60
CHAPTER - III
REFERENCE TO VARIOUS ASPECTS OF APSARA
IMAGERY FROM SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT SOURCES
111.1.1 - GODDESSES IN VEDIC LITERATURE
1.2 - APSARA IN VEDIC LITERATURE
1.3 - GANDHARVAS AND APSARAS
1.4 - RISE OF INDIVIDUAL APSARAS IN
VEDIC, EPIC AND PURANIC LITERATURE
1.5 - EMERGENCE OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT APSARAS : THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS AND INTERPRETATION
1.6 - APSARA - DISAKUMARI INTERRELATIONSHIP
111.2.1 - THE CONCEPT OF THE FEMININE BEAUTY
2.2 - SIMILIES ON DANCE IN LITERATURE
2.3 - VARIETIES OF DANCES IN LITERATURE
111.3.1 - PRATIHARIS, FEMALE ATTENDANTS, KANCHUKINS AND
DANCING GIRLS FROM EPIGRAPHY AND LITERATURE.
III.4.0 - ARCHITECTURAL TEXTS ON APSARA/SALABHANJIKA/NAYIKA/
DEVANGANA PLACEMENT AND OTHER DANCE REFERENCES.
61
311.1.1
GODDESSES IN VEPIC LITERATURE s
Conceptually
plenty,
speaking
fertility etc.
the
principles
of
nourishment,
are symbolised under different names in the Vedas
which do not grow further,
activity), Dhisana
feminine
e.g.
(nourishment), brhaddiva (mother), are
1 Rgveda
all mentioned more than once in the Rgveda j also mentions Raka.a rich
and
bountiful goddess
to as
a
the
along
sister of the
prolific,
In
(abundance),
the concepts of Puramdhi (plenty and
Ila
with Saraisvati and
gods,
broad hipped,
a mistress of the family,
AV
Samhitas
(8,
and
personification
46^)
Sinivali
the
Brahmanasalso
of the
new
is
and is
moon.
c-tlled
Sinivali is
fair armed,
refered
fair fingered,
implored to grant off-spring.
the
wife
mention
Raka
11a,
and
of
a
Sinivali
Visnu.
goddess
are in
The
later
Kuhu,
a
later Vedic
texts connected with phases of the moon, the former being the presiding
deity of the actual night of full moon,
of
the
fortnight
of
new
moon.
2
It
and the latter of the first day
is significant
to
note that
these
goddesses exist individually and not as consorts of any male deity. This
emphasizes their power and individual significance addressed in feminine
gender and imagery which to certain extent is anthropomorphic.
There is no further reference to these goddesses coming into their
own,
but
as often
observed andagreed
developed
concepts
of
Urna,
Parvati,
connection
witk Vedic
Aditi etc.
It is only in the final stage
fertility
upon
Durga,
goddesses
3
scholars, the
Lakshmi
such
as
etc,,
Sarasvati,
of the development
imagination that the divinity is conceived as
conception .
by
'All Mother1
have
highly
some
Puramdhi,
of religious
- an abstract
62
In my view the higher concepts of Durga, Lakahmi, etc. developed
by
the
amalgamation
.goddesses,
but
regenerate
were
and
the
of
the
concept
sustain
attributes
of
the
of
the
power of
above
the
'life'-in short eroticism,
mentioned
female
to
Vedic
procreate,
fertility and fecundity,
never obliterated from the memory of the mankind.
This yearning
to create beautiful imageries of female divinities to reassure, fulfil the
desire and invoke love.} found imagery in apsaras and gandharvas.
the concepts of Shakti,
Durga and
beyond
the
the
grasp
of
Since
Lakshmi became esoteric and sacred,
common
man,
the
minor
female
divinities
representing the sphere of the profane
were conceived to fu Ilfil similar
functions.
is
The
imagery
of
the
apsaras
not
only
effusive,
illusive,
alluring but certainly fulfilling, sustaining and entertaining. As concepts,
these
goddesses,
apsaras,
yaksis
veneration for nature worship,
sun,
moon,
and
functions
mutative.
air
etc.
in
emerge
which earth,
out
sky,
are all inter- related phenomena.
are
not
Hence the
only
connected
but
of
the
attitude
water,
of
vegetation,
Hence their attributes
transferable
and
therefore
concepts of Vedic goddesses, apsaras and yaksi are
not diametrically opposite imageries but deeply interconnected.
The
literature
concepts
but
do
of
Vedic
goddesses
not find a
and
apsaras
visual representation,
develop
while
the
in
Vedic
principle
of yaksi through its absorption in Buddhist art acquiree a visual imagery
which
be
when
compared
analogous.
Would
with
it
the
be
too
apsaras
and
farflunged
other
to
goddesses
observe the
seems
traces
to
of
Puramdhi in the Bharat Kala Bhavan yaksi (Fig.), Ila in the yaksis from
(2’}
Mathura and Sanghol (Fig.), squeezing their breasts, a motif which
continues
later
putravallabha?
at
The
Jagat
and
Rani
representation
ki
of
Vav temples
the yaksis
or Brhaddhiva
from Didarganj
in
and
63
San chi,
relate
well
with
the
discription of
the
goddess
Sinivali
from
Rgveda.
All these
in
goddesses
the
higher
generic
female
share
goddesses
common
as
attributes
well.
But
divinities'concept,
which are no doubt there
the
sheer
imagery
and
continuation
visual
of the
representation,
from kushana periodj hints at its secular impact and demand. The visual
imagery
has
distinct
gestures,
postures and
attributes
which
connect
various forms of different periods.
Even the
form>
of
accompanied
Asvins
and
Rgveda.
all
concept
'Vac',
all
bending
She
has
beings.
In
a
the
Speech,, conceived
the
the
gods,
bow
place
in
of
supports
Rudra
the
Brahmanas
is
feminine
Mitra-Varuna,
against
waters and
she
in
the
sea,
refered
gender and
Indra-Agni,
unbeliever
in
the
besides encompasses
in
the
legend
of
Soma,
purchased from the gandharvas by the devas with the help of a woman,
'Vac',
the
goddess
tempts
the
gandharvas,
Soma and return to the devas.
'Vac'
makes
them
surrender
the
is equated with thunder and the
development of the human speech.^
Stella
juxtaposed
Kramrisch
on
the
identified
temple
the
sculptures
architecture
as
of
surasundari
symbols
-
personifying
vyala
Vac as
£
'prakriti',
activating
the
dormant
'purusha1.
connected with Sarasvati in the Brahmanas
in
the
post
eloquence,
-
Vedic
wisdom,
mythology
invoked
as
a
(SB 3,9,1,
Sarasvati
muse
This
and
'Vac'
A.B 3,
becomes
the
regarded
as
is
1
also
) and
goddess
the
wife
of
of
Brahma. ^
Exploring
development
of
the
nature
worship
the
apsara— devangana
as
a
germinal
imagery,
the
phenomenon
waters
and
in
the
rivers
64
also
play
a
significant
part.
The
waters
are
personified
as
mothers,
young wives, and goddesses who bestow boons and come to the sacrifice.
They
are
celestial,
for their goal
(7,
as well as flowing
492).
are and the seat of
in
channels,
It is implied that they
Mitra and Varuna is
(10,
and
have
the sea
abide where the gods
30).
King Varuna moves
3
in their midst, looking down on the truth and falsehood of men (7, 49 )
Here
the
mothers
and
rain
water
they
produce
purify
Ganga,
which
Yamuna,
veda
Sutudri,
is
she bestows vitality,
refers
waters and as
The
waters
to
the
much
Vrtra
(10,
celebrated
than
mentioned
any
strength
and
installation
of
(6,
other
above.
Sarayu,
i-iver.
She
Over and above^
41 17 ) and is associated with deities
184 2 ), She is bountiful,
slayer.
cleanse
Parusni. are mantioned in the Veda out
off-spring (2,
who assist procreation
a
33 1 ).
1,
the
heal^ bestow*^ wealth,
attributes of waters
she is
AV
in
3.12.8) g. Number of rivers like Sarasvati,
(AV
Sarasvati
performs the
form
91 6 ,
(10,
Atharva
Purnakumbhanaris
of
Agni
Agni is dwelling
guilt<ww^'sins} and
immortality.
Sindhu,
is meant.
61 3 ‘ 7 )
This
and in her terrible
shows
that the
concepts
of water are also closely linked with fertility and eroticism, while the
upholding
of
connection
between
indicated
is
Arid
ethical
here.
invoked
by
plenty.
values
nadi
and
devatas,
Sarasvati
-
worshippers
Here
the
male
purification
apsaras
has
a
correlative,
wives
fertilizing
also
suggested.
later devanganas
and
male
desiring
are
and
water,
is
is
^
Sarasvat,
off-spring,
semen
The
who
protection
implied.
Roth
regards him as a guardian of the celestial waters who bestows fertility,
Q
while Hillebrandt identified Sarasvat with Ap^.m Napat = Soma, the moon .
Soma
is
connected
with
swell (apya). In Rgveda (1,
waters
91^ ®),
and
the
moon
for its
quality
to
10, 85^) it is identified with the
65
moon.
It
swells like
a river or sea and is
wanning of the moon.
connected with waxing and
Soma produces waters and causes heaven and earth
3
41
21
to ram (9, 96 i Soma is the embryo of the waters (9, 97 , SB 4,4,5 )
or their
child,
for
seven
sisters
as mothers are around the
child,
gandharva of the waters (9, 86 36 ) and waters are his mothers.
3
Soma is also called a bull (9, 7 ). Being a bull among cow waters,
Soma
is
the
fertilizer
an , impregnator
Yajurveda (eg.
74 5 ).
(Retodha),
waters
an
a in
MS 1,
6 )
(10,
epithet
8
36 ).
He
applied
to
is
also
the
(9,
moon
86
in
39
)
the
4
Hence he is a bestower of fertility (9, 60 ,
By drinking Soma, gods became immortal. Soma stimulates the voice
and the speech.
is
of the
also
called
He is referred to as
the
lord
of
the
'Vacaspati'
plants
(9,
114,
(9,
4
26 ,
2)
and
5
101 ).
Soma
receives
the
6
7
epithet 1 vanaspati1 lord of the word (1, 91 , 9, 12 ).
Soma
is
referred
3 4
Atharvaveda (7, 81 ’ ,
the
to
116
as
7
moon
in
dispelling
a drop,
(1st
&
10th
mandala)
1
10 ) and even
etc.) Chandogya Upanisad (5,
Brahmanas identify Soma with moon.
gods feed on
Rgveda
There la "fleeter in moon,
when
thus the moon wan^es away. Soma is celestial and bright
darkness
Indu (6,
and
swelling
in
the
waters
and
it
is
often
called
44 21 ). Thus Soma in the bowls la said to appear like
8 11
the moon in the water (8, 71 )
Therefore,, Soma in water implies the male-female concept commonly
shared by apsara-gandharva, apsara - soma (drink), apsara-moon, apsara
shala
(tree
&
vegetation
in
general),
the ever-auspicious mithuna pairs.
a
feature
explicitly
depicted
by
In my view the element of suggestion
(dhvani) of male-female principle is very subtly implied in this pairing,
which
is
poetically
expressed.
Further exploration of it in
devangana,
66
imageries
of
kesanistoyakanni,
salabhanjika,
madhupana,
prasadhika
holding mirror or a bowl, is worth while.
Thus recapitulating the
spirits
namely
concepts
of
former) Sri
yaksi,
Raka,
Aditi
concept of goddesses personified as nature
■m
Pura dhi,
(which is
Lakshmi,
surasundari,
Sinivali,
Ila,
more abstract
Durga,
not
and
only
lead
generalised
to
the
than
the
Uma-Parvati etc. on one hand and apsara,
devangana
etc.
on
the
other.
This
process
is
perennial and continues in temple architecture where it obtains a concrete
form
from the
only
decorate
literary
the
imagery.
temple
(In
but enrich
a
sense they
the
are alankarika,
literary
flourish
with
not
poetic
imagination). It is very essential to visualize the cognate nature of Vedic
goddesses, apsaras, yaksis, river goddesses and later day devanganas.
The
feminine
representation
forms
the
of
visual
Sri
in early
semblance
Indian
in
art
depiction
shares
of
its
with
our
postures
and
attributes e.g., salabhanjika posture, lotus, vessel, elephant, rich foliage
etc.
and
progeny,
conceptual
good
function
fortune
and
so
goddess in pre-Buddhist times,
the
model for the
bestowing
on. The
of
prosperity,
worship
of Sri
like the Yaksa cult,
representation of her form.
abundance,
as
a
popular
and the yaksi was
Sri was associated with
the northern quarter and Srimati or Srima with the southern one 12
In
lotuses
Srisukta,
and
sculptures
conform
to
being
at
Sri
bathed
is referred to
by
elephants
Barhut , San chi,
this
description.
as
holding
Bodhagaya,
The
Vedic
seated on
lotus,
water jars.
Udayagiri
concept
a
of
and
Sri
holding
The
other
as
the
early
places
'lady
bountiful',
bestower of garments,
food and drink, is
closely
the
concept
lady of Visnu,
Vedic predecessor
Vedic
of
Aditi,
the
the
related to
67
of
the
epic
Bhudevi.
Early
sculptures
contain
suggestions
of
these
concepts also. Thus the lady pressing her breast in the Lucknow Museum
(which
and
I
prefer to
water,
echoes
call as
represented at
of
Yajurveda
svastanasparsa)
both
passages
goddess... the lady of Visnu11
and
Mathura and
describing
the lady
Amaravati,
her
as
rich
carrying food
are
sculptural
in
milk,
the
and “Sri that brings garments, cows, food
and drink"
Her associations with lotus and her bounty in the bestowal
of
drink
food
out, in
type
and
a
are
sculpture
from
brought
from
Mathura
together^ as
Sanchi,
and
which
Amaravati
is
and
Coomaraswamy
has
pointed
the
link between the yaksi
the
lotus
inhabiting
lady.
Everything good and auspicious is believed to be the abode of Sri who
is
Mangala.
seats,
Thus
beds,
different
a
gems,
fruits,
good
house,
gateway,
flowers,
banners,
parasole,
charming married women with their living husbands,
grains,
seeds,
vessels,
new
clothes,
cow,
horse,
elephant and host of other objects are the abode of Sri.
Different
wealth),
of
concepts
Dhanya
of
Lakshmi
Lakshmi, (goddess
prosperity),
Bhogalakshmi
(goddess of royalty)
such
of
(goddess
as
Dhanalakshmi
corns),
of
(goddess
Bhagyalakshmi
pleasures),
Viralakshmi (goddess of valour)
of
(goddess
Rajyalakshmi
are all suggestive
of the presence of Sri in various auspicious things.
311.1.2
APSARA IN VEDIG LITERATURE :
The
references
to
present
from
understand
attempt
is
directed
towards
compiling
Vedic texts regarding apsara and
her
origin
and
characteristics,
one
the
available
her nature.
In order
has
to observe
that
the nature and associations of an apsara have been changing from Rgveda
to
Atharva
Veda
and
to
later
Vedic literature.
This
indirectly is the
68
iconology
of an
because
the
aqueous
nymph,
apsara
whole
concept is
also
dance,
song and play,
of the
devanganas
the
present
references
Vedic literature.
ambivalent.
associated
with
prompts
one to
The
trees,
It is more imaginary
nature of
fertility
apsara as
and
engaging
is
intended
interpretations
at
on
an
in
connect themjas the predecessors,
shown in sculpture on the temple architecture.
chapter
and
motif in
bringing
apsaras,
together
to
pose
all
Hence
the
them
varied
against
the
devangana concept in order to try and see how both these concepts work
as complementary and interfacing alongwith each other.
Apsara denoted a kind of nymph, who is refered to only five times
in
Rgveda
as
gandharva
collated
by
Macdonell.
in the highest heaven
She
(RV 10,
nmilos
at
her
beloved
123 )» Apsarases of the sea
are described as flowing to Soma (RV 9, 78^) with reference to the water
which is mixed with the juice. The long haired ascetic with semidivine
powers, is spoken of as able to move on the path of the apsarases and
the gandharvas (RV 10, 136^). The Apsaras is also meant by the aqueous
nymph
(apya yosa),
the wife of the gandharvas In the waters (RV 10,
1034).
More
explored
light
by
on
apsaras
Macdonell.
and go in a trice (AV.
Their
2,
is
thrown
abode
2 3 ).
is
by
in
Atharva
waters,
Veda
whence
as
they
Goddesses
connected
with
come
They are besought to depart from the
vicinity of men to the river and the bank of the waters (AV. 4,
The
further
gandharva
Visva
connected with clouds, lightening and stars.
(AV.
Vasu
are
37 3 ).
described
on
2, 2 ). They are also
known as wives of the gandharvas (AV. 2, 25) and their connection with
the latter has assumed the character of a formula in the later Samhitas
69
a
(VS. 30,8, AV. 8,9 ).
are
described
as
4
In the Satapatha Brahmana (11,5,1 ) the apsarases
transforming
themselves
into
a
kind
of aquatic bird
Q
(atyah
;
RV.
9,5
).
In the
post Vedic
literature they
are
very often
spoken of as frequenting forest lakes and rivers, especially the Gangas,
and they
are
found
in
Varuna's palace in the ocean.
meaning of the word is most probably
The etymological
'moving in the waters', (according
to Yaska's Nirukta, 5, 13 by ap-sarini).
From
the
early
Vedic literature it
can
be
seen that the
conception of the apsaras is a celestial water numph,
a
'genius'
apsarases
spoken
named gandharva.
extends
of
as
to "the
inhabiting
(asvattha),
in
Elsewhere,
the
(udumbara and
which
In later
earth
in
trees
plaksa),
cymbals
as
are
well
said
particular to
and
as
to
and a consort of
Samhitas the
banyans (nyagrodha)
their
same
and
and
lutes
oldest
sphere
trees.
sacred
resound
of
the
They
are
fig
(AV.
-
trees
4
4,37 ).
other varieties of the fig tree
be the
houses of
gandharvas and
4
(TS. 3,4,8 ). The gandharvas and apsarases in such trees are
apsara es
entreated to be propitious to a passing wedding procession (AV.
In the S'B (II, 6,
7
14,2 ).
I) the apsarases are described as engaged in dance,
song and play. Post Vedic texts even speak of mountains, both mythical
and
actual,
Atharva
bestow
as
favourite
resorts
of
these
two
claJ*es
Veda adds the traits that the apsarases
luck
at
play.
c
(AV.
causing mental derangement,
2,2 )
Bub
they
of
beings.
The
are fond of dice and
are
feared
especially
as
magic therefore being employed against them
(AV. 2, 35 etc.).
f
The
love
13,4,3)
is
by men
(op 10,
of
employed
the
apsarases,
not
95 9 ).
only
by
who
are
of
the gandharvas
the
great
beauty
(S'B
but occasionally even
A myth turning on such a union is related to at
70
least
one
individual
apsaras in
Vedic literature.
other apsarases are also mentioned.
are
alluded to as the
dwell in
waters
parents of
3
2,2 , 4,
(AV
37
Gandharva and
Yama and
12
).
water nymph is typical of marriage.
wedding
ceremony,
and Agni
(10,
wedlock,
is
85 40-1 ).
regarded
and
Yami.
names of
several
the
aqueous nymph,
(SB
10,
4
10 ).
They
The
union of gandharva with
the
He is
therefore connected with
the
and the unmarried maiden is said to belong to Soma
The gandharva Visvavasu,
as
a
gandharva's love of women
gandharvas
The
apsarases
rival
of
the
in the first days of
husband (ibid22 ), and
the
7 3).
The
is prominent inlater texts (HS. 3,
thus
preside . over
fertility
and
are
prayed
to by those who desire offspring (PB. 19,1 3 2 ).
Originally,
as
gandharva
thought
of
dwelling
Various
conjectures
is
in
have,
the
a
bright
waters
however,
celestial
with
been
Some regard the gandharvas as wind
his
some
times
spouse the
apsaras.
different
scholars.
representing the
rainbow,
made
spirits,
being,
by
or a genius of the moon, Soma, the rising sun or a cloud spirit^
Yama lives in
of
3).
the
apsarases
Thus
apsaras
the other world delighting himself in
(nymphs)
adorn the
who are
court of
connected
Yama and
with
the
Soma (AV.
company
4,
34,
Varuna before gitting
associated with Indrasabha.
Mut
311.1.3
GANDHARVAS « APSARASES
In the Rgveda the word gandharva occurs 20 times, but only thrice
in the plural,
'spirit'
air MV
heaven.
from which it is fair to deduce that the nature of the
was originally
the sky,
He
is
conceived as one.
He is the hi^gb
being of the
a measurer of space who stands erect on the
brought
into
relation
with
the
sun,
the
vault of
sun-bird,
the
71
sun-steed and Soma,
likened to the sun.
rainbow in a late hymn.
He is also connected with the
He is especially
connected with Soma,
whose
i
place
he
guards,
standing on
connected with waters,
of the waters
:
is further found
the
vault of
heaven.
Gandharva
is
also
Soma in the waters is said to be the gandharva
gandharva is the lover, of the apsaras.
The gandharva
in
is
the
marriage
ceremony:
the
bride
claimed by
him, and he is in the beginning of the marriage a rival of the husband.
Gandharva has a fragrant garment and is wind haired.
Keith
observes
that
in
the
later
Samhitas
the
account
of
the
gandharva is fuller, but not essentially different. They now form a class
of
^gmigods,
deities
as
their
Agni,
abode
Sun,
Fata Morgana are
is
Moon,
in
heaven,
they
wind and in the
connected with the
are
mentioned
with
sun
post-Vedic literature the
gandharvas.
Gandharvas kept Soma
l
for the Gods,
but allowing it to be stolen, were punished by exclusion
from drinking it.
Vac
who
in
gandharva
Gods got the Soma stolen from the gandharvas through
female
knowns
the earth arises
form
plants,
to him,
allured
the
gandharvas.
doubtless the Sojna,
In
Atharvaveda,
and that the odour of
probably an idea due to folk
etymology, with
gandha, odour.
In
the
Brahmanas,
apsaras and the
texts
and
rituals,
the
gandharvas is especially close !
connection
between the
the gandharva Urnayu
sits among the apsarases who swing themselves, and is beloved by them.
(PB,
young
12,
10).
maidens
apsarases.
(PB,
11,
19,
(SB,
In a rite, the priest can point to the young men and
present,
13,
3.2, SGS i.
when
4.3,
he
7.8).
means
They
to
are
indicate
besought
the gandharvas and
to
bestow
19,2) and in the Buddhist texts^ the being,
progeny
which
by the law of transmigrationj enters the womb at the time of conception,
is called a gandhabba.
72
For
wedded
the
immediately
after
the
marriage,
coupleare not allowed to consummate
represents
until
nights
he
the
is
completed.
Gandharva
formally
Visvavasu,
dismissed to
the
is placed
the ' highest
when
marriage,
between
region,
the
newly-
a staff who
them
and not
is the
marriage
(RV. 16, 85.22). A different and lower view of the gandharva
is also found in the Atharvaveda, where
theplant, goat's horn, is
used
to drive off the gandharva, who are regarded as shaggy with half animal
forms, and are said to seek to ruin women in the guis of an ape, a dog,
a hairy child or a fiend.
In
in
a
conjunction
Gandharvas
to
Buddhist
a
of
the
secondary
text,
Samyutta
with
the
Nikaya,
Pisacas
apsarases can
Rgveda.
Gandharvas
connection
with the
be
developed
association
embryo.
replace Gandharvas
from the
with marriage
According
to
leads
Keith,
Gandharva therefore is not in the secondary period of the Vedic religion
any
longer
essence
rising
a single
disparate
sun,
to
concept
ideas.
Bergaigne
To
:
he is
compounded
Kuhn he is a
Soma,
to Hopkins
cloud
a
of
different
spirit,
genius
and
to Wallis
in
the
of
the moon,
and
certain scholars like Manahardl
EH. Meyer
and
to Roth the rainbow.
To
von
Schroeder, he is
a wind spirit developed out
the
spirits of the dead as riding in the wind and
of the
conception of
passing therefore into
wind spirits.
The gandharva in his origin is a spirit of the heaven and is also
associated with waters of the sky and the earth due to their association
with the apsarases.
The long haired Muni or ascetic with magic powers, moves on the
path of the gandharva and the apsarases. (RV 10, 136.6).
73
In
the
Atharvaveda and the
Yajurveda
the
Apsarases with the waters is frequently expressed
waters,
bank
connection
5
of
the
they abide in the
they are often asked to depart from men to the river and the
of the
waters,
possibly
a
hint
at the
dangerous
quality
of the
nymphs.
In
the
Satapatha
Brahmanas
apsarases
appear
as
swimming
about
in a lake in the form of birds, ati, and the later literature often treats
them
as
water
spirits,
palace in the ocean.
in
forest lakes,
their
apsarases
cymbals
in
these
engaged
even
14,
are begged
2.9)
in
Varuna's
they dwell
according to Atharvaveda (4.
and their lutes
trees
wedding party (AV.
rivers,
They have a further field of activity,
in the banyan and the fig - tree,
where
in
(TS 3.
resound,
to
be
4.8.4).
The
37.4),
gandharva
propitious
to
a
and
passing
They are also said to be
in dance and song and play, but the Atharvaveda mentions some
sinister characteristics
: if they are fond of dice, and bestow good luck
in gambling,
also liable to
they
are
cause
madness,
and magic has to
be employed against them in this regard.
In the
post Vedic literature
besidestrees,
places
of
perhaps
from
derangement
Brahmana
even
mountains
them
or
that
at
period
least
by
the
are
the
their
Gandharva
mental
attains
excitement,
ph rase
lady who is inspired or demented.
'seized
by
his
which
a
habitation.
power
is
of
attested
Gandharva1
It
is
causing
for
used
the
for a
17
HI. 1.4 RISE OF THE INDIVIDUAL APSARAS IN VEDIG, EPIC AND
PURANIG LITERATURE :
Atharvaveda refers to three,
(AV.
and
16,
Ugrajit,
Ugrampasya and Rastrabhat apsaras
118 1.2) while Vajapeya Samhita, among others speaks of Urvasi
Menaka
(VS.
15,
15-19).
Even
the
Satapatha
Brahmana
(3,4,122)
74
specifically
talks
about
Sakuntala,
of the Bharatas (SB. 13,5,4
According
powerful
to
13
Natya
ancestress
of
the
) as well as Urvasi (SB. 2,5,1')
Sastra,
Brahma from his
the
the
mind,
drama and gave them over to
apsaras
were
who were skillful
Bharata in
They are mentioned as Natyalankara,
royal
family
18
created
by
the
in embellishing
performance.
(NS.
1,
the
46-47).
the embellished support to drama.
Their names in Natyasatra are as follows :
Manjukesi,
Sukesi,
Manorama,
Sudati,
Misrakesi,
Sundari,
Sulocana,
Vidagdha,
Saudamini,
Sumala,
Dovadatta,
Santati,
Devasena,
Sunanda, Sumukhi,
Magadhi, Arjuni, Sarala, Kerala, Dhrti, Nanda, Supuskala and Kalabha.
Rsi
Kasyapa
delivered
by
gandharvas.
Rambha,
his
is
the
wife
Alambusa,
Manorama,
father
Arishta.
of
They
Misrakesi,
Kesini,
the
Subahu,
celestial
nymphs
who
19
were
were thirteen apsarases and four
Vidyutparna,
Suraja,
Surata,
Tilottama,
Supriya,
Raksita,
while the
Gandharva are Haha, Huhu, Alibahu, Tumbura. 20
Another
theory
prevalent
in
the
Epic
-
Puranic
literature
apsarases and their origin is through the Samudra Manthana.
21
born out of the ocean.
Matsya Purana
gandharvas
and
22
about
They were
^
refers to the origin of apsaras along with rishis,
kinnaras
from a
common parentage, namely
Kashyapa and
Arista.
A significant verse (MP,
between the -holding
with
10.24) refers to a metaphorical comparison
of a suckling infant by the apsaras (dugdha vatsa)
the aid of gandharvas and the smell and fragrance which is the
inherent quality of the padmadala. Therefore the creation of the suckling
75
baby,
Chitraratha
refers
character,
where she
padmadala
gandha,
to
can be
the
the
nourishing
aspect
of
compared with the mother.
intention
is
to
underline
the
an
apsaras
By refering to
inseperability
of
the quality of nourishment.
Purana 23 > which
Vayu
origin
of
apsaras
immoveable
and
objects
apsaras.
most
of
as
(MP.
them
is
one
of
a
creation
of
along
with
groups
9.55).
Out
were
endowed
of
the
older
Brahma,
of
who
to
the
created moveable and
yaksas,
the many
with
Purana,, refers
pisachas,
gandharvas
similar groups of apsaras,
happiness,
benevolence,
protection,
fragrances and purity, (VP. 30.87).
Moreover,
who are
each group of apsaras
contains
called the beauty incarnates,
(VP.
14 boon bestowing ones,
69.53).
Vayu Purana clearly
mentions them as the Manasa Kanya of Brahma who emerge from his mental
creativity.
They
are
endowed
with
the
nature
of
energy,
force
and
created from Agni and Arista (VP. 69.54).
They are bright and resemble the long rays of the sun, they also
bear nourishment from moon and benevolence. (VP. 69.55).
They are born of yajna and are called subha, they also resemble
the sound of Rik and Sama recited before Agni.
and
to
nector and
them
as
known
born
of
as
the
amrita
wind,
(VP.
and
69.56).
calls
They are born of water
Vayu Purana also refers
them
as 9uddha,
while the
mundane ones are earth born, the lightenning born are called Richa, the
death
born
are
called
Bhairava
(VP.
69.57).
This
verse
is
very
significant because it characterises the diverse origins, names, characters
and
affiliations
of
apsaras.
Some
of
them
nourishing, while some of them are ferrocious.
are
boon
bestowing,
76
There
is
one amorous
group
of
apsaras who are
refered
to
as
beautifiers and they are fourteen in number. They are created to enhance
the
beauty
they
been
of
the Indra Sabha.
refered
to mean ways.
form
as
and
Dhanurupa,
Purana
prostitutes,
courtesans
nowhere
or enchantresses
and these celestial maidens are
Mahabhaga,
Tilottama.
The
circle of Brahma and Agni.
mentions
Vedavati,
as
69.58). Note that
The Surayana of Indra Sabha are bestowed
youth,
born in the
to
(VP.
a
metaphorical
known by
verse in
69.59).
which
is born from the alter of Brahma's
given
with beautiful
illustrious divine
(VP.
have
names such
beings
are
Further on,
Vayu
Apsara,
called
one
mental sphere bearing a
great bright halo (VP. 69.60).
The
and
next
beautiful.
golden
into
halo.
verse
This
(VP.
thousands,
refers
to
celestial
69.61).
the
daughter of
maiden
called
Varna
Sulochana
is
youthful
suffused with
These various groups of apsaras which range
some of them are the wives of the
while some are mothers.
who is
(VP.
69.62).
Oevas,
and Rishis
This verse throws much light on
the material aspect of the apsaras. It would be worth mentioning at this
stage that nowhere in the preceding verses do we come across the nature
of the apsaras as a seductress or an enchantress, the maligned position
to
which
and
is
the
very
they
were brought
classical
valuable
literature.
down
in the
Therefore the
in reviewing the
later periods of the Epics
data given
character of
in
Vayu
Purana
apsaras and also for
interpreting the sculptures, (to be elaborated in the relevant context).
Vayu Purana not only mentions the entire range of the imagery of
apsaras
names.
they
but
also
mentions
They are golden
perform
their
their
physical
complexioned,
chores,
their
orb
attributes
along
with
their
suffused with fragrance and when
intoxicates
the
onlooker
without
77
the aid of wine. Their touch alone enhances the ananda (VP. 69.63).
This
group
of
thirty
four
ipsaras
of
the
heaven
are
full
of
auspiciousness, water, and one of them, Surottama, is the specially loved
(69.4).
The
Mari chi,
Putrika,
Rambha,
Manorama,
Suvara,
Sudanta,
Surasa,
Sugandha,
Hamsapada,
list
of
them
are
Misrakesi,
Vidyutparna,
these are
the
Chasi,
Tilottama,
Subahu,
Adrika,
Purnita,
Hema,
Varnini,
Alambusa,
Laksana,
Supratisthita,
Saradvati,
Suvrata,
wellknown
apsaras
known
also
a
of
from
Devi,
Pundarika,
Subhuja
and
the
Munis
of
apsaras
such
as
the yore (VP. 69.5-8).
Brahmanda
Purana^
Misrakesi,
Chasi,
Tilottama,
Adrika,
Parnini,
Subahu.
The
list
Alambusa,
Laksmana,
Supriya,
has
Subhuja,
Ksetna,
Marichi,
Divya,
Pundarika,
list gives only
22
24
Suchibha,
Rambha,
Jagandha,
names and
Vidyutparna,
Manobhava,
Sudali,
Asita,
Surasa,
and
comparing it with the Vayu
Purana list the names appear more or less the same or analogous,
Sugandha,
These
Jagandha,
apsaras
beings^ who
They
the
are
71.243).
to
with
are
fair
to
- Sudali,
the
lower
complexioned
attendants
of them,
(Shaivya)
Putribha - Suchibha and
class
of
(Aruna)
and
of the
Devi
the group of apsaras
the
auspicious
harmless.
heavenly
(BP 3
(Lakshmi?)
consists of
so on.
7.5).
and out of
14 of them
(BP.3
Brahma asked Indra to send some chosen ones from his palace
become
apsaras
belong
the
1016
Sudanta
qg.^
the
with
Krishna
wives
Brahma
(as
of
(as
Vasudeva
(BP.3
Manasa Kanya)
Patnyartham
71.244).
This
reiterated by
Vasudevasya)
throws
connection
(NS.1.46-47)
light
on
acceptance into the pantheon, right from the early classical period.
of
and
their
«• o•
to s
r-4
•
C h aitra
Madhu o r
MONTH
>
«
■H
«
nJ
jb
to S3
y
s
CO
•
•
•
•
m
nO
•
Phalguna
<T>
Magha
•
T ilottam a
Rambha
D h rita ra sh tra
S u ry av ar ch chas
M ahapadma
S p h u rja
Kambala?
A svatara
S a ty a jit
N
rt
R ita jit
J50
A
V isvam itra
A rishtanem i
P u rv a c h itti
C hapa
A iravata
to
Vishnu
U rvasi
C h itrasen a
Vata
D hananjaya
-S
^
Jam adagni
S enajit
V isvachi
E lap u tra
Shankhapala V yaghra
E laputra?
Budha
P aurusheya
P ra h e ti
Heti
RAKSHASA
cd
Y ajnapeta
B rahm apeta
•H
T vasta
Urnayu
Sushena
G hratachi
Suruchi
U'
«
B hagakratu
Apuraa
Anumlocha
S rotas ?
Pram locha
Ugrasena
V isvavasu
K achanira
Vaduki
NAGA
R athasvana T akshaka
Sahajanya
Mena
P u n jik a sth a li R athaujas
AS.
)
P ausha
K asyapa
B haradvaja
Gautama
Bhrgu
V isvavasu
Huhu
Haha
Narada
4->
•H
Ansu
P arjan y a
Pushan
Asvin
A grahayana o r
00
K artik
V ivasvat
Angiras
V asish th a
A tri
Pulaha
R a th a k rit
K ratu sth ala
43
o
<d
44
4-*
<d
D5
B h ad rap atra
In d ra
Varuna
M itra
Aryam at
Tumburu
P u lasty a
D hatri
YAKSHA
APSARAS
42
u
cd
si
<d
P4
nsu
Nabhas o r
Sravana
Sukra o r
A shadha
Jy e sh th a
Suchi o r
'
GANDHARVA
RSI
ADITYA
V l$tw v poflfiNA\ PViryA AM iM
Monthly entourage of th e tw elve Aditya$ in th e w hole y ear
u
£
td
U
>
©
p-4
•
P-4
eg•
f—4
(
79
O£
Vishnu
m
the
form
seasonal
(which
support
Purana
of
mentions
the
changes
and
in
a
as
the
who are the
who dance to
attendants
the
major
male
gods.
temples
the medieval period is
Their
This iconography
Hindu pantheon in
representation
a logical
Surya
throws further light to
mainstream acceptance of apsaras in the
of
of
harbingers of various
spread happiness.
tabulated manner)
association
in
apsaras
twelve Adityas
is given
the
the
on
Nagara
continuation of the same
textual memory.
Parasara
points,
the
says
sun
that
between
to
traverse
has
degrees,
ascending and
Aditya,
Rsis,
raksasas
(one of each
the
in
descending.
heavenly
singers
extreme
a
His
and
year
one
and
hundred
southern
and
eighty
car is presided over by divine
nymphs,
being placed in
northern
yaksas,
serpents
it in every month).
(VP.2.
and
10.
1-2).
In
supported
this
manner,
by
the
Maitreya,
energy
the orb of the sun.
of
a
Visnu,
troop
of
seven
celestial
beings,
occupies during the several months
The sage celebrates his praise, and the gandharva
sings, the nymph dances before him, the raksasa attends upon his steps,
the
serpent
nunerous
harnesses
pigmy sages,
whole troop of seven,
distribution
of
his
steeds
and the
the Balakhilyas,
yaksa trims
ever surround
the
his
reins,
the
chariot.
The
attached to the sun's car, are the agents in the
cold,
heat
and
rain,
at
their
respective
seasons.
(VP .2.10. 19-20).
Bhagavat
churning
of
the
Purana 26
ocean,
reiterates
they
emerge
the
origin
after the
of
apsaras
kalpavriksa.
from
They
the
were
draped with beautiful robes and golden neckleces. These celestial nymphs
80
were
engaged
in
enticing
by
making
langourous
movements
and
amorous
glances. (BHP, 8, 8.7).
In another context Bhagavat Purana (12 8.16) says that Indra sent
Gandharvas,
of
apsaras,
Markandeya
amorous
to
disturb
character
portrayed
as
)<araa, Vasant,
of
agents
his
apsaras
of
fflalayanila and Itfada to the ashram
penance.
comes
allurement,
From the
to
a
the
above
fore.
stumbling
references the
They
block,
have
to
test
been
the
integrity of a sage or a mortal.
The beautiful women were created by Visnu with his yogic powers.
They
were beautifully
dressed and attended upon him.
Lakshmi-like form and
affected by
of Indra lost their lustre.
their
Looking at their
sweet smelly the
subordinates
Then with a polite smile Visnu said selecte
an appropriate one from among them and make them embelish the heavens
(BHP.11.4.12-13)
At
that
time
they
also
lauded
Urvasi
as
the
best
apsara.
Visnu Purana mentions in the famous incident related with Samudra
Manthan
jewel
how
there
kaustubha,
goddess
Lakshmi
arose the
sacred
who
Lakshmi arrived with
cow
went to
goddess
Varuni,
kamadhenu,
Hari
(VP.
coral
celestial
1,9,2-116).
tree parijata,
apsarases
and
the
the
When the goddess
vibrant beauty, the seers assembled there praised
her with the Srisukta and the gandharvas led by Visvavasu sdng before
her and the throngs of apsarases led by Ghrtaci, danced 27
One of the most fascinating imageries of apsaras found ever is in
Vamana Saromahatmya (10.33-66). When Vamana shed his dwarf-like form,
in
a twinkling of an eyef he manifested the form which consists of all
the gods,
his eyes were the moon and the sun,
the sky was his head
81
and the earth his feet,
guhyakas.
The
his toes we re the Pisacas and his fingers the
Visvedevas
the Sadhyas were in
his
were in his knees and the excellent deities,
skins.
In his nails appeared the
in the contours of his body, the apsarases
have
been
associated
with
aerial
form
28
yaksa
and
. This suggests that apsaras
which
is
contourless
and
can
change at will.
311.1.5
EMERGENCE OF THE MOST SIGNIFICANT APSARAS *
THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND INTERPRETATION s
URVASI :
Urvasi is
mentioned in
to have been born,
(5,
41
19
).
She
atmosphere,
is
Rgveda as
an apsara to whom Vasistha is said
(7, 33 11.12
* ). She is once invoked with the streams
also
traversing
described
space,
an
as
aqueous
expression
(apya)
which
is
as
filling
applied
the
to
the
5
celestial Gandharva (in 10, 139 ). She is said to have spent four autumns
among
mortals
(5^)
and
is
besought
to
return
(5^)^ the
Pururavas is granted with an entry into the heaven (5
of
this
(2,5,1)
hymn
find their setting
which
fills
in
in
a
details
partly
abstraction
of
continuous
based on
18
story
a
request
of
). Several verses
told
in the SB
misunder-standing of
the text of RV.
Urvasi
is
the
a subtle principle.
She is the
life
- principle in matter (pranagni) that requires a unit of ghrita (clarified
butter, literally) for its sustenence daily. Ghrita is a form of Agni who
in
turn
is
life-principle
nothingg
but
the
life -
principle.
It
is
then,
that is kept kindled by its daily share of sustenance
this
that
itreviews from various sources.
The
crux of it all is that energy is
sustained by energy and life
sustained by life-to continue for its full
82
span of existence in the human body or on the material plane for a period
of one hundred years.
symbolised by the
The measure of fuel which supports this life is
'one drop of ghrita'. The principle of Rajas measures
at life and such is the function of Urvashi as well (RV 10.95.17).
Urvashi
who
is
is
most
wooed by
clearly
a
immortal man
celestial nymph
(RV. 10.95.8).
or
*psaras
(amanushi)
She is the immoral lady
of the heavens whom mortal man follows and posseses but for a while!
Their
of
muhlflj covenant is that she would have him if her daily share
ghrita
saying :
wind
were
to
cease.
She
reveals
her
true
nature
in
the
Rgveda
'1 am like the first of the dawns; I move like the tempestuous
difficult
to
hold
or
capture;
I
flash
brilliant
as
the
falling
lightenings!
It
is
for
Puraravas,
the
unique,
separate
manifestation
of
prana
that Urvashi has descended upon the earth. She herself says :
1 The
birth
(RV. 10.95.11).
had
me
drink
from
earthly
milch
kine1.
According to the Rgveda Urvashi moves in a select band
of six other nymphs
to
made
making in all the seven sisters, which is analogous
the principle of the seven fold female powers or mothers of creation.
In
addition
to the
condition of
her daily portion of ghrita, there
were two other conditions that she imposed on the king Pururavas. That
her two lambs should ever be protected from any danger and that she
should
never
nakedness.
behold
the
form
of
the
king
in
a
veil over Pururavas is the physical body itself,
or
state
of
The lambs symbolise the firm principles of Prana and Apana
whose mingled energy is the lightening like Urvashi,
form
complete
corporeal
(RV. 10.189.2). The
the fabric of material
modality which is essential as an element of life in
83
)
matter, Urvasi and Pururavas separate as soon an life leaves the mortal
coil.
Urvasi is a mental creation of Narayana illustrated in a verse from
Visnudharmottara
of
Nara
and
(3,
35,
Narayana
in
2-4)
which
relates
a
tale
the
Badari
grove.
While
of
the
they
meditation
were
in
deep
concentration, Celestial damsels were sent by Indra to disturb the peace
of
asceticism.
Narayana
took
a
fresh
mango
leaf
and
with
its
juice
sketched on his thigh the most beautiful form of a nymph that at once
sallied
forth
from
it,
appropriately
styled
Urvasi.
She
put to
shame
30
everyone of them by her superior grace and perfection of charm.
The association of the
with
are
the
sap of a
going
to
creation of apsara from the thigh of a rsi
mango leaf presupposes a number of
draw
in
the
forth
coming
conclusious we
io
chapters
relating
eroticism,
asceticism, fertility and creativity,
3
?
RAMBHA :
Rambha in Purana is mentioned as an apsaras presiding over the month
of
Suci
33.18),
Maya.
(Bha
12
11.36)
where as in
In
(MP.
and
(Br.
136.11)
described to be well
Urja
P.3 6.28,
Rambha
versed in
was
(Bha
p.12
7.7)
she
created
dancing in
11.44,
is
lb
II
23.22,
IV
mentioned as wife of
by
Brahma^ while
(M 24.28 Va 69.6).
she
is
She is
supposed to have gone with the sun sometimes in (IB 126.23) while once
she was seized by the
Kasipu
(lb
161.75).
Surya during the
suras (IB 126.7, 133.9) in the
According
to
Vishnu
Purana,
months of Phalguna and Asadha
of Rambha is snake-like in the month of summer,
the sun
(va 52.6)
abha of Hiranya
Rambha
(2 10.18).
accompanies
The nature
when she accompanies
where as she along with other apsarases was cursed
by Astavakra (lb 5 38.73.77)
84
Ip the Puranic literature, Rambha is considered as one of the most
beautiful of
celestial
the ifcpsarases
women
wife Pradha.
above
are
Once
considered
Adi Parva of
parentage
etc.
along
were
Ravana
born
raped
with
to
be
Urvasi,
Rambha
All these
daughters of Kasyapaprajapati by
Mahabharata Ch.
Alambusa,
Tilottama etc.
65
mentions that from the
Misrakesi,
Vidyutparna,
and her lover Nalakubera
In.Ira once killed an asura chief Mayadhara,
Tilottama
cursed him.
and in the victory festival
Rambha danced before her preceptor, Tumburu.
ALAMBUSA
:
Alambusa
-
celestial
Alambusa
entices
maiden
sage
born
to
Kasyapa
Dadhichawhose
resulting in the birth of child,
by
semen
Sarasvata.
his
flows
Then
wife
into
Pradha.
the
river
crops fail in the land
resulting in a wide-spread famine. The brahmins flee the land and finally
Sarasvata
the
scriptures.
happens
the
resusci cates
to
Vidhuma,
who
when
Once
there,
be
had
dying
when
old
Indra
her
accompani ed
order
goes
to
robes
by
see
are
Brahma,
displaced
is
Indra,
reciting
passages
from
Alambusa
also
by
over- come
the
by
wind,
libido.
The mutual passion of Vidhuma and Alambusa displeases Indra and Brahma^
who
cursed
them
to
be
born
as
humans.Vidhuma
is
reborn
as
Sahasranika, an illustrious king of the Candra-mansa, Alambusa is reborn
as Mrigavati,
is invited by
to entertain,
earns
the
the daughter of king Krtavarma
Indra to heaven.
and Kalavati. Sahasranika
The apsara Tilottama is sent with him
but Sahasranika is immersed in the love of Mrigavati.
curse
of
Tilottama forhaving
scorned
her.
She curses
He
him
to suffer the proverbial fourteen years of seperation from his beloved.
The
child
born
of
the
union of
Sahasranika and Mrigavati is
who is instrumental in bringing them together eventually.
Udayana
85
Alambusa is said to have taken part in the birthday
celebrations
of Arjuna (Kaunteya). MB, Adi Parva-65.49.
T1LOTTAMA33;
One
of
the
more
prominent celestial
through his wife Pradha.
son of Manci.
maidens, was
born
to
Kasyapa
Kasyapa was the grandson of Brahma and the
Alambusa was one of the sisters of Tilottama (Adi parva
65). To cause a schism between the demons Sunda and Upasunda, Brahma
creates
her
baking
objects
(Adi parva
the
(Uttama) of
215).
both the
She is also
animate
said to have
and
been
inanimate
created from
small particles of diamond by Brahma (Anushasana Parva 141.1).
Shiva
sees
her
circumambulating
Brahma
wanting
to
behold
her
v
constantly,
he
quarters.
A
causes
similar
faces to
form
situation results
pointing towards
in
the
"many
all
eyed"
the
four
form of the
king of the Gods, Indra.
MENAKA34 s
A nymph of extraordinary beauty,
taking instructions from Indra^ enticed
and shook the tapas of many sages destroying their powers
Impregnated
whom
by
a
she deserted
girl as Pramadvara
gandharvu named
on
ariver
Visvavasu, she
bank.
bore
Sage Sthulakesa
who married king Ruru.
of
a
penance.
girl
brought
child
up this
Another source has it that
Menaka unites with Viswamitra to give birth to Sakuntala.
Menaka's gift
to Durvasa leads to the churning of the Ksirasagara, Menaka holds pride
of place
amongst the apsaras along with Urvasi,
Ghritaci and
present
occasion
at
Visvaci
Arjuna's
(Adi Parva
(Adi Parva 74.68).
janmotsava
122.64).
and
is
Purvacitti,
Sahajanya,
Menaka is said to have been
also
said
to have
sung
on
the
She was a dancer in the court of Kubera.
86
(Sabha Parva 10.10). Menaka gave a musical performance in Indra's court
to honour the archer, Arjuna (Vana Para 43.21).
III. 1.6
APSARA-DISAKUMARI INTER RELATIONSHIP
While
exploring
the
contents
of
the
regarding the role of apsaras in
Vedic
and
the
Puranic
Indian literary thought,
literature
one also felt
a need to look into the Agamic and Prakrit indexes as well, which could
throw more light on our subject.
The
concept
apsaras
of
the
as
we
aquatic
now
Indra and Varuna.
men.
They
are
understand
origin
intimate communion with Surya,
35
which
Marut,
is
a
resides
Kubera,
charming
in
the
Kama,
and
air
beautiful
and
shares
Yama and of course
Apsaras also appear on the earth to charm the mortal
bestowers
of
luck,
hapiness,
prosperity
As they adorn the sabha of Indra in the heaven,
and
progeny.
they also adorn the
earthly abode of the Gods on earth to add splendour and beauty to the
monument.
apsaras
four
As
conceived
(devanganas)
by
the
temple
architect
and
sculptor
these
adorn all the four walls of the temple facing the
cardinal and the four subsidiary directions.
An interesting concept
of disakumaris is found in Prakrit literature which indicates the presence
of presiding directional deities who
belonged to the Bhavana
Vai class
of Gods.
It
was
observed
that
many
of
the
disakumaris
shared
the
same
names as the apsaras viz. Alambusa, Missakesl, Vicita, Vijaya etc. These
disakumaris preside
They
are
56
of them
have
Each
the
of
over the four directions
in all and they are
a large retinue
four
quarters
and
have
of
the
Ruyyaga mountain.
called disakumarijnaha^ttariyas.
mount
Each
Ruyagga is their main abode.
four divisions
and each
division
8?
has
eight
peaks.
urdhvaloka.
participate
list
Their
in
gives
They
the
their
are
divided
character hasbeen
consecration
names.
Bhogamkara,
Bhogavai,
Pupphamata,
Animdia.
into
observed
ceremony
The
of
as
a
adholoka
sportive
disakumari
Bhogamalini,
They built
the
of Tirthankaras.
principal
Subhoga,
those
and
and
they
The following
of
adholoka
Toyadhara,
maternity hall for
are
Vicitta,
the
expectant
mother of a Tirthankara, while the disakumaris of the urdhvaloka purify
the maternity hall with artificial rain.
They
are known as Mehamkara,
Mehavai, Sumeha, Mehamalini, Suvaccha, Vaccamitta, Varisena, Balahaga.
The disakumaris of eastern
mother
holding
mirrors
Ananda,
Nandivadhana,
western
Ruyaga
Eganasa,
Navamiya,
Ruyyaga
are
is
placed
They
Vejayanti,
by
inhabited
Citta,
and
Hiri,
by
Misrakesi,
who
wave
Samahara,
Cittagutta,
Cittakanaga,
subquarters
region
the
Nanda,
Aparajita.
Puhai,
Pundaria,
the
The
Paumarai,
Sutara
ceremony
of
and
The
Supabudha,
Hasa,
southern
Josahara,
who raise pitchers in their
Some more are also known
Soyamani,
Rua,
Varuni,
chauries.
Supainna,
Vasundhara,
and hold lamps while
perform
and
Suradevi,
hands and all of them Sing auspicious songs.
viz.
are Nanduttara,
Jayanti
Iladevi,
Alambusa,
Ruy aga
Sesavai,
Vijaya,
hands.
Bhadda and Sita, who wave the fan. On the northern
Siridevi
Lacchimai,
their
adorned
Savvapabha,
is
in
Ruyaga mountain wait on the expectant
who
belong
to
the
Ruasia,Ruagavai of the middle
severing
the
naval
string
of
the
new
born child.
Does the above data not throw light on the similarity of functions
shared
by
apsaras
and
disakumaris?
the
aquatic
association
in
terms
of rain and other auspicious functions like holding lamps, fan, pitchers
and chauries.
Their association with maternity itself -ihows the fertility
88
connotation.
Would
devanganas
sculpted
the
dikpalas,
adorn
a
it
possible
and
to
connect
the
disakumaris with the
on the temple mandovara on all the
involved in
the temple
mountain
be
which
the
the
is
above mentioned actions.
conceived as a meru
devanganas
in
different
next to
The devanganas
prasada,
imageries
the form of
adorn
the
walls
of the mountain just like the disakumaries.
The
Agamic
Vijjukumari
tradition
mahattariya,
also
who
are
are supposed to hold lamps in
personified
of female
idea
has
the
a
concept
of
personification
their hands.
of
nature
from
forms on
temple
architecture?
Vijjukumara
of
and
light and they
Could we not extend this
iconography
to
physical
representation
Jaina and Hindu temples alike
have the representation of the devanganas on all the cardinal directions
signifying auspiciousness and removing evil.
original
idea
must
have
struck
the
It is
very likely that the
sculptors
in
the
context
of
disakumaris to evolve from the imagery their visual representation. This
phenomenon
concept
of
identifying
itself,
suggests
personification.
female
form
disakumari
Hence
the
in
a
devangana
step
further
the devanganas
natural
aswell.
the
concept
could
of
imagery
to
the
Their representation often
disakumari
previous
be taken
apsara,
the
as
of
embodiment in
surasundari,
overlaps
step
yaksi
and
their imageries
because symbolically and conceptually they share parallel thoughts. Thus
superficially
they
similiar, but
segments
of
when
in
reveal
religion,
the
goddesses.
probed
congruous
significance of
role
all look alike because ttheir visual representation is
more
carefully
symbolism.
This
one
brings
could
us
back to
the female form and the female potential
culture,
significance
life
of
and
philosophy.
protective
unravel
noticing the
energy and its
Buddhist
directional
parallel
sources
guardian
gods
also
and
89
The
four
quarters
of
a
Buddhist
stupa
are
protected
by
the
lokapalas known as kings or guardians of the four quarters, each quarter
being
represented
suggested
quarter
in
with
devakumaris.
of
Yama,
by
the
a
Atanatiya
the
aid
Virudhaka
seven
quadrant
Surya,
to
constellations
guard the western
the
railing.
Sutta,Dhritarastra
of
is
of
seven
is
According
to
guard
constellations
to
setting
the
eastern
and
eight
guard the southern quarter with the
and
eight
quarter with the
devakumaris,
aid of
Varuna,
Yirupaksa
seven
is
aid
to
constellations
and eight devakumaris, and kubera is to guard the northern quarter with
the aid of Manibhadra, eight constellations and eight devakumarisJ . It
is
difficult to verify if these directions have been strictly followed, says
Barua.
Here
the
devakumaris
are
mentioned
in
every
direction
accompanying the lokpalas of each direction. The above data tallies with
disakumaris
quoted
by
us
in
the
Jaina
context.
that their names and functions are not mentioned,
The
only
difference is
but conceptually their
presence as protective spirits is commonly shared in Jaina and Buddhist
iconography and art.
On a
devatas and yaksis for the
on sculpture.
stupa at Barhut they appear in
the form of
first time. For a discussion see the
chapter
90
SECTION - II
In
this
section
one
tries
to
aquaint
with
the
literary
sources
dealing with the role of dance in social, literary, aesthetic and religious
spheres.
Tracing
its
development through
the
Vedic to
classical kavya
and Natya literature one can realise that dance was integral to life and
it had been
viewed
similies
metaphors.
of
the
learn
and
apsaras,
in different dimensions including poetic imagery of
Dance
devadasi
it as one of
and
was
the
most
the
royal
significant accomplishment
women
the sixty four arts.
But
who
were
dance is
expected to
also a mode of
worship dedicating one's body and soul in honour of the almighty.
The
tradition of temple dancers and temple dancing originated as a continuous
process
of
thought
and
living.
This
also
gives
a
thematic
background
to our dace forms which are essentially religious in origin.
One is interested in the poetic imagery of dante and its comparison
with the
In
this
beauty
section
of the nature and the
an
attempt
has
been
beauty
made
of the
to
charming woman.
realise
the
qualitative
similies of nature and the feminine beauty, dance and nature's play and
the
various
social
events
in
which
dance
is
the
integral
mode
of
attention
of
celebration.
m.II.l THE CONCEPT OF FEMININE BEAUTY
Sensual
poets,
psyche,
charm
of
writers^ painters
a
woman
has
always
engaged
the
and sculptors from times immemorial.
woman is not only a mother, wife, sister,
In
Indian
courtesan or goddess,
her representation in visual form is always charming and beautiful. So,
the image and the imagination both result into a beautiful form of woman.
91
And
when
it
comes
to
depicting an
the epitome of beauty and ultimate
apsara,
yaksini
or
a
surasundari,
charm of allurement, the artist puts
his soul into the creation of her ideal form. The ideal of Indian feminine
beauty37
can be traced from Mauryan times and the most bewitching are
-ffumt' ScmcM/
the
Didarganj
yaksi
at
Patna
Museurn»
salabhanjikayand
Mathura.
Another glorified yaksi of the medieval period is the Gyaraspur vrksaka
of
Gwalior
Museum.
The
Andhra,
Kushana
and
Gupta
period
yaksis,
nadidevatas and other deities have always been recognised for the beauty
of
their
supple
bodies,
youthfulness
and
accentuated
sensualness.
The
conventions of drapery, mekhala, ekavali, hair-do and ornamentation more
or
less
augment
resemblances
among
them.
These
provides
a
concrete
evidence to artist's image of an ideal Indian woman, may she be a duti,
attendants,
Mayadevi,
Lakshmi,
apsaras,
devangaoa,
vrksaka,
yaksi,
a queen or Durga.
The
most
well
known
descriptions
in
Indian
literature - Sanskrit
and Prakrit alike, evoke the imagery of the beautiful female body using
similies and metaphors from nature to denote different parts of the body,
their
actions
and
moods.
Thus
between nature's forms and
and
a
pervades
alankarikas
would
the
say,
that
world
the
and
writers
from
exists
of
best
shringara and the most delicate Poets
illustrates
human form,
symbiotic relationship
imagination
this
art
mood
the
implicit parallelism
nature's mood and human mood
between the two.
as
well,
for
and
as
illustrating
This poetic
dhvanikar^ or
is
vipralambha
symbol of appreciation is woman.
Hala,
Asvaghosa,
Kalidasa to
Rajasekhara
and Jaydeva, have sung the glory of the feminine beauty. Although natures
forms are often cited as comparable example^ qualifying feminine beauty,
the
woman's
body
bears
all
those
qualities
in
totality
which
in
the
92
nature
are
found
in
part.
As
yaksa in
Meghadutam
recalls
the
beauty
i
of his beloved wife in the nature around, him on the Ramagiri hill, 'In
:
i
the syama vines I see your body, your glance in the gazelle's started
eye,
the
cool radiance of your face in the
moon,
your tresses in the
peacock's luxuriant train, your eyebrow's graceful curve in the stream's
small waves,
but alas!
0 cruel one,
I see not your whole likeness any
where in any one thing (Meghadutam, 103)
111.11.2
38
SIMILIES ON DANCE IN LITERATURE
From the Buddhacarita of Asvaghosa we find that the
ornamented with golden bands and played by women
of the hands'
(nari karagrabhira hataih).
mrdanga was
' with the foreparts
The ladies of the palace hold
different musical instruments in their laps which the Bodhisattva watches
and then
has
been
walks
out
of
compared
the
with
palace.
the
In another instance
sound
of
the
thundering
Buddha's voice
clouds,
(ghana
dundubhi VIII.53)
i
The
ladies
(lalitabhava)
cast on
of
the
palace
are
endowed
while their eyebrows are arched
Boddhesattva half
shut
with
alluring
(bhmvancitaih)
half stolen glances
(11.31).
movements
and they
The terms
lalita and ancita occur in Natyasastra for demonstrating amorousness.
Kalidasa
Parvati,
in
kumarasambhava
mentions
the
sukumara
dance
of
the graceful abhinaya of the trees, the dance of the peacocks,
as also the grotesque dance of Bhrngi om the occasion of the marriage
l
of Siva and Parvati
(IX.48).
!
The graceful dancing of the earlier cantos is replaced by the dance
I
of swords and men in the
context of Kartikeya's fight with Tarakasura
93
(XVI.48.49).
the
The
battle field
swords
covered
(XVI. 15)
and
with
soon
blood
there I is
dance
like
lightening
in
nothing
but
the dance of
headless trunks of soldiers which the spirits of the soldiers watch froi»
above
39
Meghaduta
on
nature's
these
two
and
beauty
Rtusamhara
are
more
imaginative
and
resplendant with rhythm and grace
kavyas.
The
peacocks
dance
the
similies
are numerous in
to the rhythm of the thunder,
trees dance to the rhythm of the personified wind, while the thunderous
clouds
provide
percussion
accompaniment
like
rauraja
to
the
sangita in
Alkapuri.
The
netra
woman
and
messenger
of
through
(Purva
Alakapuri
their
have
graceful
Megha 29).
large
eyes
movements
and
they
with
allure
their
the
cakita
clou4
-
The bhru-vilasa is the amorous movements
of the eyebrows which attract the attention!of the cloud* Kalidasa notices
the graceful dance, like movement of such a delicate part of the human
body namely bhrukuti and kataksa.
In
of
the
Rtusamhara
river
garlanded by
flanks
of
rows
An
DANCE
banks,
AND
interesting
rivers
DRAMA
by
men
glittering
glide
corpus
of
and
like
with
young
movement
darting
about,
broad
curving
women
rapt
in
j
;
KRIDA
AND
information | from
'love sports'1 or
women
gliding
minnows
margins,
softly
41
TYPES
the miterial on the so-called
performed
by
the! gracefully
of white birds on the
love1. (Rtusamhara, III, Antumn, 3)
III.II. 3
'
observes
%
‘Pretily
girdled
as
sandy
Kalidasa
40
together
or
COURTLY
Sanskrit
literature
'desi kridas'
by
all
PAST-TIME
is
which are
women
groups.
i
Representation of such instances are found in painting and sculpture from
94
time to time in all the regions of India. What is most significant to note
here is that not only Kavya and Natya literature mention them, but even
shastrik
literature
references
are
mentions
met
with.
them. In
This
Prakrit
signifies
Sanskrit and Prakrit and between
'margi!
literature
,the
cross
and
'desi'
also
such
currents
between
literature, and the
fluid nature of the themes like ashokadohada and kanduka krida.
of
these
and
desi
kridas
Brihatkatha
are
mentioned
Manjari
in
Katha
(folk- tales),
Saritsagara,
Hala's
Some
Brihatkatha
Gahasattasai
(Prakrit),
Bhoja's Sringara Prakasa and Kamasutra of Vatsyayan (Shastra) and Bana's
Harsacarita and Rajashekhar's Viddha-Salabhanjika (Natya)
A
light
world.
This
on
is
the
an
nature
aspect
of the
of
the
kridas opens
Indian
up
culture
a
totally
committed
secular
to
a
gay
abandon and a celebration of the youth. Bhoja mentions them in Sarasvati
kanthabharana and the Sringara Prakasa^ under the different headings of
seasonal
festivals^ while
Vatsyayan
calls
them
as
uddipana
vibhavas,
nourishing love.
References
also
as
to
udyanakrida
mandirodyana
or
are
ample,, (BKSS,
bhavanodyana
in
which
11.24,
the
IV.55)
king
known
ordered
his
ministers to arrange for an apana bhumi, a pavilion for enjoying drinks.
Royal
enjoyments
Pushpa
and
krida
in
the
Saliia
Chandananulepana,
palace
krida,
Nritya,
garden
Vastra
Sangita,
consisted
bharana
of
several
Mandava,
Kesa
items
:
Samskara
Rahovilasa^ Panagoshthi, to
which
references are found in the kavyas and the puranas. 42
i
The
drinking
sessions
were
‘all-women’ theatre (BKSS, II 3G-32)43
punctuated
'
!
by
dance
and
music
and
95
There
are
a
number
of
kridas
mentioned
in
Sringara
Prakasa,
t
Kamasutra and its
seasons in
commentaries,
which they are
and
BhavaJ Prakasa,
which refer to the
!
celebrated.
Bhoja's Sringara Prakasa written
I
around
are
1050 A.D.^ has
devoid
of
mahakavyas
any
and
chapters related
religious
natakas
to; celebrations
significance.
which
supply
to
love,
which
Sanskrit literature is full of
references to love festivals like
i
kaumudi mahotsava,
Sastra,
a large number of these are mentioned by Vatsyayana, and Bhoja
also mentions
between
them
in
Kamasutra
enumerates
kridas
Prakasha,
VI,
pg
regional
Jaya
group
(III, 6.7).
by
Saras vati
and
twenty
amplifications
some
carcari dance etc. As an anga of the subject of kama
Kanthabharana,
Mangala's
sports
or
tika.
137,
them
138).
varieties
from
comparative study
Kamasutra
kridas,
Bhoja,
according to the
Sahitya
also,
44
sambhuya
Saradatanaya borrows
classifying
as a
(1,
and
and
six
some
Virabhadra's
42)
desi
makes
slight
seasons
(Bhava
Mimamsa follows Bhoja,
while
IV,
and gives
Kandarpa
Cudamani
follows Jayamangala in his description of these sports.
i
Under
the
Astamicandra,
season
of
Sakrarca,
vasant
the
Vasantotsava,
Asokavihara and Salmalimula Khelana.
Sakrarca
or
following
Indrotsava
is
sports
, Madanotsava,
are
known
:
Vakulavihara,
i
a
festival
in
honour ,of
Indra,
the
antiquity of which goes back to Rgvedic times. References to Indradvaja
festival
can be
Raghuvamsa,
found
Buddha
carita
from Ramayana, ' Mahabharata,
Mrcchakatika,
and
Manimekhalai.
also
Silappadikaram
and
i
The
origin
of Sanskrit
drama
can
also
bej traced
to
this festival and
in the Purvaranga this is absorbed in the form of a ritual. The Inara's
i
banner
is
represented by
sword fights
and
a
wrestling.
high
pole
Samarangana
which
in
installed,
Sutradhara mentions
followed
by
manufacture
96
of divine staff, its erection and festival.
whole night around it,
141-42, 191)
calls
in the
it
in Chaitra
Suvasantaka, it
occurs
Jayamangala
characterised
XVII). People keep awake
sing and dance and make merry
!
Vasantotsava is mentioned
blossom.
(SS,
mentions
opening of
that
(SS,
XVII,
104,
Ratnavali while Bhoja
when
the
.both
mango
these
tree is in
festivals
are
by music and dance.
Vasantotsava
Kamadeva is
is
also
worshipped
called
by
Madanotsava
ladies,
on the
in
which
caitra
sita
Bhoja
says
caturdasi,
(KS)
wearing saffron coloured dresses. 45
They also play ekasalmali by decking themselves with flower,
and
|
playing the blind man's buff.
Raghavan
gives a
number
of references toAsokottanisika and the
use of these references to interpret the mjotif of 3alabhanjika in Indian
sculpture. When beautiful damsels kick the jasoka tree with their delicate
feet,
decked
with
alaktaka
paint
and tinkling
anklets,
the tree
burst
into blossom and the damsels deck themselves with fresh asoka flowers.
The
act of asoka dohada is mentioned by ■ Ralidasa in
Malavikagnimitra,
the only place in a nataka where it integrates with the plot of the play.
!
It is
believed
that the
tree
requires
upa! caras from the ladies
before
i
that
gives
embracing
forth
and
flowers,
so on.
The
spitting of
chewed
asokottamsika
Saradatanaya .
or
betel,
Bhoja
half
drunk
wine,
is asoka vihara for
i
i
i
Another
krida
is the
cutabhanjika,
plucking
of fresh
clusters
of
I
mango
blossoms,
offering
as
arrows
for ; cupid
and
bedecking
them.
97
Sakuntala also mentions this krida in Act VI,
as
sahakara
bhanjika
where as Sringara Prakasa
mentions
this
kridas).
Jayamangala
blossoms.
Raghavan observes that these kinds of amusements for couples
describes
among
it
as
group
eating
sports
mangoes
(sambhuya
and
not
the
1
and ladies
in
the
gardens
were mentioned as early as
Panini's times.
I
They
have
also
been
found
apt forthe1 interpretation
sculptural motif of salabhanjika and other such images.
of
the
common
46
Vasantj a season also calls for a play with water filled in syringes
and spraying on each other.
jrugakrida
It is known as udakasvedika by Bhoja and
by ' Jayamangala.
The last
two sports
namely
cutalatika
or
navalatika and pancalanuyana, will be discussed in Chapter IV in support
of the sculptures illustratingthesekridas.
The
vinodas
udyanayatra,
mentioned
puspavacayika,
'
forgrisma,
summer,
navamrakhadika,
are
salilakrida,
cutamadhavi,
navasamagama,
i
etc.
!
i '
The
the
at
varsa
enjoying
of
hearing
vinodas
are
sikhandilasya
peacocks dance and the
navambuda
by
Bhoja
blossoms
and
after
and
that
Vatsyayana.
a
mock
The, couples
fight
is also performed.47
abhyudgama,
welcoming of first rain
their rumbling noise. The game of kadamba
mentioned
dolovilasa
and
is: enacted.
!
;
clouds
yuddha is also
search
for
In
kadamba
sravana
month
The navapatrika of sarad is mentioned by Bhoja in which men and
women
sit
fictitious
which
krida,
on
the
marriages.
men
and
ground
making
MrMAlakhadika
women
candrikatalana,
eat
the
merry;,
is
lotus
4,
1
game
stalks.
hamsalilavalokana,
1
eat,
drink
and
which
is a
water
Other
celebrate
sport
in
sports
are kanduka
balikrida,
yaksaratri,
98
saritpulinakeli,
according
krida very elaborately
employed
in
prasrta,
mentions
this
kanduka
Vindhyavasini.
curanapada,
gomutrika
on
king
to
etc.
mandalabhramana,
Dasakumara
kanduka
of
every
commentary
month
quotes
a
panca
carita,
Tungadhanva named
krtika
The
refers
pointing to the dance form and the various charis
daughter of
nrtya
Saradatanaya. ; Raghavan
dance,
gatamarga,
the
to
Chapter
Kandukavati,
to
on
this
VI,
who plays
propitiate
treatise
bindu
goddess
dance
game
called kanduka tantra.
Yaksaratri is
are
celebrated
swing
games
by
and
dipavali,
and kaumudi jagarana in the month of asvin
keeping
others
in
awake
the
whole
moon
night,
light.
and
Some
enjoying
more
gambling,
sports
like
cock
i
and
ram
eating
fights,
freshly
sunbathing,
roasted
drinking,
pulses
in
the
and
teaching
fields
with
pets
raw
to
speak,while
sugar-cane
etc.,
are among the known ones.
HI.3.1
i
f
PRATIHARIS/FEMALE ATTENDANTS,
EPIGRAPHY AND LITERATURE.,
KANCHUKINS
AND
DANCING
GIRLS
FROM
I
It
is
an
were,
dedicated
(more
so
well)
all
in
accepted
to
south
through
the
fact
major
India
the
but
to the
of
women
many
to
kinds
such
the
of
families.
historicity
of
also
to
girls
(Saiva,
a
period.
(among
Vaisnava,
notable
Indian
extent
dancing
and
the
Sanskrit literature
certain
them
in
the
supply
social/religious/cultural
can
of
India
north
as
furnish
the proficiency
socio-economic
can
devadasis)
Sakta)
epigraphy
activity of dancing in temples,
at
Even
dancing
temples
medieval
authentic reference
some
that
condition
of
enough evidences
institutions
Devadasi, Kanchukin and Pratihari system in the medieval period.
like
99
The following references are collected from secondary sources.
I
The Harsanatha Temple at Sikar was presented with many maidens,
so mentions the
Harsanath temple inscription of the time of Vigraharaja,
I
II. (V.1030).48
:
An inscription found from Kalanjar of !the Chandella period mentions
that
MahaprAtihara
the
Sangram
Singh
had
a
court
dancer
Padmavati. Many dance performances were organised in Nilakantha
by
name
temple
i
during this time.
49
j
A fragmentary
the
arrangements
copperplate inscription of Alhana (VS.
made
by
various
rulers
for
courtesans
1205)
and
records
musicians
attached to the temples of Ghandalesvara and Tripurusadeva. The debate
broke out when
the
royal
Raja Jojaladeva of Nadol ordered the courtesans to join
processions
I
in order to punish learned people,
old men
and
50
others ..who tried to interfere with this time-Jhonoured custom.
i
1
While checking the medieval cultural history, an interesting debate
between
the
royal
class
patronizing
the institution
i
the resenting Jaina monks has come to light.'
of
prostitution
and
I
Among the puritanic Jaina monks,
against
the above
practice,
Haribhadra Suri raised his voice
including the Kharataras and
others which
i
led rulers like
Jojaliadeva to issue their edicts.
Haribhadra1 s pupil,
Uddyotana Suri wrote an allegorical story named Upamitibhava prapanchakatha^to carry the
message in his own way! to the people.
51
1
It
appears that the participation of 'monks in dance
and music as
part of
the temple worship was a normal practice against
which certain
100
Jaina
monks
raised
their
voice.
As
part
of
Jinavallabha1 s
anti-chaityavasa propaganda, Sangha pattakaj is a specimen of his writingwhich
criticizes those
sadhus
whose
life
was interfered by singing of
musicians, dancing of courtesans (in front of i the deity) sounding of drums
52
and crowding of spectators wearing garlands. >
1
Conversely, courtesans added magnificence to the glory of the ruler
and
were
a
major
source
inscriptions of V.5. 1306,
of
income
V.S. 1334,
to
V.S. 1345
the
state.
The
Bhinnamal
convey elaborate arrangements
I
which
were
made
for
the
1 pramada-kula1
pf
the
Sun
temple
of Jagat
Swamin,
From Moharajaparajaya it is learnt that Kumarapala Chaulukya
tried
eradicate
to
many
social
evils
from
his
dominions,
but
for
prostitution he says that nothing is lost or gained from its removal or
continuance.
54
•
According to Kavya Kalpalata Vrtti,
there
is
attended
a
general
upon
by
Priyadarsika of
rule
cited
which
the
ruler
should
always
be
!
55
royal court.
Kadambari and
!I
Harsa mention that the courtesans bathed the
courtesans
Bana and
in
I
a I Jaina work of 13th century,
in
the
ruler and even accompanied him to the temple and danced in front of
his favourite deity.
56
1
1
i
Jinadatta
propagated
his
were
ideas.
Suri,
the
His
the
pupil
Kharatara
Charchari,
of
gaccha,
Jinavallabha
adopted
(d.1167
Apabhramsa
to
V.S.)
who
popularize
Upadesarasayana :and Kala Svarupa -
Kulaka,
set to musicand sung while dancing. 57 j
I
Some
more epigraph!cal
references
may be looked into which are
1
from north India, contemporaneous to Bhoja Paramara1 s times.
101
Sudi Inscription of the reign of Somesvara I dated AD. 1054, refers
to
dancing
girls
as
members
of
the OTganising
staff
of
the
temple.
58
Kalhana refers to the devadasis in the temples of Kashmir and Merutunga
in the Kumara Vihara in Somanath Pattarfa.
Alberuni
observed
that
the
59
kings
maintained
the
institution
of
devadasis for the benefit of their revenue even in the teeth of opposition
by
Brahmin
attraction
priests.
to their
made
subjects
out of the revenue
This
Kings
for
these
dancing
meeting the
girls
as
a
source
expenditure
of the
in
is
armies
derived therefrom.^
practice
of
maintaining
devadasis
temples
Kautilya, but there was no attempt before 11th
.
as
old
view
10th
It
to adding
cewtoM*
to
the
attraction of
inscription from Rajasthan
he
had
with
particular religious festival.
A
confirms the statement of Alberuni.
records the instructions of a chieftain
arrangement that
as
to pool together
all dancing girls, attached to all the temples of particular region,
a
of
to his descendants that if the
made about the
services of the dancing girls
at different temples was interfered withby ascetics and brahmins, they
should at once be stopped.^
Merutunga
in
Prabandha
Chintamani
refers
Gujarat, who pleased the Paramara king Bhoja.
to
hetaera
poetess
of
He also tells the story
of Chaula Devi of Pattana, a courtesan who remained faithful to her lover
during his
of
this
palaces
long absence.
Chauladevi. 63
of
the
kings.
The great grandfather of Kumarapala was born
Dancer^ thronged
64
The
above
the
data
temple
has
courtyards
been
supported
and
the
by
the
inscription^ from different parts of India. In the plan of a palace, Bhoja
included,
interalia the
construction of a dancing hall,
a theatre and a
102
gymnasium. 6 5
In
the
same
chapter a
reference
to
music
hall
has
also
been given. The Sangita Makaranda, attributed to Narada (perhaps belongs
to
the
11th
century
A.D.)
which
deals
with
music
and
dance
in
two
seperate sections 66 The well-known - architectural text - Aparajita Prccha
|
67
as well describes various kinds of dances with their main characters.
The
of
kuvalayamala
Avanti
morchals
were
of Udyotanasuri
attached
vilasinis
and held umbrellas.
describes that to the temples
who
In one
gave
musical
concerts,
instance the author describes the
scene of heaven on earth in
which some vilasinis hold pitchers,
chauris,
some
some
mirrors
moved
etc.
while
langurously
activities of the
and
plied
apsaras
danced.
held
This
vinas,
fans,
mridangas,
implies
that
and
heavenly
court were recreated in the temple court yards where
the vilasini - devadasis impersonated the roles of the heavenly apsaras.
In
Ruttanimattam^,
livelihood
from
record ed
that
services.
They
663
devadasis are mentioned who
the , temple.
the
In
devadasis
performed
only
Samayamatrika
received
before
70
grains
the
of
in
God.
carved their
Rsemendra
exchange
it
for
Sringaramanjari
71
is
their
sites
an example of a beautiful courtesan known as lavanya sundari v/ho danced
only before the God in the temple of Bhaillasvami at Vidisa. The above
i
»
reference have been quoted from Moti Chandra's study on Courtesans who
interpretes the
devadasis as some kind of courtesans on the basis of
their proficiency in
music,
dance and the other 64 arts.
In my view,
a devadasis m not on par with ganika and their functions are targeted
at two different kinds-
of andiences.
This distinction on
microlevel is
rendered insignificant by the esteemed scholar 72
It
was
interesting
to
observe
that
the
sword
of
the
king
was
103
generally
vahini.
held by
She
a female attendant who
appears to be
the Jataka stories
the female
would be
called a khadga -
counterpart of the asiggahaka of
73
;
Probably because
she was
closely akin to the
pratihari,
both in
her physical features and in the nature of her job, she has not received
much attention.
of - the
king's
The characters employed in the roles of keeping charge
sword or bow and addressed as favanis in the Sanskrit
dramas, as mentioned above,
are the same as the khadga vahinis. From
Kautilya's
to
specific reference
them
we
may
conclude
that they were
or of Amazonian origin. 74
Greek
Bana's
royal courts,
works
are
full
of
descriptions
of
personal
attendants
of which Kadambari has an instance of King Sudraka.
of
Bana
says that when King Sudraka after lunch reappeared in the audience hall,
he was sitting with his feet resting on the foot stool, which were gently
massaged
by
his
sword
bearer.
She
was
doing
this
with her delicate
hands after placing, for the time being, the long thin sword on her lap.
She
that
herself was seated on the floor of the audience hall.
besides
to the
dasi
the
ilratihari it was the khadga - vahini who was
king and followed
shampooing
carefully,
This shows
his
him everywhere
feet
as
well.
In
and attended upon
fact
if
one
there are numerous sculptures from' iVathura,
begins
closer
him as
a
to
notice
Amaravati,
Ajanta
and other early sites depicting the khadgadhari. An elaborate discussion
will be followed in Chapter
The
Bnhat
Katha
VL
Sloka
Samgraha
of
written
is a summary of the
m
chaste Sanskrit sometime
in
Katha of Gunadhya.
collection of verses is divided into lambhakas
This
Gupta period,
Buddhaswamin, 75
Brihat
] 04
which
revolve
around
the
contracts
a
of
kind.
The
with
drinks,
new
marital
fact
that
alliance.
the
hero
Sanudasa in
each
sarga
It throws lights on female attendants
t
this
satisfied
female
attendents
ornaments,
of the
clothes,
These were the same as antahpurika,
royal
palace were
garlands
and
sweet
kept
words.
chief of them were known as
z^*#varika or vetragrahini (BKSS II 19).
The
and
art
rakes formed part of the royal entourage to which literature
provide
Sastra, i.e.
the
proofs.
the lore of Rakes
courtesan's
education.
enormous
quarters
There
was
The
Brihat
Katha
refers
to
Vita
-
(or ways of Rakes?) which the girls of
were
expected to
attached
to
their
learn
as part
quarters,
a
of
shrine
their
of
god
t
Kamadeva,
to
him.
m which the deity was worshipped by offering a pradakshina
In
appearance
X.
of
a
76-7,
royal
the
actual
palace
in
Vesaj is
which
(yoshidvashavarapraya) were employed.
Besides
the
courtesans'
described as
a
number
of
having
the
hermaphrodites
\
quarters,
mention
of
Prekshaka Kula and
I
Ranganganam
i.e.
auditorium
nrityacharyas
are
Kanchukin
chamberlain
or
said
to
dress
attendants
of
a
stage , are
have
is
Kautilya mentions his job,
the
and
the
come
found
and
attendant
on
done
of the
which
the
namaskara
women's
(XI. 3).
apartment.
the designation and also the uniform,
kanchuki.
The
Varshavaras
(eunuchs)
two
and
viz.
other
of the abhyya —garika are also mentioned in the Artha Sastra.
It describes the kanchuki as the chief, kanchukosnist, because they were
all wearing kan^chuka (a close jacket), and usnisa (the turban). Kanchuki
would generally accompany the king every where,
and being the king's
attendant,
palace
would
remain
in
the
fore-front
of
the
activities.
It
is said that while Sita was being brought out of the palace of Ravana,
105
the attendants of the inner apartment,
holding
cane
palanquin.
Sastra,
-
nL
sticks
While
offers
in
dwelling
their
wearing kanchuka and usnisa and
hands,
cleared
i
on
abhy^-jgarikas,
her
way
Bharata,
details regarding not only the kanchuki,
in
to
his
the
Natya
but also other
i
attendants of the harem. Kanchuki knows* the nature of the women of the
i
harem
and
can
keep
them
under
his
control. In one MSS of the
I
77
kanchuki is described as an expert in the art of controlling women.
NS,
Besides this, there is a, verse which is generally quoted by most
of
the
traditional
commentators
on
Kalidasa,
ascribing
it
to
Bharata,
which explains the prominent features of a kanchuki more directly and
78
!
in detail also.
Kanchuki appears prominently in the plays of KalidasaLatavya is
the
kanchuki of Vikramorvasiyam who finds it difficult to
handle the women of the harem in his advancing age.
The reference to
vetra - yasti in Sakuntalam, concerns the old kanchuki, whose cane staff
which was once the mark of his office in the female appartment of the
palace,
has
now
become
in
course of time an indispensable object of
support for him in his tottering old age. i
In the Kadambari,
day
celebrations
abandon
with
of
which
Bana takes up the gay description of the birth
Chandrapida
the
ladies
celebrating the happy occasion.
spare
even
playing
the
jokes
old
upon
and
the
the
and
of
Vaisampayana
describing
the’ harem and their
the
maids,
gay
were
i
Bana says that their prank, s did not
!
^
f
sober lopking chamberlains. They were
multitude
(kadambaka)
of
aging
chamberlains,
i
by tying the silken upper garments round their necks and drag ing them.
J
\
The term vidambi could be meant for teasing, joking and pranking.
The reference to playing of joke by tying the upper garment (uttariya)
106
is interesting,
from
Pali
joy.
A
because even V.S.Agrawala refers to a term,
which
means
the
waving
chelukkhepa,
of the upper garment as
similar reference is made by
Hajrsa in Nagananda,
atakcn of
whero a Vita
i
pulls away a scari thown round the neck oi the court jester, who „>ants
to
run
away.
sauvidala,
Amarakosa
sthapatya
commentators
of
and
Amara,
mentions
kanchuki
sauvida.
These
tend
to
mean
one
and
terms
and
his
as
the
synomyms,
explained
same
like
by
thing,
the
namely
that a kanchuki was to look after the ladies of the harem.
Bana
in
Kadambari
charge of the
mentions
bed-chamber
mahattarilca,
the
called kulavardhana.
female official,
She is
called efficient
by long experience in the service of the royal household.
well skilled in all the auspicious rites.
79
Indumati,
called
Sunanda,
because
the
She is even
Tiwajri differs with Agrawala
in his comparison of mahattarika of queen Vilasavati,
of
in­
lady
with the pratihari
attendant
of
the
royal
bed-chamber and an ordinary female doorkeeper are al together different.
In
the
Vaijayanti
Kosa of
Yadavaprakasa it is described that mahattri
is an old lady—attendant of the harem who was well versed in all the
....
80
auspicious rites.
III.4.1
REFERENCES FROM ARCHITECTURAL TEXTS FOR DEVANGANA PLACEMENT
AND OTHER DANCE REFERENCES._________________ _____________ _______ ______________
The
collect
all the
placement
temple
following
of
references
have
references from texts
the
architecture
devangana
is the
figures
been
put
together with
a
view
dealing with architecture,
in
the
architectural
main focus of this research,
to
on the
fabric.
Since
our data here
elaborates upon the architecture of the temple alone and not the stupa,
viharaj oijchaitya.
The references to salabhanjika on
stupa etc.
will be
107
taken up in the context of the evolution of the salabhanjika motif itself
in
the
chapter
on
sculpture.
The textual references
collected here are
not exhaustive and much more data is yet to come to light. But whatever
little
the
that
has
tradition
surangana,
been
of
found
placing
devangana
sikhara and
such
other
generic
names
purpose
is
seldom
protect,
decorate,
with Sakta,
the
researcher here
apsara,
type
refer to their number,
their
by
of
kumarika,
figures
on
the
parts of the temple.
names and imagery
as
listed
attested
to,
above.
salabhanjika,
vitana,
jangha,
only two texts
while , the rest only
Their
ritualistic
or
although they are generally
suggest
religious
invoked to
Their cultic association
sects is absent since in the texts
.they are freely represented.
varangana,
stambha,
Curiously
bestow peace and prosperity.
Saiva
bears testimony to
and in practice,
It appears that even though their imagery
is seldom mentioned by the architectural texts before 15th century their
representation in sculptures from western India to eastern India,
a uniformity of form and imagery.
exchange
of
ideas
between
the
retains
Hence there must have been an oral
sculptors of various
regions who
may
have shared their common information of iconography of gods, goddesses
and
other
semi
Laksana the
detail,
but
Ksirarnava
divine
iconography
the
and
figures.
of
apsaras
Silpa
Even
Vishnu,
are
Prakasa).
in
Shiva,
generally
texts
Devi etc.
not
It appears
dealing
with
pratima
are mentioned in
described
(except
that information
on
for
apsaras
may have circulated in the form of desi literature in colloquial parlance
and
widely
shared
Bhuvanadeva,
may
but
have
the
authors
overlooked
of
the
classical
texts
significance
like
of
Bhoja
noting
and
their
imageries.
The following texts have been studied by the researcher for
preparing
a
corpus
of
information
from
architectural
texts
on
apsaras
108
and
their
texts
placement
are
on
temples,
Samarangana
Vaikhanasiya
palaces,
Sutradhara,
Atrisamhita,
courts,
Silpa
Laksana
city
Prakasa,
Samucchaya,
gates etc.
Aparajit
Vastusutra
The
Piecha,
Upanisad,
Ksirarnava, Vrksarnava.
SAMARANGANA SUTRADHARA :
It is a text written by Paramara Bhoja around the middle of the
11th
century.
architecture
traditions
(nagara)
Bhoja was a
is
in
in
an
great builder and a literateur.
encyclopaedic
Malawa
region
general.
In
work,
in
the
particular,
section
the torana should be adorned
refering
on
and
the
architectural
northern
Meruprasada
with makara,
as well as groups of apsaras.
to
he
His text on
Indian
style
discribes
that
heads of elephants,
leaves
The pillar design contains an elaborate
prescription using auspicious motifs for its decoration. The pillars should
be many faceted and contain many sections.
painted
torana
of
design
and
elephant
everywhere,
beautiful
heads
is also indicated.
auspicious
It should be decorated with
signs,
chamaradharinis.
chandrashala
(57,
pp.404)
82
The
along
placement
which are highly intoxicated and
The vidyadhara
who have just started to play
by groups of siddhas,
mood
couples should also be adorsed here
(57,
gandharvas,
holding Vina (57, pp.404)
pp.404)
yaksas,
83
.
It should be surrounded
devas, apsaras and kinnaras
84
In the vimanavali divine apsara groups should be adorned,
immersed
pp.404)
85
in
play
continuously
with
beautiful
swaying
movements.
highly
(57,
Even nagakanya and kadamba should also be used for adornment
everywhere on every
of
with
apsaras,
storey.
nagakanyas,
(57,
kinnaras,
pp.404)
etc.
88
It appears that the figures
should be placed
in the vitana
109
as
well
as
on
the
bhumis
of the jangha
and
the
stambha.
But their
imagery and their significancce are not told by Bhoja explicitly.
SILPA PRAKASA
According to Silpa Prakasa, the Onssan temple architectural text,
the
pillar
wealth,
should
be
corn and
decorated
good fortune.
with
(1.
naga
nayika
who
is
a
giver
87
of
p.32) 88 No further description
225,
of this is given. There is another section in this chapter called Avarana
Devatas
which
include
dikpala,
mahavidyas,
etc.
(1.
256,
p.35)
89
It
is followed by a section on alasa, which in local terminology is refered
to as naribandha or kanya banda, and it is indispensable in architecture.
The main purpose of embellishment is indicated here - a house without
a
wife,
a
woman
yaksas,
the
as frolic without a woman,
will
raksasas,
graceful
postures,
sikhara,
names
be
pannagas
postures
she
is
of
known
bear
monument without
no
fruit (1.392).
to
Manini,
karsita,
them
Sukasarika,
(1.393).
(recommended
91
Contemplated
and it should be
types
of
indicated
in this text.
Padmagandha,
alasa.
Darpana,
These
Thereis no sequence
The alasa
also
various
(1.394 - 395). 92
Camara,
Mardala.
in
placed in gavaksa,
by the Sastras)
Matrimurti,
padika,
important
Qandharvas,
women.
Dalamalika,
Nupura
90
kinnaras become enchanted on seeing
as alasa
Ketakibharana,
(figure of)
(nagas),
walls and other parts of the mukhasala.
given
Mugdha,
interior and
so a
are Alasa,
Torana,
Vinyasa
Dhyana-
-
Gunthana,
are
The
the
Narjtaki,
sixteen
most
or order
of placement
does not have any
relation with
dikpala or the major forms of the gods and their placement in the temple
architecture seems to be independent and uncanonical.
mentions
a
yantra
to
denote
the
posture
predominent oblique lines to indicate the
of
the
But Silpa Prakasa
indolent
nayika
tribhanga posture.
with
The text
no
also
indicates
upwards),
the
spandita
prescribed for alasa.
position
(palms
of
the
turned
palms
-
c handila
downwards)
as
the
(palms
two
vurned
movements
94
The various alasakanyas are described thus :
1. Alasa
- indolent,
make
chandita
or
spandita
hand
movements.
2.
Torana
- leaning in a doorway
3.
Mugdha
- innocent naganundra,
4.
Manini
- resentful or offended
5,
Dalamalika
- garlanding herself with a branch
6.
Padmagandha
- smelling the lotus
7.
Darpana
- holding a mirror
8.
Vinyasa
- having her mind fixed in meditation
9.
Ketakibharana
- wearing flowers
10. Matrmurti
- image of a mother
11. Camara
- holding a flywhisk
12. Gunthana
-
hiding
herself,
showing
her back holding
drapery, flowers, fan
13. Nartaki
- dan cer
14. Sukasanka
- playing with a parrot
15. Nupurapadika
- wearing ankle bells
16. Mardala
- drummer
This attractive naribandha should be
placed on the shikhara and other
parts like gavaksa etc. This list could be compared with the Ksirarnava
list to find out how many of them correspond with each other and the
sculptural representation on the whole.
Ill
APARAJITA PR GCHA :
It is written under the influence of Samarangana Sutradhara in the
reign of Kumarapala by Bhuvanadevachary a^ during the later part of 12th
and firstjhalf of 13th
32,64
century.^ It ..says that on the vitana, 8,12,16.24,
vidhyadhara should be placed and above that varanganas
be placed.
(190-14).*^ They
should
should hold string and leather instruments,
and perform acting and dancing movements creating sounds of singing and
'm97
(190-15).
It also mentions that in the decoration of the
house,
village
Ghatisthana
ghanta.
or
on
the
whose
(85-26)
98
The
town,
make
a
nrityashala
vitana
salabhanjika
jangha
should
be
should
35
to
be
parts
the
made
and
it
north
of
along
with
should
have
stambha, Nasika and phalanas on all the sides of the sandhara (prasada).
On the mulanasa and all sides of the stambhas Gaja simhavala and makara
should be made
(127.21-22)
99
On all the sides of the karnas the eight
dikpalas should be placed in the pradaksina order, Natesha facing East,
Andhaka facing south and
chandika with canine teeth on the north side.
Compassionate
should be placed in all the directions
23,
24)^®
On
Sasanadevis
the
varimarga
munindra
should
be
placed
while
(127ascetic
figures in the pralina.
The placement of decorative figures on the gate ways to the
t&
also mentioned by Aparajita.
city
On all the four corners make repeated
decoration every where, after every 3000 measures a pair of vidhyadhari
and a yoddha (70—21)
While
on
for decoration.
each
the
four
sides
of
the
royal
court's exit place
yaksis
Embellish each wall with gems in all the dvishalas.
pratibhadra
of
the
shala
make
lotuses
which
are
On
the favourites
¥
of the kings.
In the vitana place unusual hanging lumas from the centre
112
while
various forms of royal sports be represented in different shapes.
On the upper part of the stambha place salabhanjika statues (779-11)1^
It is only here that the term pratima is indicated.
Number
of
references
have
been brought to light from the Agama
which enlighten us about the parts of temple architecture in which the
apsaras should be placed.
the
Kasyapa
Silpa
apsaras
as very
various flowers
Patala
(chapter
serene
different
49-57)
describes
bright with long and heavy
and
draped
with
thick and touching each other,
be
48.
and slightly
fragrances.
should
with
Their thighs should
their bodies
groups
form of
decorated
waist should be narrow,
smiling,
Their
silk clothe^.
hair,
the
should
be
be
but face should
be
placed
smeared
in
with
inter-related
movements on the bhadra pitha in samabhanga and they should be seven
in number.
Vaikhanasiya
the
Atnsamhita,
(Samurtar
Chanadhikarana
7.29)
mentions
mandapa as the place for pure and divine apsaras and five of
them
should be placed at five places in the mandapa.
Laksana
stating
the
placement
carved fully
kudya
Samucchaya
of
(chapter
the
all around on
(pilaster
on
the
the
relief
26,
9-11)
kumarikA^.
s+ambhas
wall).
103
The
28
is
more
kumarikas
precise
in
should
be
of the bhitti and not on the
Refering
to
the
mandapa,
which
should be visible from all the four sides, clearlyAftd divided into thirty
parts,
and
in
the
middle of its four pillars
should
be
placed twelve
kumarikas. On the corners and on the fore parts and sides of the pillars
place the kumarikas.
/
113
/O^
For
should
Vikhanasa
be
Kasyapa
decorated
descended
from the
Janakhanda
wwith
heaven
apsara,
in a
(Chapter 32) the
yaksha,
playful
temple
gandharva,
mood.
This
wall
naga_, as
group
if
should
be
represented in a beautiful and enchanting way which should give pleasure
to the eye.
VASTUSUTRA UPANISAD
This is a text with a difference. Its attributed author, Pippalada,
has divided it into six prapathakas just like the Prsna Upanisad of the
Atharvaveda.
it
deals
so
much
3
more
It is
with
known
the
with modelling
as
Vastusutra
layout,
of
and
forms.
and not
composition
It
of
proposes
Silpasutra,
sculptures
a
because
and
fundamental
not
grid
structure for images which are created using geometrical and mathematical
configurations.
disposition
This
and
khilapanjara,
movement
of
the
as
it
is
known., indicates
figures
in
space.
In
the
the
basic
composition
for an image of the main deity who occupies the central Brahma Kshetra
the
upper
apsaras.
Daiva
The
Khetra
lower
is
occupied
khetra
is
by
the
occupied
yakshas,
by
gandharvas
the
adorers,
and
human
worshippers and the vehicles of the divinities. (VSU : 8,9). The apsaras
entertain
the
the
singers
gods
of
in
diverse
praises,
the
ways
images
and
through the
become
representation
particularly
beautiful
of
(VSU
: 25).
KSIRARNAVA/VRKSARNAVA (A 120.82 - 132)
During 15th
from the
earlier architectural
Diparnava.
of
the
century in Gujarat, three texts were written borrowing
Dhaky
15th
observes
century,
while
texts,
that
namely
Vrksarnava
Ksirarnava
(also
Vrksarnava,
Ksirarnava and
belongs to the first half
known
as
Naradaprccha)
114
to the beginning of the
15th
century.
Diparnava,
derives from Aparajita
prccha, Ksirarnava and Vastu vidya is a 16th century architectural text.
describing the emergence of the Chaturmukha Mahaprasada 106
While
the
measurements of its parts and the
mandovara
is
mentioned.
devangana^ who
musical
should
instruments
The
be
and
placement of the figures on its
figures
placed
dancing
consist
in
the
gleefully.
of
4lokpala,
dikpala
ratha-pratiratha
Indr a
and
and
playing
other gods
on
with
ayudha and vehicles should also be made along with ganas and attendantsf
as
if
celebrating
look with
down
some festive
occasion.
The dancing
devanganas
should
cast eyes and aiming arrows or taking a step forward
with the left foot.
Some devanganas should be shown dancing with left
hand descending towards the left side as if demonstrating the left side
of her body.
The following few verses throw light on the placement of specific
devanganas on
Yama
is
yaksas
certain directions conjointly with the dikpalas.
shown
and
observing
ganas
is
while
placed.
in
south-west
In south,
Ksetrapala* along
West is the place of Varuna,
with
north west
is the territory of Vayu, who is to be represented dancing in a circular
manner
some sort of tandava nritya holding a scarf. In Kubera's abode
Padmini devangana is to be placed dancing in an amorous way with one
hand above the head.
>m
embracing
the
Rambha,
In Isana direction of north-west make Menaka
heaven
who
to
descend
holds
a
on
the
beautiful
earth.
arrow
Even
and
show
vina
with
Indra
her.
Urvasi should be shown playing a flute in the agnikuna, while in south
make
the
Trilochana
south
.hasta,
with
west direction
while place
cymbals
and
Kamarupa to
place ksetrapala
Varuna in the west,
dance
with
Yama.
In
and Chandrauli holding anjali
flanked by Rambha holding bow
115
and arrow. The west north has Vayu on whose right is Manjughosha.
It will be
observed
that the
above description is not
consistent
and some of the devanganas do not have a specific form, since only their
names are given without reference to imagery.
Now
starts
another list of thirty
two
devanganas
who
should be
placed m pradaksma order on the jangha starting from the isana corner
that
is north east with Menaka. The thirty two devangana are :
Lilavati,
Vidhichitra,
Karpuramanjari,
Sundari,
Padmini,
Putravallabha,
Gauri,
Gudhashabda
Gandhari,
Chandrarekha,
Sugandha,
Bhavachandra,
Mrigakshi,
Shubhagamini,
Devasakha,
Satrumardini,
Urvasi,
-
Rambha,
Hansavali,
Sarvakala,
Padmanetra,
Chitrini,
Marichika,
Manini,
Menaka,
Chandravali,
Manahansa,
Manjughosa,
Susvabhava,
Jaya,
Vijaya,
Chandravaletra, Kamarupa.
Place
all
these
temples of Brahma,
Devanganas
in the "toandovara,
and
vitana of the
Visnu, Siva, Surya and Jina. Some of the devanganas
could be repeated more than once on the same temple.
Ksirarnava
describes
how
each
of
the
Devanganas
should
represented according to their prescribed iconographies and descriptions.
1.
Menaka
- bow and arrow, left leg raised.
2.
Lilavati
- amorously shunning laziness.
3.
Vidhichitra
- holding mirror and putting bindi.
4.
Sundari
- simply dancing.
5.
Subha
- pulling out a thorn from the foot
6.
Hamsavali
- putting payal, lotus eyed.
7.
Sarvakala
dancing
chintana mudra.
with
varada
be
116
8.
Karpuramanjari
- dancing in nude while bathing.
9...
Padmini
- one holding a stalk of lotus.
10. Padmanetra-Gudhasabda
- holding
abhaya
hasta
and
a
child
stands
by her side.
11. Chitrini
- dancing with left hand on the head.
12. Putravallabha
- one who has a baby on her side.
13. Gaun
- Killing a lion.
14. Gandhari
- a
special
one
dancing
with
right
hand
aloft.
15. Devasakha
- one dancing a circular dance.
16. Manchika
- aiming a bow-arrow looking on left side.
17. Chandravali
- looking in front with anjali hasta, beautiful
eyed.
18. Chandrarekha
- writing
a
letter,
her
forehead
is
broad
like the half moon.
19. Sugandha
- dancing in circles holding the moon aloft.
20. Satrumardini
- holding knives and dancing.
21. Manavi
- holding flower garlands and dancing.
22. Manahamsa
- dancing with her back visible.
23. Svabhava
- one
whose
body
is
bent
in
chaturbhangi,
leg is lifted and hands raised above head.
24. Bhavachandra
- one
who
is
dancing
with
her
hands
and
feet in yogamudra.
25. Mrigaksi
- dancing with full bloom and beauty.
26. Urvasi
- killing the asura with a khadga and pulling
him by his shikha.
27. Rambha
- holding
knives
in
both
hands and
dancing
with her right foot lifted up.
28. Manjughosa
she
dances
both hands.
in
circles
holding
khadga
in
117
29. Jaya
- dancing with a water pot on her head.
30. Mohini
- dancing and embracing the male companion.
31. Chandravaktra
- dancing gracefully by lifting one foot.
32. Tilottama
- either
holding
manjira
or
pushpabana
and dancing.
Like
and
the
mandapa,
this
celestial
where
the
devanganas should
places
as the
on
the four
munis,
be
made in
sides of
the
the
jangha,
mandovara
tapas, vyala and others
vitana
and
the
in the jalantra
or salilantara. (133-34).
107
PRASADA MANDANA
Written
by
Chittor between
Sutradhara
1433 -
Mandana
1468 A.D.
in
the
reign
of
Rana
kumbha
Inthe reference dealing with
of
temple
parts he mentions that the vidyadhara thara should be seven parts broad
and
ten
parts
long.
On
this
make
beautiful dancingsalabhanjikas.
Decorate the centre of the mandapa, vitana with paintings and devanganas
in dancing mode along with pauranic themes. (PM, 7-32, 34)
118
Placement
in j*d'radaksina
of
devanganas
order
on
starting
the
from
jangha
Isana
with
of
the
Menaka
temple
in
mandovara
relation
with
-th.e_ respective directions, prescribed in KSIRARNAVA.
:PAPMINI (Right hand near head)!
:------- -
KUBERA------------ —
%
alingana
V
w *
0%*
n
ru aT
Va RUNA
(bow
RAMBHA
(bow krrow -foe)
I
%■
/
%
.
%
❖ \
&
w
<V*
V
V7
u
f^AHUPA
' uancitig)
YAm—
TKILOCHANA
(Cymb Is)
119
CHAPTER-111
REFERENCES TO VARIOUS
AND PRAKRIT SOURCES
ASPECTS
OF
APSARA
IMAGERY
FROM
SANSKRIT
FOOTNOTES AND REFERENCES
SECTION-1.1
1.
A.A.Macdonell, Vedic Mythology, Strassburg, 1898, p.124,125.
2.
ibid, Macdonell 1898, p.125
3.
S.K.Das,
Sakti or Divine Power,
Culture,
Vol.VIII,
p.67,
(III)
Calcutta,
M.C.P.
1934,
p.741,
Srivastava,
(It)
Mother
Indian
Goddess
in Indian Art, Archaeology and Literature, Delhi, 1979, p.33.
4.
A.B.Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the Vedas and Upanisads,
Harvard Oriental Series, 1925, p.199.
5.
Stella Kramrisch, Hindu Temple, Calcutta, 1946.
6.
A.A.Macdonell, op.cit, p.87.
7.
A.A.Macdonell, ibid, p.87.
8.
V.S.Agrawal, Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965, p.325.
9.
A. A.Mqcdonell, op.cit. p.88
10. ibid, p.107-114.
11. ibid, p.113.
12. C.
Sivaramamurti,
Museum,
Bulletin
Amaravati Sculptures in
of
the
Madras
the
Government
Madras
Museum,
Government
Vol.IV,
new
series, Madras, 1977, p.82.
13. C. Sivaramamurti, ibid, p.84.
14. C. Sivaramamurti, ibid, p.84.
15. C. Sivaramamurti, Lakshmi in India Art
SECTION-1.2
16. A.A.Macdonell,
1981,
p.134-137,
Vedic
Mythology,
Strassburg,
the above data has
been
1898,
Reprint,
Delhi,
compiled from the data
120
collected by Macdonell.
SECTION-1.3
17.
A.B.Keith
-
The
Religion
Upanishads,
Harvard
184,
section
This
Oriental
was
and
Philosophy
Series,
compil ed
Vol.31,
from
of
1st
the
the
Ed.
data
Veda
1925
and
p.179-
collected
by
A.B.Keith.
SECTION-1.4
18.
A.A.Macdonell, op.cit. p.134.
19.
Bharata - Natyasastra, trans, Mahmohan Ghosh, Calcutta, 1950.
20. a Agni Purana - Chapter 19 (From Vettam Mani, Puranic Encyclopaedia,
A Comprehensive Dictionary with special
Puranic Literature,
1st Ed. 1964.
reference to the Epic and
(/hhlayalam) English Ed. New Delhi,
1975.
20. b Mahabharata, Adi Parva, 67-83, ibid.
21. a Valmiki Ramayana, Balakanda, 45.32, (From A.B.Keith, op.cit)
21.b Vishnu Purana, 1.9, H.H.Wilson.
21. c Agni Purana, Chapter 3, op.cit,
22.
Matsya Purana, Anandashram Sanskrit Series, No.54, Poona, 1907.
23.
Vayu Purana - Anandashram Sanskrit Series, No.49, Poona, 1893.
24.
Brahmanda Purana - Ed. J.L.Shastri, Delhi, 1973.
25.
Vishnu Purana - Oriental Press, Bombay, 1899.
26.
Bhagavat, Purana
27.
Cornelia
Dimmitt
and
J.A;B.
Van
Buitoneo
-
Classical
Mythology, 1st pub. 1978, Indian Ed, New Delhi, 1983, p.74 & 97
28.
Dimmitt and Bintenen, ibid, p.82.
SECTION-!. 5
29.
V.S.Agrawala - Matsya Purana - A Study, Varanasi, 1963, p.133.
Hindu
121
30.
C. Sivaramamurti - Chitrasutra of the Vishnudharmottara, New Delhi,
1978.
31.
V.R.Ramachandra Dikshitar, The Purana Index, Vol.IlI, (Yato H)
University of Madras, 1955.
32.
Vettam Mani, op.cit.
33.
Vettam Mani, ibid.
34.
Vettam Mani, ibid.
i
SECTION-1.6
35.
Mohanlal
Mehta
&
K.
Rishabh
Chandra,
Agamic
Index,
Vol.I,
Ed.
Dalsukh Malvania, Ahmedabad, 1970.
36.
B.
Barua,
Barhut,
Stone as a Story teller, Calcutta,
1934,
2nd Ed.
The
Mythology
Patna, p.54.
SEGTI0N-II.1
37.
Heinrich
Zimmer,
Art
of
Indian
Asia
-
Its
Transformations^ 1st published Princeton University Press,
and
1st Indian
Ed. New Delhi, 1984, Vol.I p.68-84.
38.
Kalidasa of
Time,
Meghadutam,
A
Selection
tans,
of
his
Chandra Rajan,
plays
and
Kalidasa -
poems,
New
The Loom
Delhi,
1989,
p.162.
39.
Kapila Vatsyayan,
Classical Indian Dance in the Literature and the
Arts, New £)elhi, 1st Publication 1968, 2nd Ed. 1977, p.195.
40.
K. Vatsyayan, ibid, p.199.
41.
Kalidasa - Loom of Time, op.cit., p.116.
SECTION-11.2
42.
V.S.Agrawala,
p.301.
Brihat Kathasloka Sangraha,
A Study,
Varanasi,
1974,
122
43.
V.S.Agrawala, ibid, p.302.
44.
V. Raghavan, Sringara Prakasa, Madras, 1903, p.648.
45.
V. Raghavan, ibid, p.853
46.
V. Raghavan, ibid, p.652
47.
V. Raghavan, ibid, p.850.
SECTION-III
48.
D. Sharma, Early Chauhan Dynasties, New Delhi, 1959, p.260.
49.
Shishirkumar Mitra, Early Rulers of Khajuraho, Calcutta, 1958, p.17879.
i
50.
D.
Sharma, op.cit,
1959,
Appendix G (iii) and Epigraphi a Indica,
XI p.28.
51.
D. Sharma, ibid, 1959, p.222.
52.
D. Sharma, ibid, 1959, p.224.
53.
D. Sharma, ibid*1,* *and
* * *Bombay Gazatteer, Vol I part I, p.469.
!
54.
D. Sharma, ibid, 1959, p.261.
55.
D. Sharma, 1959, p.261.
56.
Kumarapala Charita VI, 32, I 6b-b7.
57.
GOS XXXVI, p.I: (Jinapala on Charchari) & D. Sharma, 1959, p.226.
58.
Epigraphia Indica, XV, p.85.7
59.
Rajatarangini, VII, p.858, P.G.C.Singhi Jain mala p.108.
60.
Mahesh Singh, The Paramaras,ep.p.177.
61.
Epigraphia Indica, XI, p.28
62.
Prabandha Cintamani, IV, p.93.
63.
Mahesh Singh, op.cit, 1984, p.214.
'
*
\
64.a Rajatarangini, VIII, 606, 928, 931, 944.
64.b Prabandha Cintamani, III, 35.37.
I
[
64.c Inscriptions from Bengal II, 35.41.
123
65. Samarangana Sutradhara, XV, GOS, p.18.
66. Struggle for Empire, p.329.
67. Aparajita
Praccha,
GOS,
CXV,
Baroda,
1950,
239,
Tandavadi
Natyalaksana p.614
68. Udyotanashrij Kavalayamala, Ed. A.N.Upadhye, Bombay, 1957, p.50.
69. Motichandra, The World of Courtesans , New Delhi, 1973, p.57.
70. Ksemendra, Samayamatrika, VIII, 83, ibid.
71. Sringaramanjari, Ed. Kalpana Munshi, Bombay, 1959, p.57.
72. Moti chandra,
op.cit,
For
the
discussions
on
this
point
see
Introdu ction Critique.
73. S.P.Tewari,
Royal Attendants In Ancient Indian Literature,
& Art, New Delhi, 1987, p.30.
Epigraphy
\
74. S.P.Tewari, 1987, ibid.
75. Buddhasvami,
Brihat
Katha
Sloka
Samgraha,
Civilization Series, No.IV, Varanasi, 1974.
76.
op. cit., Tewari.
77.
78.
Monier Williams, Via Tewari.
79.
op. cit. Tewari.
80.
V.S.Agrawala,
Indian
124
SECTION-IV
81. Samarangana Sutradhara (57, 46-47).
cm:
■’! //
i 4?
4T3rfc^j-cn^^T\^rui
ed. 7. Ganapati Sastri, G.O.S., No.25, Baroda, 1966.
li
ripsff#
82.
: II
si^2S it£P*
83.
W^T^57*1,3^ iTpq
,' /
'TaiU^r q yg^,-
,• /
84.
S.S.57, p.<i04, ibid.
_
fWVr* 4-ji
*er< I r-Xr^i
85.
S.S.57, p.404, ibid.
86.
^
pT*f fcrtnhr.’
■&^>f
^1 |
^ *1
V) U
r-s
s^rtf3,/TirnH<>c^?3j_ 11
S.S.57, p.404, ibid.
The above five verses are not numbered but they constitute the Meru
section
Laksana.
Apsara,
of
the
Besides
Kinnara,
Chapter
57,
which
Meru,
the
other
Vidhyadhari,
covers
type
Gandharvas,
of
Mervadivimsika
Prasada
Yaksas
which
and
Prasada
contain
Salabhanjika
for decoration are Sridhara, Puspaka, Mahavraja, Ratideha, Vimanam.
87. Alice Boner and S.R.Sharma, Silpa Prakasa, Medieval Orissan Sanskrit
Text
on
Temple
Architecture,
1966, p.46-53.
88. ibid.S.P. 1.225, p.32.
By
Rama chandra Kaulacharya,
Leiden,
125
89. ibid, S.P. 1.256, p.35.
90. ibid, S.P.
1.392, p.46.
91. ibid, S.P.
1.393, p.46
92. ibid, S.P. 1.394-95, p.46
93. ibid, S.P. 1.407-481, p.46-53.
;
94. ibid, S.P. 1.402-409, fig.11, p.47, plates XXI, XXII, XXIII.
95. Aparajita
Pr ccha
SmS>
-
J
Bhuvanadevacharya,
P. A.Mankad,
Ed.
G.O.S.
CXV, Baroda, 1950.
yt'Bj.
96.
r^m.
I
-tt:
*&T$,-^TT /)
^^ \
cTcTFl&H-^
I
Jil^virlbII
97.
/$.
AP. 190 - 14,15, Vitana Varnana.
<r.
_
fcrfU-^Tvti aT^ <*ra?
.' /
an? »*E/?fjnf i/2T wz^nf^ftfcn; /|
98-
AP. 85 - 26, Griha Grama Nagar Shobha.
cr^" jr&rir.
I
99• 3jrR[Vt35r07"ci' 'fcn-^vf R-w M/J;'4j(cf-u ll ±i
j»iy%r
100.
R^^Tcf-^
l(21,
c*-vf^t£Lt -T /£$ UJ^C
ffftS!
•4m^r
cn*arrfej
|
If 2.3.
^
: /
U
3TnH^Z*z\S£[0j
<427/ .’ ‘fFrT //
-2-V.
AP.127-21,24, Nagar Prasada Vibhakti Pramana.
c^vf cfwf J^ ^c^czti
101'
r^nj 1 ^ Jrr)f^r )
ll
jp:
AP 70-21, BhudharadiyBrahrga Nagaram.
__ _
1
T&in<m>f -w
// *
c/W^ %&lih£ik? ^ffrf^R^cPX /
3Vfc7J tT ^mr^2^r xT<srzrJr'% *r<xfarr )j <%
-^uTq^icd TcrT^yyfoJ
*£*&?:?
aFM>rrKQ-tffo,' // <?
5&JT/ ^cT^QfTff ^ *ff±3i~vrj, J
102.
-e7 ■eJcftfTztf%q ^rjtrf
^frj^fl^0fluH
€TirU$t <C*^&7 //
^
ehrtJtfT Jtcvf QTZOJ
'§"'<
<-i z^Th Ri '^fzf
I
rm^g 17: //
AP J1 - 7,11, Sabhastakavedi Nirnaya,
xTqZffHl -T
103-
/;
|
; /
ynRoTKT
ttzrifaffcftvrr&tcc?; cS/ht'&fiir gwOd : jj ^
Laksana Samucchaya, 26 - 9,11.
lOl.Kashyapa
Silpa
Sastram
-
(fid)
S.H.Ganapati
Sastri,
Anandashfam
Sanskrit Series 1986.
105 Vastusutra Upanisad, The Essance of Form in Sacred Art, text, trans,
Ed. Alice Boner, S.R.Sharma, B. Baumer, New Delhi, 1982.
106 Ksirarnava, (Ed) P.O. Sompura, Palitana, 1967.
107 Prasada Mandana - (Ed) Bhagvandas Jain.
oS.fc^fJ)
-rjty&ri'krJkT
ifTT r^l 3^4; /
k-r jpnf?d jj (v
4fp£f
L+Jl-4
£frAMM,L t
<^rT4pnr<i
•
2.C
— “f,
ll .
/(
if