conflicts were unlikely to arise, let alone be
mentioned explicitly in the media. Given the scarce and fragmentary evidence of
land use conflicts before 1979, we cannot link land use changes, as documented
by the tables and maps in this study, with environmental conflicts occurring
pre-1979.
Analysis of land use changes
The evolution of land use between 1956 and 1995 shows the peculiar dynamics of the
landscape in the research area (see Maps 2 and 3, and Tables 1 and 2). In quantitative
terms, the largest category of land use is crop farming with more than half of the area
for both years. However, this activity has experienced a slight decline mainly because
of the decrease in dryland farming (olives and vines), which in 1995 occupied about
half of the land it had in 1956. This is offset by the increase in irrigated farming, which
can be explained by the construction of the Boadella Dam on the Muga River at the
end of the 1960s, and the ensuing irrigation infrastructure built on the river plain.
Irrigation had been practised extensively before, because the farmers could easily tap
the abundant ground-water resources of the plain.
In 1956, scrub (nearly 14% of the area) and thinly wooded areas (8?6%) ranked
second and third most prolific land uses. These figures may reflect previous
abandonment of dryland crops, dating back to the end of the 19th century, when
Phylloxera, a pest that attacks vines, ravaged much of this landscape. Former
vineyards, situated largely in the mountainous areas near the coast, were abruptly
abandoned. Later, vines and many olive trees disappeared as a consequence of the
great frost of February 1956 (Barbaza, 1988).
Within the time period covered by this study, the decrease of scrubland paralleled
the increase in thinly and thickly wooded areas. In 1956, 37?8% of the area classified
as wooded land in 1995 was scrub and pasture land (see Table 2). It must be pointed
out that the afforestation process on the piedmont and the mountains surrounding the
plain is frequently interrupted by the occurrence of forest fires. These fires are spread
and aggravated by the north wind called tramuntana. Traditional rural management
favoured the controlled starting of fires as a means to regenerate land cover and obtain
palatable vegetation for sheep and goat flocks. The collapse of this economy, however,
546
D. PAVÓN ET AL.
Map 2. Study area of Alt Empordà. Land uses 1956.
means forest fires have become a serious hazard, especially for the new settlements on
the mountain ranges near the coast.
The category ‘lands subject to occasional or permanent flooding’ varies during the
study period for different reasons. Between 1956 and the mid-1970s irrigated
agriculture and mass tourism development projects expanded in the coastal zone. The
direct consequence of this was the reduction of the area subject to flooding. On the
other hand, from the 1980s onwards, the creation of the Empordà Wetlands Natural
Park in 1983 contributed to the partial restoration of this category to the detriment of
cropland, especially those growing rice. Significantly, in 1995, 24?1% of lands
classified as having occasional or permanent flooding had been occupied by crops in
1956.
The evolution of the built environment is reflected in the ‘traditional settlement’
and ‘tourist settlement’ categories. Whereas the former has continued to expand in a
slow but steady fashion, the latter has experienced dramatic growth, especially in the
coastal plains since most tourist sites are situated along the seafront. The most
spectacular cases are the marina developments which appeared with the extensive
tourist expansion in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when marshlands in what is now
Empúriabrava were transformed into an inland port with navigation channels. A
variety of dwellings (holiday homes, apartment blocks, etc.) were also constructed at
this time (Saurı́ et al., 1995). Social pressure and economic uncertainties prevented
LAND USE CHANGES IN ALT EMPORDÀ
547
Map 3. Study area of Alt Empordà. Land uses 1995.
the construction of another project of similar dimensions to the south of
Empúriabrava. This project would have effectively meant the destruction of the
littoral marshland and the spread of urban development along almost all of the
coastline.
There are other types of tourist and recreational projects situated further inland,
such as the Peralada golf course (in the fluvial plains) or the tourist estates situated in
the Pyrenean piedmont of Cap de Creus. These residential areas are located where
vines and olive trees were traditionally grown but later abandoned. Finally, other
residential developments have been constructed on the rocky coast of Roses.
To summarize, the present situation can be described as an increasing polarization
between the more inland, rural, mountain areas on the one hand, and the coast on the
other. In the latter, the different land uses are in competition with one another,
resulting in the generation of conflicts. In fact, this evolution can be understood from
the wider perspective of growth concentrating along much of the Mediterranean
shoreline (Grenon & Batisse, 1989; Thornes, 1995). This produces saturation
problems due to keen competition for space (land occupation) and pressure on the
resources of the area (especially water).
Social and environmental conflicts related to land use change
All the changes in land use described above have led to a series of social and
environmental conflicts within the research area. Analysis of these conflicts will focus
548
D. PAVÓN ET AL.
Table 1. Evolution of land use (1956–1995)*
Land uses
Traditional settlement
Tourist sites
Thickly wooded areas
Thinly wooded areas
Crops:
Dryland farming (vines and
olive trees)
Irrigated crops
Scrub
Pasture land
Beaches
Lands subject to occasional or
permanent flooding
Total
1956
1995
ha
%
ha
%
316?0
F
754?4
3039?6
23,256?0
9973?2
0?89
F
2?13
8?60
65?81
28?22
533?1
1,258?7
3819?1
3085?0
20,139?4
5516?3
1?51
3?56
10?81
8?73
56?96
15?61
12,824?1
4829?5
37?7
131?5
2974?2
37?59
13?67
0?11
0?37
8?41
14,614?1
3415?1
34?7
131?5
2931?6
41?35
9?66
0?10
0?37
8?30
35,339?2
100
35,339?2
100
*Table drawn up by the authors from the following sources:
K
K
K
For 1956, North American aerial photograph, E 1/30?000 approx. (1956–1957).
For 1975, National Geographic Institute aerial photograph, E 1/30?000 approx. (1972-1973).
For 1995, Cartographic Institute of Catalonia orthophotomap, E 1/50?000, ICC, 1993–1994.
on the 1980s and 1990s, when larger and more frequent conflicts arose as a result of
increasing competition between agriculture, tourism and conservation.
The regional newspaper ‘El Punt’ reports up to 223 incidents of a socioenvironmental nature within the research area from 1979 to 1995 (Table 3). Most
of these incidents occurred in areas where the interests of agriculture, tourism and
conservation projects come into direct confrontation with one another. About 60% of
issues in the coastal area were water related (shortages, water pollution, river
flooding). The remaining 40% of the recorded incidents were related to the policies of
the Empordà Wetlands Natural Park. The conservationist agenda adopted by the
Natural Park was initially perceived as negative to the interests of local agriculture and
tourism, because of strict limitations imposed on certain agricultural practices and
further urban developments.
Overall, water issues represented 62?7% of the 223 socio-environmental incidents
recorded over the 17 year period. The remaining incidents were connected to one
or more of the following factors: environmental impacts on flora and fauna, solid
urban waste, the environmental impact of development projects, conflicts arising
from management practices by park authorities, the environmental impact
of the road network, and problems caused by recreational facilities or by noise
pollution.
Mismanagement of the forests (especially indiscriminate tree harvesting) combined
with forest fires has changed the vegetation and fauna of the area. The issue of solid
urban waste is mainly connected to problems of municipal waste disposal site
operations and the existence of illegal sites. The main incidents concerning the
environmental impact of resource exploitation refer to the proliferation of sand and
gravel extraction in the River Fluvià which is increasing because of the demand by the
building sector. Conflicts generated by recreational facilities appear mostly as a
Table 2. Matrix of change in land use (1956–1995)
1995
Crops
ha %
Wooded areas
ha %
Scrubs and pasturelands
ha %
Lands subject to flooding
ha %
Beaches
ha %
Total 1956
ha %
Cropland
Wooded
areas
Scrub and
pasture land
Lands subject
to flooding
Beaches
Total 1995
307?5
17?2
964?7
53?8
72?8
4?1
147?9
8?3
298?9
16?7
0?0
0?0
1791?8
100?0
2?4
0?0
19,337?0
96?1
194?1
1?0
154?1
0?8
442?7
2?2
0?0
0?0
20,130?2
100?0
6?1
0?0
861?7
12?5
3422?2
49?6
2612?8
37?8
1?4
0?0
0?0
0?0
6904?1
100?0
0?0
0?0
1384?9
40?1
103?9
3?0
1921?6
55?7
39?6
1?1
0?0
0?0
3450?0
100?0
0?0
0?0
707?8
24?1
1?0
0?0
30?9
1?1
2,191?8
74?8
0?0
0?0
2,931?5
100?0
0?0
0?0
0?0
0?0
0?0
0?0
0?0
0?0
0?0
0?0
131?5
100?0
131?5
100?0
316?0
0?9
23,256?1
65?8
3794?1
10?7
4867?2
13?8
2974?3
8?4
131?5
0?4
35,339?1
100?0
LAND USE CHANGES IN ALT EMPORDÀ
Sites
ha %
Sites
549
550
D. PAVÓN ET AL.
Table 3. Social and environmental conflicts (1979–1995)
Issue
Number
Noise pollution
Recreational equipment
Communication network
Nature conservation bodies
Land use
Development projects
Solid urban waste
Flora and fauna
Water supply management
2
5
6
8
11
12
15
24
140
Total
223
Source: Authors’ research based on reports in El Punt.
consequence of the construction of golf courses at Peralada and Capmany (which no
longer exists), the go-karting track in Palau-saverdera and the marina in Roses. The
creation of protected areas such as the Empordà Wetlands Natural Park or Cap de
Creus has also produced several disputes relating to the regulation of hunting and
fishing practices, or the mandatory flooding of some private agricultural fields for
waterfowl management.
Water is by far the largest single issue in generating social and environmental
conflicts in this area (Ventura et al., 2000). The demands for water from agriculture,
tourism and conservation all coincide in time (summer) and in space (the coastal
plain). During periods of drought (1998 and 1999 were particularly severe) these
conflicts can take on a dramatic inter-sectorial and/or inter-municipal dimension. No
solution has been found to give a more efficient and properly controlled use of water.
Terms such as ‘the water battle’ or ‘the war of the wells’ have become catchphrases
amongst the population. Similarly, confrontation between different consumers of
water (ecological associations, the board of managers of the Park, tourist
entrepreneurs, irrigation organisations and the different local bodies involved in
water management) have become more frequent.
Problems associated with water pollution are mainly concerned with sewage in the
River Muga, especially in Figueres and the Empuriabrava. The lack of solutions
generated numerous protests and complaints against the passivity of local government. Complaints were registered from the directors of the Natural Park,
environmentalist groups, fishing associations, tourist entrepreneurs and above all,
from farmers. Finally, the problem has been minimized by the sewage treatment
plants built at Figueres and Empúriabrava in the 1990s .
Recent changes in land use, especially in the coastal plain, have also contributed
to aggravate the problem of river flooding, one of the most pervasive environmental hazards of the Mediterranean. During the study period, flooding resulted in
important economic losses, especially in the areas of large-scale tourist development.
Most of the municipalities affected by flooding have modified or plan to modify the
watercourses that flow through their urban area (either by channelization, diversion
or in some cases, underground channelling). These projects are being carried
out despite evidence which proves that hydraulic works in themselves do not
solve the problem entirely and can even increase the risk of flooding in the future
(Saurı́ et al., 2001).
LAND USE CHANGES IN ALT EMPORDÀ
551
Future perspectives
In this paper, we have attempted to demonstrate how land use changes (afforestation,
irrigation, tourist development, and the protection of ecosystems) in the Alt Empordà
county have produced important modifications in the landscape and have generated a
series of important socio-environmental conflicts.
Given the social and environmental dynamics of the Alt Empordà, it can be argued
that the future tendency in land use will not vary substantially from that experienced
by other traditionally rural Mediterranean areas. Briefly, there are three different land
use scenarios for the future, depending on the biophysical domain. First, the
afforestation process of the piedmont is likely to continue as a result of the continuing
crisis in traditional agriculture. Second, intensive agriculture will continue to
dominate on the plain, but may face restrictions from the EC in Brussels either
under set-aside conditions or simply by removing subsidies for crops. Finally, we can
expect continuing diversity of land use that characterizes the coast, where the so-called
‘driving forces of environmental change’ (agriculture, tourism and nature conservation) cause the greatest number of social and environmental conflicts.
In the piedmont, the sequence of dry–land agriculture–scrub–thin woodland–thick
woodland is the most probable trend for the coming years. This tendency may be
accentuated as a result of EU grants that provide incentives to substitute existing
vineyards with reafforestation. As has already been pointed out, this programme
would not only aggravate the tendency towards homogenization of the landscape, it
would also increase vulnerability to forest fires.
The future of the alluvial plains depends very much on the direction taken by EU
agricultural policies. In this area, the amount of irrigated agriculture and the tendency
towards intensive farming experienced over recent years are likely to decline in the
future. Controversial measures are being taken in order to counteract this tendency,
such as the funding at the beginning of the year 2000, of 1300 million pesetas for a
130 km long irrigation project. These canals are designed to bring water to 1500 h of
currently non-irrigated land.
The future evolution of the coastal marshlands remains highly uncertain. Some
agricultural lands have reverted to the ‘enclosure’ system as a result of the wetland
reclamation programme undertaken by the Natural Park. Other attempts to
recuperate these ancient wetland areas are also likely to succeed. On the whole, it is
probable that the growing influence of conservationist policies will determine the most
likely course of action in this domain. In conclusion, the likelihood of new social and
environmental conflicts still exists, considering that confrontation over the use of
natural resources is likely to increase on the coastal plain and it may also spread into
the inland parts of the Alt Empordà.
This research was supported by a grant from the Spanish CICYT (AMB 97-0740-C-0). We
would like to thank Dr. R. Jane Rickson as well as two anonymous referees for their helpful
comments on a previous version of the manuscript. All errors remain ours.
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