Syntax2
Whathappenswhenyouencounterthesesentences?--
1.  thehorseracedpastthebarnfell
2.  themanwhohuntsducksoutoccasionally
3.  flyingplanescanbedangerous
Describewhat’shappeninginthissentence:
Thisisthemanwhothepolicemanwhowaswalkinghisbeatwhichwasina
toughneighborhoodsawinastreetcarup.
Goalsofsyntax:
nottolistthetotalsetofallpossiblesentencesinalanguage,butthemore
interes@ngques@ons–
•  whatcons@tutesknowledgeoflanguage?(whatthespeakerknowsaboutlanguage)
•  howisthatknowledgeacquired
•  andhowisitputtouse?howdowegofromknowledge(interiorlanguage)to
speech,fromlanguetoparole,fromcompetencetoperformance?
genera&vegrammarisatheorythatexplainshowlanguageispossible,howanychild
canlearnanylanguageusingthesamementalblueprint–ithasexplanatoryadequacy
genera&vegrammar=asetofrulesforgenerateallthesentencesofalanguage
whatdowemeanbyrules?
bygenerate?
explanatoryadequacy:thetheoryexplainsthepossibleinlanguageandexcludesthe
impossible
itexplainswhy
Whatdidyoubuy?
isapossibleEnglishsentenceand
*Whatdidyoubuybreadand?
isnot.
Theconceptofuniversalgrammar—
•  languagedis@nguisheshumansfromallotheranimals
•  allhumansacquirelanguageinmuchthesameway
•  allhumanlanguagessharecertainfundamentalproper@es(linguis@c
universals
Howcanweexplainthisphenomenon?
Whataresomeuniversalsoflanguage?
•  alllanguagesconsistofgroupingsofwords,notlinearstrings
Trainsarelinear,andyoucanmoveeachpieceofatrainrandomlywithout
affec@[email protected]
thatfunc@ontogetherandmovetogether.
•  babiesdon’timitategrown-upsastheylearnlanguage;rather,theyseemto
uselanguagedatatofigureouttherulesoftheirpar@cularlanguage
•  thecogni@vetoolkitthatallowsthemtodothisiswhatwecall“universal
grammar”
Thesentenceasaunitofstructure:
obviouslytherearelargerunitsaswell:aconversa@on,abook,aspeech;
andsmallerones,morphemesandphonemes
Groupingsofwordsinsentencesarecalledcons&tuents
Thecons@tuentsarearrangedinhierarchicalstructureswithinthesentence.
Somecons@tuentscanbeembeddedwithinothersinahierarchy:
theperplexedstudentsrereadthechapterinthebook>
[theperplexedstudents][rereadthechapterinthebook]
([the][perplexedstudents])([reread][thechapterinthebook])
([the][{perplexed}{students}])([reread][{the{}<chapter><in{[the}
{book}]>}]
Cons&tuentstructure:
thehierarchiesofaSentence--
sentence>clause>phrase>word
Englishhas5typesofphrases:NP,VP,AdjP,AdvP,PrepP
•  everysentenceconsistsofatleastoneclause
•  everyfullclauseconsistsofaNPthatfunc@onsasthesubject,andaVPthat
func@onsasthepredicate
•  whataresubjectsandpredicates?
•  canyouhaveasentencewithonlyoneword?
principleofstructuraldependency:
sentencestructureinalllanguagesdependsongroupingsofwordsratherthan
linearstrings
clausesandsentences
independentclause:maybeasentenceitself,calledasimplesentence:
theperplexedstudentsrereadthechapter
oritmaybejoinedtoanotherindependentclausetoformacompoundsentence:
1.  thestudentswereperplexedandtheyrereadthechapter
2.  thechapterperplexedthestudents,sotheyrereadit
3.  thestudentswereperplexed;theyrereadthechapter
Typesofdependentclauses
dependentclause:(subordinatecl)cannotstandalone;itisembeddedorinsertedintoan
independentclausetoformacomplexsentence;tomodifyacons@tuentwithinthe
independentclause,ortomodifytheenJreindependentclause
•  adverbialclause:oZenintroducedbyasubordina@ngconj(when,because,aKer,if,
although)
AKertheyrereadthechapter,thestudentsfeltmuchlessperplexed.
•  rela&veclause:typicallyintroducedbyarela@vepronoun(that,which,who,whom,
whose)
Theinstructor,wholovedsyntax,triedtomakethatlovecontagious.
•  complemen&zerclause:oZenintroducedbythatorwh-word(whether,what,when)
ThestudentsthoughtthattheinstructorwasaliOleoff.
Thesedependentclausesmaybereducedintopar@cipial,gerund,andinfini@ve
phrases:
Havingrereadthechapter,thestudentsfeltmuchlessperplexed.
Theinstructor,lovingsyntax,triedtomakethatlovecontagious.
ThestudentsthoughttheinstructortobealiOleoff.
Asphrases,thesestructuresdon’thaveafullorinflectedverb;insteadtheyuse
apar@ciple:havingrereadthechapter
agerund:lovingsyntax
aninfini@ve:tobeali\leoff
Onetestofacons@tuent:canasinglewordsubs@tuteforit?Canitstandalone?Canit
moveasagroup?
Theperplexedstudentsrereadthechapter.
Theyrereadthechapter.
Whorereadthechapter?
Theyrereadit.
Whatdidtheyreread?
Theydid.
Havetheydoneityet?Yes?What?
Asinglewordcan’tsubs@tuteforrereadthe:
*Thestudentsdidchapter
orfortheperplexed
Gramma&calandacceptable
Weknowthat
thefabulousteacher
isanounphrase
andweknowthat
*teacherfabulousthe
*theteacherfabulous
arenot.
Howdoweknowthis?
Weknowthat
Colorlessgreenideassleepfuriously
isonsomelevelagramma@calEnglishsentence.
Butwealsoknowthat“itdoesnotcompute.”
Theno@onthatasentencemustbebothgramma@calandacceptable,thatitmust
fitourunderstandingofwhatcons@tutesanEnglishu\eranceandthatitalso
mustmakesomekindofsense.
Canyoumakesenseoutofthisu\erance?
Colorlessgreenideassleepfuriously
PhraseStructureRules
theydescribetheallowablecons@tuentsofalanguage,andtheytaketheform
typeofphrase>allowableelementsinthephrase
SomeallowableNPs:
NP>Nsmoke
NP>DetNthesmoke
NP>DetAdjNthethicksmoke
NP>DetAdjAdjNPPthethickblacksmokeinthekitchen
SoageneralEnglishNPrulewouldlooklikethis:
NP>(Det)(Adj)N(PP)
BasicPSRulesofEnglish:
S→NPVP
NP→(Det)(Adj+)N(PP+)
ADJP→(ADV)ADJ
VP→(ADVP+)V(NP/S)(PP+)(ADVP+)
ADVP→(ADV)ADV
PP→PNP
Formandfunc&on:justasawordcanlooklikeanounandfunc@onlikean
adjec@ve,sentencecons@tuentsmustbeanalyzedbothfortheirformand
theirfunc@on--
•  nominals:allcons@tuentsac@nglikenouns
•  adjec@vals:allcons@tuentsac@nglikeadjs
•  adverbials:cons@tutentsac@nglikeadvs
Clausetypes:
Nominals:
NPIheardthisweirdnoise.
PP Thenoisecamefrominthecar.
complemen&zer Iknowthatthenoisecamefromthere.
infini&vephrase Iwanttoknowwhatthenoiseis.
gerundphrase
Hearingthenoisefreakedmeout.
Adjec&vals:
ADJP
Ihaveanincrediblycrazycat.
NP Ifoundmycatintheschoolbasement
PP
Mycatlikestwist-@esfromplasJcbags.
relclause
Sheeatscerealthatfallsonthefloor.
infinclause ShedisobeysmycommandtostopbiJngmyfeet.
par&cipialphr
Sheisacatpossessedbyimaginaryfriends.
Adverbials:
ADVP PP NP Advclause infinphrase par&cipialphrase
Sheswimsinarc@cwatersridiculouslyoKen.
Sheprotectsherfacewithpetroleumjelly.
Sheplanstoswimtomorrow.
Doctorswerestunnedwhentheyheardabouther.
Theyranteststofigureouthowshedoesit.
Shewentswimminginanicylake.
Basicclausetypes:
PSDescripJon
FuncJonal
DescripJon
NPVP SV
SVOd NP[VNP]vp NP[VNPNP]vp
SVOiOd
NP[VNP/AdjP]vp SVPred
NP[VNPNP/AdjP]vpSVOPred
TypeofVerb Example
intransi@ve transi@ve
ditransi@ve linking object-predica@ve
Westudied
Westudiedgrammar
Wegaveherourhomework
Wearegoodstudents
Shecalledusbrilliant
Aphrase-structuretreediagram:
Perplexedstudentsrereadthechapter.
Theperplexedstudentsrereadthechapterinthebook.
AnalyzingtheNPstheperplexedstudentsandthechapterinthebook,
fromTheperplexedstudentsrereadthechapterinthebook.
Differencesintreestructurescandisambiguateasentence.Herearetwowaysofchunking
oldhorsefarm:
lighthousekeeper
AnNPwithtwoadjec@ves:bigcomplicatedtrees
WearrangethecomponentsinadifferenthierarchyiftheNPbigcomplicated
treesreferstocomplicatedtreesthatarebigratherthansmall:
WhydoesthismaHer?
Syntac@cambiguitycanbeaproblemthathasreal-lifeconsequences.Consider
this:
Subsec@on(b)(2)ofthefederallawagainstchildpornography(18USCode§2252)
providesthatviolatorsaretobesentencedtouptotenyearsinprison,exceptthat
thesentenceisincreased(toatleasttenyearsandnotlessthanthirty)ifthe
defendanthadpreviouslybeenconvictedundervariousotherlaws,includingany
statelaw
“rela@ngtoaggravatedsexualabuse,sexualabuse,orabusivesexualconduct
involvingaminororward”.
InacasecurrentlybeforetheUSSupremeCourt,Lockhartv.UnitedStates,
pe@@onerLockhartclaimsthatsincehehadapreviousstateconvic@onforsexually
abusinganadultwoman,heshouldbeliableforasentenceof“uptotenyears.”But
thegovernmentclaimsheshouldbeliableforasentenceof“uptothirtyyears.”
Here,again,isthepartofthelawthatisambiguous:
“rela@ngtoaggravatedsexualabuse,sexualabuse,orabusivesexualconduct
involvingaminororward”.
Theques@ontheCourtmustdecideis,Whatpartofthelawdoes“involvinga
minor”referto?
Doesitonlyrefertothelastoftheoffences,“abusivesexualconductinvolvinga
minor.”That’swhatLockhartwouldprefer,sincehe’dthengetashortersentence.
Ordoesitrefertoallthreecategoriesofoffense:“aggravatedsexualabause,sexual
abuse,orabusivesexualconduct”?That’swhatthegovernmentwouldprefer,since
thatwouldallowthemtoincreaseprisonsentencesacrosstheboard.”
ThisishowthegovernmentwantstheCourttoreadthestatute.
ThisishowLockhartwantstheCourttoreadthestatute.
Should“involvingaminororward”onlyapplytotheNPitisclosestto?
OrshoulditapplytothewholesetofNPs?
Howwouldyouresolvetheambiguityofthereferencefor“involvinga
minororward?
Towhatdoestherela@veclause
“involvingaminororward”relate?
onlytothefinalNP,“abusivesexual
conduct”?
ortoallthreeNPs,“aggravatedsexual
abuse,sexualabuse,orabusivesexual
conduct”?
Turnsout,Lockhartwon.Usingthe“ruleofthelastantecedent,”whichstates
that
[email protected]
thenounorphrasethatitimmediatelyfollows
TheSupremeCourtfoundagainstLockhart.Itrejects“theruleoflenity”–a@e
goestothedefendant–becausethatonlyapplieswhenthereisnoother
indicatorofareading.
Consequently,Lockhartiseligibleforthefull10-yearpenalty.
whendidtheeventhappen?
Theperplexedstudentsrereadthechapterovertheweekend.
Theunpredictableactresstrippedthecopwiththeprop.
Tworeadingsrequiretwodifferentunderlyingstructures:
1.  Theactresstripsthecopwhohastheprop.
2.Theactressusestheproptotripthecop.
IntheNPoldmenandwomen,
whoareyoucallingold?
ComplexPSTrees:threetypes—adverbial,rela@ve,andcomplemen@zers
Anadverbialclausecanmodifytheen@reS:
Westudiedbecausewehadthetestthenextday.
Theadverbialwhoseheadwordisbecause:it’sthereasonwhywestudied
Theadverbialwhoseheadwordisday:that’sthe@mewhenthetestisscheduled.
Rela&veclauses:
Ihadanepiphanythatchangedmya`tudeaboutgrammar.
Therela@veclausebeginswitharela@vepronoun,typicallywho,whose,whom,which,
that:
Idiagrammedthesentencethattheteacherprovided.
[email protected]’sthedifference?
Heretherela@veisthesubjectoftheclause
Heretherela@veistheobjectoftheclause:
Restric&veandnonrestric&verela&veclauses:
Arestric&verela&veclausesspecifiesthereferentoftheNorNP,whattheNorNPrefers
to.
Inthisexample,therela@veclausethattheteacherprovideddisinguishesonespecific
sentence,theonethatthestudentdiagrammed,fromtheuniverseofpossiblesentences.
Idiagrammedthesentencethattheteacherprovided
Anonrestric@verela@veclausesimplygivesaddi@onalinforma@onabouttheNorNPbut
doesnotlimitthereferent:
Hannahneedstobuytherequiredbook,whichshefoundonAmazon.
Therela@veclause,whichshefoundonAmazon,givesaddi@onalinforma@onaboutthe
bookthatHannahmustbuy,butshecouldcertainlybuyadifferentcopyofthebook
somewhereelse.
Acomplemen&zerclause:
introducedbythecomplemen@zerthat(func@onsdifferentlyfromrela@vepronounthat)
Wethinkthatthegrammarfairyhasalltheanswers.
Reducedsubordinateclauses:
Aninfini&vephrase:
Wewanttoknowtheintricaciesofgrammar.
Gerundandpar&cipialphrasescanalsobereducedclauses:
Welikeit.+Westudygerundphrases>
Welikestudyinggerundphrases.
Weusedthebookthatcontainsgoofyexamplesentences>
Weusedthebookcontaininggoofyexamplesentences.
WewerestunnedbythePStreethatwasdrawnontheboard>
WewerestunnedbythePStreedrawnontheboard.
Gerundphrasescanfunc@onasNPs:
Welovelearninggrammar.
Gerundsmakelearninggrammarfun
WriJngexamplesentencesisharderthanyouthink.
Presentpar&cipialphrases:
WeneedsentencesexemplifyingpresentparJcipialphrases.
Iwantanswersfallingoutofthesky.
Pastpar&cipialphrases:
Theanswersprovidedinthebookdidnotfallfromthesky.
Thetreesdrawnbelowshouldhelp.
TenseandAux
anaddi@onalnodedominatedbyS
tenseiscarriedbyaux,ifthereisone,orMVifthereisn’tanaux
Ihaveruntenmiles
Theauxiliaryhavecarriesthetensemarker
Mylegsdidn’twanttorunanymore.
Theauxiliarydidcarriesthetensemarker
Theygaveoutatmilepost23.
Themainverb,gave,carriesthetensemarker;thereisnoauxiliaryverb.
Emptyordummysubjects(orobjects?):(exple@veitandthere)
WhatistheitinIt’sraining?
It’sthreeo’clock?
Itseemstome...
ThereisaJdeintheaffairsofmanwhich,takenattheflood,leadsontofortune…
Howaboutobjects:Screwit.
Transforma&ons–asetofrulesforgoingfromunderlyingPStosurfacestructure
realiza@onsofsentences:
Whatareyousaying?
PSruleshavetheobjectaKertheV,butintheques@onabove,theobjectisthefirst
elementofthesentence.
PSrulesalsopredictthattheauxwillcomeaKerthesubject:
Youaresayingwhat.
Transforma@onsarerulesthatweapplytogetfromtheunderlyinguniversalEnglish
structureforallsentences,
S>NPVP
toWhatareyousaying,whichhastherealized,orsurfacestructure,formVPNP.
wh-ques&ons:thewh-wordisfronted;ifthere’snoaux,weadddummyDO
yousaidx
whatdidyousay?
Iamnotacrook.
nega&on:thenega@vewordnotisinserted,typicallyaZerfirstaux(oraZerbe)ordummy
doisadded:
Iwanttogetoutofherefast+neg>
Idon’twanttogetoutofherefast.
Iamgeqngsleepy>
I’mnotge`ngsleepy
wh-ques&onandnega&oncombined:
Youunderstandpartofthis+neg+quesJon>
Whatpartofthisdoyounotunderstand?
yes-noques&ons:invertauxandsubject;ifthere’snoaux,insertdobeforemainv,then
invert
Youarege`ngverysleepy+quesJon>
Areyouge`ngverysleepy?
YoulikeobscuregrammaJcalterminology+quesJon>
DoyoulikeobscuregrammaJcalterminology?
tagques@ons:firstauxisrepeatedintag,
Thismakesmelookfat,doesn’tit?
ac&vevoice/passivevoice:twovoicestoexpressbutasinglethought
inthepassive,thedirectobjectoftheac@vebecomesthesubjectofthesentence,the
verbisreplacedbyaformofBEplusthepastpar@ciple,andthesubjectismadethe
objectinapreposi@onalphrase:
Johntookmeforaride
Iwas(got)takenforaride(byJohn).
BrutuskilledCaesar
CaesarwaskilledbyBrutus.
Agent:thedoeroftheac@on
Pa&ent:thedone-to,orrecipientoftheac@on
Inthepassivevoice,theagentisop@onallydeletable.
Caesarwaskilled.
Igottakenforaride.
WritersareoZentold,“Avoidthepassivevoice.”Here’sanexamplefromStrunkand
White,TheElementsofStyle:
Strunkrecognizedtherewasaplaceforthepassive,andheevenusedthepassiveto
talkaboutit:
In“Poli@csandtheEnglishLanguage,”GeorgeOrwellcallsthepassiveoneofthe
“swindlesandperversions”ofmodernwri@ng,thoughheusesanagentlesspassiveto
condemntheconstruc@on:
“ThepassivevoiceiswhereverpossibleusedinpreferencetotheacJve.”
What’ssobadaboutthepassive?
rela&vepronoundele&on(forrestric@ves):
IunderstandthelastsecJonthatIread
IunderstandthelastsecJonIread
verbpar@clemovement:
Ilookedupthenumber
Ilookedthenumberup