Intervening Early
A ‘snapshot’ of approaches primary
schools can use to help children get
the best from school.
Contents
Foreword
Introduction
2
1. Step One: Is the School a Happy Place?
Checking if the school is a nurturing place for everyone
5
2. Step Two: Are There Children Who Need Extra Help?
The symptoms and causes of distress in children
7
3. Step Three: Is Intervention a Good Idea?
What children think and checking how
many children would benefit from extra help
11
4. Step Four: What Needs to be in Place to Support an Intervention?
A checklist of what is needed before introducing any early interventions
14
5. Step Five: Which Intervention?
Information on four different approaches to early intervention,
with details of ten intervention programmes, how they work
and what kinds of differences they can make
17
Appendix 1: Research
54
Appendix 2: Useful Addresses
57
Appendix 3: References and Further Reading
61
Appendix 4: Costs
64
Acknowledgements
67
Foreword
The Government’s drive to achieve high standards in all schools is aimed at
meeting the needs of all children and enabling them to realise their potential.
We have made great progress but there is more we can do for those children who
are more at risk of underachievement than their peers. Children with emotional and
behavioural needs and children who experience other barriers to learning – whether
they have English as an additional language or learning difficulties, or are disaffected –
all deserve the same chances to reach their potential.
Where staff have the skills, confidence and support that they need to develop and
maintain a well ordered and positive learning environment the quality of teaching and
learning improves for all children.
We are developing measures to support schools in intervening early to help those
children who are not getting the most out of their time at school – to support them
in building positive behaviour throughout the school and developing pro-active policies
on bullying and discrimination of all kinds.
Schools that maintain and develop strong links with parents and the wider community
are able to share responsibility for children’s behaviour and their social and emotional
well being, in and outside the school. Helping schools to build and maintain those
relationships is a key part of our plans.
This report from Coram Family is timely. It provides a “snapshot” of the kinds of
work that primary schools are currently doing, in partnership with other organisations
in their communities, to intervene early and help make school a positive experience
for all their pupils.
I am sure that schools will find the report interesting and helpful as a source of
ideas, in reviewing their practice, and considering different approaches to
early intervention.
1
Introduction
what will be suitable in different
kinds of situation for different
children
Q. Who is this report for?
1.
2.
This short report is for primary
schools. It looks at ways in which they
can help children who are finding it
difficult to get the best out of their time
at school.
It will help schools to assess their
present situation, identify the issues
that may be contributing to the
difficulties children face, and explore
different approaches to helping them
overcome those difficulties.
Q. What does it contain?
3.
what kinds of effect may be
expected from an intervention.
Q. What is early intervention and
why might it be necessary?
5.
Children need to develop the social
and emotional competence that will
help them to understand the rules
that govern the relationships
between people.
6.
Fortunately there is evidence
that appropriate intervention can
help children to develop these
competencies. The skills of interaction
can be acquired. Where children have
formed positive relationships in their
schools and communities, this has
provided them with an element of
protection against involvement in
offending and other anti-social
behaviour.
7.
Schools can make a difference by
introducing experiences and activities
that can help children cope with
difficulties and enable them to profit
from their school experience. By
intervening at an early stage, the
downward spiral where difficulties
The report describes four types of
intervention in detail, and gives some
indication of where each is most
appropriately used. The four types are:
The Whole School Approach
Small Groups
One-to-One
Work with Parents
4.
The report also examines:
how schools have intervened
successfully to help children in
difficulties
what is available to enable a school
to intervene
2
behavioural support services can
offer a range of specialist advice and
help to individual children and families
and to schools.
get worse, become harder to address,
and lead to failure, can be prevented.
8.
Schools and parents may have
concerns that selecting children for
special support can be seen as
labelling or stigmatising. But the
anecdotal evidence from the schemes
discussed in this report, and from the
children interviewed, suggests that
being selected is seen as a positive
experience.
Q. What is this report
designed to do?
11.
Intervening Early provides a framework
to help schools assess how well
they are responding to children
experiencing difficulty and information
about a range of interventions
available. It aims to help schools in
thinking and planning how to support
children with particular needs.
12.
There are no standard ‘off the shelf’
solutions that are right for every
situation.
13.
The report will help schools in
considering their existing situation,
the needs of their pupils, the resources
available and what might be an
appropriate response to their pupils’
needs. It offers a checklist to help
schools but does not provide magic
solutions. There are none. The most
effective interventions will develop in
response to the school’s particular
circumstances and the needs of the
staff and children in it.
Q. What support is there?
9.
10.
In many areas there are national and
locally funded programmes to support
children and families. They can provide
advice and help in planning early
interventions. These may include Sure
Start programmes, Early Excellence
Centres, Excellence in Cities and
Education and Health Action Zones.
Resources and support are targeted
on selected areas through the
Children’s Fund, Healthy Living Centres
and the On Track Programme.
The Family Literacy programme can
also complement the work of an
early intervention.
Child and Adolescent Mental Health
Services (CAMHS) and LEA
educational psychology and
3
Introduction continued
Q. How might it be used?
14.
Schools could use the steps set out
in the report to ensure that they have
a systematic approach to identifying
children who have difficulties and
providing them with extra support.
15.
The head teacher, the governing body,
staff, parents and children could use
the step one checklist to assess
whether the overall atmosphere and
culture of the school is providing the
kind of supportive environment where
children will feel happy and flourish.
Steps two to five could then be used
to plan and introduce appropriate
interventions.
Q. How was it compiled?
16.
4
This ‘snap shot’ is based on research
carried out by Coram Family. The
research looked at a range of
interventions that support children in
school. Information was received
from120 education authorities and
schemes in England and from 55
Education Action Zones. Thirty-five
field visits were made to schools using
some of the more commonly used
interventions.
17.
The report does not rank the
effectiveness of the various
interventions: some have been
comprehensively evaluated, others
have had internal evaluations and
others await evaluation. Nor does
it cover every possible intervention.
Schools will want to draw on their
own resources and their knowledge
of local activities and networks and
decide on an intervention that is right
for them.
One
Step One:
Check if the School is a Happy Place
1:1
1:2
1.4
The context for successful intervention
is the ethos of the school. If it is a
place that promotes personal, social
and emotional well-being, all children
and adults associated with it, including
parents, will feel that they can express
themselves and be heard.
behavioural and other problems which
are interfering with their progress and
to provide them with the help they
need.
1:3
When such a nurturing ethos is wellestablished, it will be easier to identify
the children with emotional,
To find out whether the school is a
happy place, the following questions
need to be answered by teachers,
learning support assistants,
playground and dinner staff, children,
parents and governors.
Checkist: Is the school a happy place?
Do you agree with these descriptions?
True
False
Don’t Know
Everyone is made to feel welcome
at our school.
You know when you have done
something wrong because there are
rules, and everyone knows what
happens if you break them.
If something is troubling you you can talk
about it and people will listen to you.
If there are problems between people –
arguments or fights – there are ways
to help them be friends.
You get lots of encouragement when
you work hard.
5
1:5
6
If the answers to these questions are
positive, then the general atmosphere
in the school will be helping children
to behave well, make friends and learn
together. Children who are not
flourishing in this climate may have
personal difficulties that are troubling
them. In a happy school, it is more
likely that children, parents and staff
will be able to talk about these
difficulties with one another and find
ways of overcoming them.
Two
Step Two:
Are there Children who need Extra Help?
2:1
Even in schools that provide a calm,
supportive environment there may be
some children who do not flourish.
It is difficult for schools to do the job
they want to do when children are
unable to learn for personal, social
and health reasons. Many teachers
are aware when children need help,
but they may not always have the
time or skills to respond.
“Your experience alerts you to children who
are having problems. I work from the signs
that show a child is OK: alert, concentrating,
meeting your gaze, able to wait their turn,
smiling, – but not too good-to-be-true.
If they’re not like that you notice”
(Class teacher, Sunderland)
Symptoms of distress
2:2
These are some of the ways teachers describe children who need help:
unable to cope with or respond to instructions
attention-seeking
anxious and worried
running out of the class (and the school)
finding it difficult to communicate with adults
unable to make friends or relate to other children
dependent and clingy
physically violent
unresponsive and withdrawn
unable to concentrate and ‘fidgety’
hyperactive
verbally aggressive
afraid to attempt anything new
incontinent
stealing from other children.
7
“Children cannot learn when they feel unhappy.”
(Head teacher, South London)
Charlotte, 7, shouts out in class
and ‘back-chats’ her teacher. Her
pushiness means that she is not
included in games by other children
and she has no friends. She often
behaves inappropriately with adults,
talking to them about intimate
personal matters and behaving as
if she is an adult herself. The school
is concerned about Charlotte, but
there is no obvious reason for her
behaviour.
Children who show
symptoms of distress
2:3
These are some examples of children
showing symptoms of distress
Martin, 7, lacks confidence and has
a stutter. He finds school hard and
panics if he feels under pressure.
He often says he is unwell in order
to avoid going to school. His mother
reports that he is very attached to
her and that other children tease
him and call him ‘thick’.
Paula, 7, has developed a nervous
tic. She plucks at her jumper when
an adult speaks to her and cannot
find the words to respond. In class
she often has a dreamy expression
and gazes into space. Her mother
has just had a baby by her new
partner.
8
Causes of distress
2:4
Often the school will know why a child
is showing these symptoms. Changes
at home, including separation, divorce,
new partners and siblings; or physical
and mental ill-health in parents;
the stresses of poverty and
unemployment; domestic violence and
bereavement, all cause mental distress
for children.
James, 6 does not play with other
children. He sits looking at them
with a hostile expression and ignores
any overture by turning his head
away. Sometimes he lashes out
at other children and hits himself.
James’ mother does not understand
his behaviour but wonders if it
was caused by the fact that:
“James saw me beaten up by my
ex-boyfriend – not his dad, just this
chap I was with about a year and
a half ago. James got very attached
to him because he was there from
when he was tiny...He got bad
mood swings this chap and one day
James just happened to be there
and saw him hit me but because he
was such a young age at the time
it didn’t seem to affect him then.”
Risk factors
2:5
Although, through links with the family
and with other agencies, the school
may know or suspect the reasons
why a child is failing to thrive, this
information may not be available
in every case.
2:6
In selecting children for help, it is
usual to start from the symptoms
of distress they present rather than
from knowledge of possible causes.
The need for intervention may be
particularly acute in areas known
to have high levels of social difficulty,
but children exhibiting the kinds of
behaviour described above are not
confined to these areas.
2:7
Different risk factors have different
impacts on children’s learning, mental
health and behaviour. These may
be traumatic life events, relationship
problems, a chaotic life, or all three.
9
Traumatic Life Events
can lead to
Poor Quality Relationships
can result in
anxiety, anger, mistrust,
loss of confidence
and continuity, which make
the child feel
the child being constantly
criticised and receiving
negative responses; neglect;
insecure attachment and
insensitivity to the child’s
needs which make
the child feel
pre-occupied, full of
self-doubt and powerless,
with little sense of control
over his or her own life,
resulting in
social isolation
mistrustful, anxious, low
in self-esteem, low in
self-belief, incompetent and
with a poor sense of
independence, leading to
reduced ability to learn
aggression
a poorly developed
sense of self; lack of
concentration and no
socialisation which
give the child
inadequate social skills,
poor self-control and a
tendancy to under-achieve,
resulting in
poor behaviour
unwillingness to take risks
withdrawal
reduced ability to learn
10
Chaotic Life-Styles
with lack of boundaries
can lead to
reduced ability to learn
Three
Step Three:
Is an Intervention a Good Idea?
3:1
When considering intervention, start from the children. Schools could ask these
questions:
Approximately how many children are there in the school who seem to fit the
descriptions in Step Two?
Do you see children like those described in every year group?
Are there more children causing concern in particular year groups?
Which year groups contain the largest numbers of children who could benefit
from extra help?
Are children coming to nursery class or Reception unable to cope?
Are parents raising concerns about the behaviour of their own children
or others?
Do staff complain about particular children to one another?
Do staff note changed behaviour in particular children?
Do teachers and other adults in the school feel tired and stressed?
3:2
These questions can be considered at
a staff meeting. Class teachers should
try to estimate the numbers of children
they feel are at risk. Staff can also
observe playground behaviour and
note any children who are isolated or
excluded by others.
3:3
Remember that any knowledge the
school holds about individual children
should be treated as confidential.
3:4
Depending on the circumstances it
may be appropriate, before deciding
whether an individual child would
benefit from an early intervention,
to seek advice from educational
psychology and/or behaviour support
staff. Advice will also be available from
specialist intervention organisations
if the school decides to collaborate
with one.
11
3:5
Parents should be consulted about the
possibility of intervention. It should be
presented as a positive aspect of the
school’s provision, one that is
integrated with other in-school
activities so that all the children can get
the best out of their school experience.
3:6
It is generally easier to discover
informally what children feel about
small groups and one-to-one schemes
than about whole school approaches.
The latter can often be taken for
granted as part of the fabric of school
life, though children do comment
about aspects of whole-school
approaches like Circle Time:
“I didn’t want to come to school
because I was new and some people
used to say I couldn’t speak properly
because I didn’t talk the same as
them. They gave me the rabbit* and
I said I didn’t want to say anything,
and everybody told me they liked the
way I talked and made me say things
and then they copied me and they
said they liked my speaking. I got lots
of friends after that.”
(Eight year-old girl)1
“People talk about things they like,
and you talk about things you like.
I talked about my hamster and one
day I brought him to school and
everybody liked him.”
(Seven year old boy)
1 In Circle Time a toy or other object may be passed around the circle and the person who is holding it can speak uninterrupted.
12
3:7
A common response from children
to all interventions is that they are
enjoyable. “We have fun,” said a
seven-year-old working as a member
of a small group. His head teacher
described this child as alone and
withdrawn before he took part in the
intervention. The child had mild
speech delay. In the small group he
was able to exhibit his particular talent
for art, which was recognised and
admired by the other children. “I do
lots of art” he said, and other
members of the group immediately
pointed out how good he was at it.
This boosted his confidence, and his
status as a talented individual has
transferred from the small group
to the classroom.
He says, “I have lots of friends now.”
3:8
Several children, asked what the best
thing about the intervention had been,
said that it was that they had made
friends. “I have a best friend” said one
girl, holding the hand of another.
Children reported that they felt
privileged to take part in interventions,
especially in small groups.
3:9
There was no evidence that
participation was seen as stigmatising,
and parents of children in interventions
agreed. Their approval was based on
improvements they had seen in their
children’s behaviour and enjoyment
of school. One parent said:
“They have good things here for the
children, this is just one of them.
The school notice when the kids
need something extra, so when they
suggest it, you think that it will be
good, it will help. It’s helped him, going
to the group he really likes coming to
school. I used to have a terrible
struggle getting him here.”
13
Four
Step Four:
What needs to be in place to support an intervention?
4:1
Before introducing any kind of early
intervention it is important to check
that the school’s attitudes and ethos
and systems and personnel both
within the school and from the local
education authority can provide
positive support. There are a number
of issues to be considered:
Q. Is the head teacher positive
about an intervention
programme?
Although this seems to go without
saying, interventions have taken
place in schools because the LEA
has suggested them and supported
a particular approach. Some heads
and governing bodies have not had
time to think about what would work
best for the school in this situation and
interventions tend to be less
successful without their commitment.
Commitment from the Head is
essential.
Q. Is the governing body
supportive?
Providing an early intervention will have
some cost for the school – if not
directly financial, at least in time and
effort. Some schools have found that
governors may have reservations but
that can change providing others
champion the idea, and an intervention
can be introduced with success – and
less committed governors will become
convinced of the use of such
interventions.
Q. Do all staff understand the
principles and practice
proposed?
It is essential that all staff in the school
understand what the intervention is for,
how it works and their role in it. Some
approaches will mean that all adults in
the school undergo training; others
may involve training specific teachers
or Learning Support Assistants; others
may simply involve school staff in
selecting the children who will
participate.
But in every circumstance the whole
school will need a coherent attitude to
the intervention, to avoid it being misrepresented or ‘stigmatised’.
14
Q. Does the school have behaviour
and anti-bullying policies?
All schools must have behaviour and
anti-bullying policies.2 They should be
published and available within the
school and to parents. Such policies
are likely to include matters like school
ethos, school rules, behaviour in the
classroom, behaviour outside the
classroom, and any special schemes
that the school has developed. The
intervention programme will need to fit
into these policies and be described in
them. Some specialist intervention
programmes help with the development
of behaviour and anti-bullying policies.
Q. Is there a policy to address
racism and discrimination?
The school should establish
mechanisms to address racism and
discrimination. They should be used
to monitor pupil access to interventions,
and in recruiting staff and volunteers.
Decisions on who to include must be
fair and respond to identified needs.
Using a policy on racism and
discrimination when selecting an
intervention will strengthen the
effectiveness of the policy.
Q. Are there links with educational
psychology services?
Specialist programmes are not a
substitute for the work of the local
educational psychology service, but
they can complement it. Recent
research by the (then) DfEE, published
in Educational Psychology Services
(England): Current Role, Good Practice
and Future Directions, shows that
schools value the knowledge and skills
of this service, particularly at the earlier
stages of intervention. Educational
psychologists may be able to offer
advice on the kind of programme that
may be suitable, on the children who
may benefit, and be able to help with
delivering and evaluating its impact.
Q. Are there good links with other
agencies?
Establishing working relationships with
other agencies and organisations that
support children and families will allow
the intervention programme to draw
on their knowledge, both in selecting
the children who could benefit and in
supporting them beyond the
programme. The need for an
intervention may result from social,
2 Section 61 (4) (b) School Standards and Framework Act 1998
15
economic or physical circumstances
in the child’s life that may be known
to other agencies.
Q. Home-school partnerships?
Most early interventions will have some
implications for the family. In some
cases parents will be directly involved,
in others the intervention may mean
that the child is likely to come home
later on certain days. At the very least,
parents will need to understand about,
and give permission for, this new
experience in the child’s life. It helps
if this happens in the context of a
positive relationship between school
and family. Where a school has a
special space for parents, such as a
parents’ room, or where there is an
ethos of easy access to the school,
it has proved easiest to gain parental
backing for the programmes.
16
Q. A willingness to commit some
resources to the intervention?
Even where a specialist organisation
runs the intervention programme
entirely, and finance for it is available
from outside the school budget, these
programmes are not cost-free. At the
very least they are likely to take staff
time and some physical space. The
starting point should be whether there
are children in the school who may
benefit from the help – and the
benefits the whole school may gain
as a result.
Five
5. Step Five:
Which intervention?
Planning
5:1
The initial planning for an early
intervention programme will have been
carried out through steps one to four.
Responses to the questionnaire in step
one may indicate that the school is not
a happy place or step two may show
that there are particular children at risk
or in need of intervention. The
conclusion should then be that some
kind of intervention or extra support is
a good idea to improve life in the
school for both children and adults –
step three.
5:2
If everything recommended at step
four is in place – a decision will need
to be taken on the most appropriate
kind of intervention and whether the
school is capable of delivering the
intervention by itself – step five.
5:3
If the school does not feel able to
deliver an intervention by itself, it
could look into ways of seeking help
from others.
5:4
The school will need to identify staff,
volunteers and parents who would like
to be involved, and to find out what
they feel they could contribute to an
early intervention.
5:5
If there is continued enthusiasm for
an intervention, the adults involved
should work together to consider
alternative approaches and identify the
intervention that is most appropriate
to the children. This may lead to an
investigation of specialist intervention
programmes that offer training to staff
and others to deliver a programme
within the school. Programmes offered
by specialist organisations can offer
training or contain elements that can
be replicated by primary schools using
existing resources.
5:6
If staff feel that working alone is
daunting, it might be possible to work
in partnership with other schools in the
area. If the school is part of a cluster
system, or has other links, it might be
appropriate to consider getting
together with others to undertake
a programme.
5:7
If extra, specialised help is required,
then it might be possible to design an
intervention in collaboration perhaps
with the educational psychology
service or behavioural support service.
It is also possible to collaborate with
an organisation that offers specialist
intervention (see appendix 2).
17
Different approaches
5:8
Four broad approaches to intervention
are described below in general terms,
with some indication of where each
may be most appropriately used. For
each approach, examples of particular
specialist interventions provided by
specialist organisations are set out in
more detail. The examples do not
provide an exhaustive list of
interventions. Other organisations,
local and national, may offer similar
or different programmes.
The Whole School
Approach
5:9
18
All the children in a school are
involved. Sometimes the intervention
will start with a single year group, but
the intention is to reach all the children
and adults in the school eventually.
The result is that many children who
do not have social and emotional
problems will receive the intervention,
alongside those who do.
5:10
Whole school approaches are not
targeted on individual needs, but on
developing an ethos throughout the
school that is conducive to
harmonious and happy relationships
between children and adults and
children themselves.
Aims
5:11
Whole school approaches combine
positive behaviour methods with
appropriate expectations, empathy
and high self-awareness and selfesteem. The extra elements of such
programmes have been described as
‘emotional competence’ – the social
and relationship skills that enable
children to make and sustain
relationships, to become responsible
citizens and eventually to be positive
parents themselves.
Typical aims of a whole school approach are to develop:
the value and self-confidence of each child
specific behaviours which show caring and respect towards one another;
(e.g. do be kind and gentle – don’t hurt other people’s feelings)
classroom routines that result in quality teaching and learning, set up in an
enjoyable and constructive way
a climate of good relationships between teachers3, teachers and children, and
children themselves
a way of helping children to improve their behaviour by meeting their needs
talking and listening skills
a sense of responsibility for one’s own behaviour and actions
a non-threatening environment, where teachers and pupils can express
themselves and listen to each other.
Advantages
5:12
Whole school approaches have
the following advantages:
by including all children, they ensure
that ALL those having difficulties
experience the intervention
by working with ALL children in
the class or school, the dangers
of bullying, victimisation and
unkindness towards unhappy
children are addressed. This may
be enough to alleviate the problems
of some children in this category.
by providing a common language
and agreed set of principles
throughout the school, a programme
within a whole school approach
targeted on particularly needy
children is more likely to work.
3 Although ‘teacher’ is used in this set of aims, all adults in the school are included in such approaches.
19
Reasons for selecting a
whole school approach
5:13
A new head teacher often introduces
whole school approaches. Such
approaches may also be used when
a school has received an Ofsted report
that draws attention to improvements
required in behaviour management.
There are well-established behaviour
packages for schools that offer
a structured approach to these
problems. Behaviour packages are
not discussed in this report, although
their use in the school may provide
a beneficial springboard for helping
children who are not happy. They
reduce the amount of time adults in
the school need to spend on discipline
matters, and alleviate stress levels in
teachers, giving them more time to
identify and support children who are
distressed.
“When I came to the school in
September 1995 the kids were off the
wall. They couldn’t sit still, would fly off
the handle and the LSAs were having
trouble with them. Levels of
achievement were low, with very few
children reaching Level 2 at KS1. It
was clear that we could not tackle the
achievement problem before we
addressed behaviour, and I got some
improvement in that, mainly by losing
my temper! But you cannot continue
with an iron hand, because it doesn’t
work for children when they are
outside the school. They do not
develop self-discipline. I had some
insight into the principles behind whole
school Nurturing Programmes and
went to visit a school where the
programme had been piloted...I saw
no alternative to the whole school
approach. You have to have a whole
group responsibility for behaviour.
There needs to be an infra-structure,
language and methodology, just like
any other curriculum subject.”
(Head teacher, Oxfordshire)
20
Examples of Whole School Approaches
A. Whole School Quality Circle Time Model
How it works
The circle time model is based on the principle of everybody learning to listen
to one another. The interventions are based on what is described as "an ecosystemic" approach to behaviour. A continuous process of circle-meetings is
timetabled for children and adults at which relationships and the organisation of
the school can be discussed. "All the children and adults are encouraged to take
an equal responsibility for the solving of theirs and others concerns and a striving
towards the creation of a positive school ethos."
How the programme is implemented
Training courses are delivered to head teachers and teachers by staff from
a specialist consultancy. Two courses are available:
Closure INSET Day Training Programme for teachers, lunch-time supervisors,
administration staff, support staff, parents and governors on days on which the
school is closed.
Open INSET Day Training programme. The school does not close. The
consultant demonstrates the model with whole classes while staff observe.
The consultant also works in the playground with lunchtime supervisors.
Numbers on courses vary. The lead consultant can train large groups of 400 –
500 people, but the usual course is for between 80 and 200 people.
Schools often ‘host’ a training event for neighbouring schools, using materials
provided by the consultancy, thus cutting the cost for the participating schools.
Back-up materials are available and include books about the method, training
videos and materials to use in school to support the work.
21
A. Whole School Quality Circle Time Model continued
Is it effective?
Evaluators report that this programme “can be used to enhance personal and
social development and to develop a sense of self-worth among pupils –
it is beneficial for all pupils, but particularly those with socialisation problems.”
Tiny Achievable Tickable Targets (TATTs) are commended for building self-esteem
in all pupils, particularly low achievers. A head teacher commented:
“It provides opportunities to tackle difficult behaviours and can provide an
opportunity for shy, quiet children to find their voice.” Evlauation reports include
Dawson, N and McNess, E.- A Report on the Use of Circle Time in Wiltshire
Primary Schools, and, Higgins,C and Watts, S. – Turn Your School Round:
Creating a Listening School (see Appendix 3)
Options within a circle time model include:
1
Circle Time
One of the systems that allow children to speak for themselves and listen to one
another is Circle Time. Many schools use it within other interventions and others use it
on its own. Circle Time is held once a week for all children in the school. Games and
exercises allow children to experience positive relationships, foster a feeling of the
class as a community and establish a safe place in which other activities can occur.
Adults in the school can also have a Circle Time of their own. It can reinforce their
ability to work as a team, listen to and help one another. The adult group should
include, where possible, not only teachers and school managers but other staff
and parents.
22
2
Golden Rules
All members of the school discuss and set up the rules, which, once agreed, are
displayed throughout the school.
3
Incentives
A reward system reinforces the Golden Rules, with stickers and certificates for those
who observe them. The whole school community, including lunchtime supervisors,
caretakers and children, give the incentives.
4
Golden Time
A regular half-hour of school time is reserved for educational activities chosen by
children themselves as a reward for observation of the Golden Rules. It can be
withdrawn from children who break these. Visual warnings are placed beside children
if they break a Golden Rule. If they break another while the warning is out, they lose
part of their Golden Time. If a child is close to losing all Golden Time, there is a
chance through an Earning Back Contract to get it back. Participation in the system
helps children to learn that communities are prepared to put time and effort into
upholding their moral values.
5
Lunchtime Policy
Lunchtime is a time when some children can feel unhappy, because they are lonely,
bored, left out or unable to play. The Whole School Quality Circle Time approach
includes the teaching of playground games, the ‘zoning’ of the playground into
activity areas which are supervised by older children on Playground Patrols, a Task
Force of community service activities for children who need to be constructively
occupied, and Football Parliaments to make sure that football contributes to the
positive ethos of the school.
23
6
Children Beyond
Where children do not respond to these elements of the programme, extra
techniques are used incorporating behavioural, therapeutic and peer support.
Tiny Achievable Tickable Targets are awards that recognise all achievements.
Lower achievers can gain these and build their self-esteem.
Smaller, therapeutic Circle Times can be offered to distressed children. “If other
children see troubled children being offered support, they come to see the school as
a moral community that is prepared to support and help disadvantaged members”.
B. Family Links – The Nurturing Programme
How it works
Teachers are trained to use consistent techniques to manage behaviour in order
to produce positive discipline. Topics and activities addressed in the classroom
sessions are reinforced throughout the school day, indoors and in the playground.
Everybody in the school is trained to use the Nurturing Programme, and training
is also given to parents and to professional practitioners who work with children
and their families – like health visitors and social workers.
How the programme is implemented
The programme is offered by Family Links, a voluntary organisation with
charitable status, which is governed by a Board of five Trustees and advised by
a panel of experts, including many well-known educationalists. INSET training for
school staff lasts for two full days. Schools usually book the training one or two
years in advance because of the need for school closure. The Children’s
Programme consists of ten weekly sessions, repeated each term. Each weekly
session lasts between an hour and an hour and a half for children between 3 and
13 years.
24
B. Family Links – The Nurturing Programme continued
Teacher handbooks set out activities for the weekly sessions in detail. The
guidance for each session consists of a description of the topic, the length of
time it will take and the materials required; an overview, so that the teacher
understands the aims of the activity and a step-by-step guide to each session
giving a description of how the activities should be managed and the goal
achieved.
A parallel Nurturing Programme is offered to parents of children in the school.
The Parents’ Programme is for up to 10 parents at a time and lasts for 10
weeks. It is offered to alI parents in a participating school. Parents become
familiar with what children are learning in the classroom sessions and learn the
emotionally healthy approaches and behaviour management techniques that are
being used throughout the school. These groups have a trained leader, and
operate according to the general description of parents’ groups outlined at the
end of this section.
The process starts with contact between Family Links and the Head teacher or
PSHE Coordinator and:
the school receives an information pack and video
the head teacher and a Family Links representative meet to talk about the
school and the course, discuss costs, dates timetable commitment and other
details
school governors approve the training and agree dates
presentation for school staff
completion of pre-training questionnaire by school
INSET training, perhaps with additional workshops for dinner staff
Nurturing Programme takes place in the school
25
B. Family Links – The Nurturing Programme continued
termly support session for teaching staff, with extra individual classroom
support where needed
supplementary induction training for new staff; refresher training for existing
staff
introduction of parent groups once the programme is successfully established
in the school, (usually after one or two terms).
Is it effective?
The Health Services Research Unit at Oxford University has evaluated this
project. The evaluation showed that teachers felt they had benefited from the
programme in a number of ways: new ideas, an awareness of the importance
of behaviour in terms of academic achievement, increased recognition for
children who behave well, a calming effect within the classroom (Barlow and
Stewart Brown, 1999).
Teachers noted that the programme was effective in changing children’s behaviour
but to a lesser extent when the children had serious behaviour problems. They felt
that parents who had taken part in the parent programme had benefited, and that
these benefits had influenced discipline practices at home.
Family Links has developed a nationwide ‘cascade’ training system where local
teams of trainers, headed by a co-ordinator, take the Nurturing Programme into
schools by training and supporting school staff. The central part of this course is
a five-day induction training, followed by a two-day observation of a school INSET
course, a two-day supervised initial delivery of training in a school and one further day
of supervision and consolidation.
26
Techniques within the Nurturing Programme include:
Classroom rules which are clear and emphasize ‘do’, rather than ‘don’t’
Rewards to reinforce good behaviour
Time Out and other penalties when behaviour is not acceptable
Choices and Consequences, which helps to develop self-discipline
Ignoring the behaviour but not the child
Responsibility used as a reward for children who behave well.
The sessions are intended to educate adults and children to:
communicate effectively
listen attentively
work and play cooperatively
express feelings without acting out or withdrawing
manage anger and stress productively
solve problems and negotiate
develop self-discipline
develop high levels of self-awareness and self esteem
understand the feelings that drive behaviour
have realistic expectations of others and themselves
develop empathy and understanding of others.
27
C. You Can Do It! Education
How it works
There are different versions of ‘Programme Achieve’, the ‘You Can Do It!’
curriculum, for primary year groups 1-2, 3-4 and 5-6. It is a taught programme,
usually delivered as part of the PSHE curriculum. (The programme is also
available for secondary students.)
Teachers are trained in implementing the approach; pupils use worksheets and
undertake specific activities. Time spent on the programme within schools varies,
but it is typically taught for at least one term, once or twice a week and takes
approximately two years to become a whole school approach. The approach can
be used with groups and/or in mentoring individual pupils.
Children ‘develop a Positive Mindset for achievement’ and learn to set individual
targets, based on the ‘You Can Do It!’ habits of the mind based on the four
foundations: confidence, persistence, organisation and getting along, These are
shared with parents at individual consultation meetings, where the approach is
explained to them. A ‘Compass Programme’ is offered to parents.
How the programme is implemented
‘You Can Do It!’ was created in Australia and California by Professor Michael
Bernard and materials and training for teachers and other school staff are
available from a British-based educational consultancy. If more than one school
participates, the training can be delivered more cheaply. The programme is being
introduced in several LEAs and Education Action Zones.
Is it effective?
The programme is fairly new to the UK, but research in the US is quoted as
showing that it teaches ‘at risk’ pupils the characteristics of achieving pupils and
results in an improvement in attitude, school attendance and test scores in 70 –
28
C. You Can Do It! Education continued
80% of them. Success with children with special educational needs, including
emotional and behavioural difficulties is also cited (Bernard, M. 2000).
The head of a primary school who introduced the programme with Year 6 pupils
evaluated the children’s progress using ‘You Can Do It!’ assessment materials
and found that 96% of the class showed an improvement in one or more of the
foundation areas. SATS scores improved markedly.
Schools that have used the programme have been faced with a whole year group
that is not reaching its potential. Some have chosen this approach in preference to
bringing in more support staff or teaching more literacy and numeracy at the expense
of other curriculum areas:
“The first term was an important one: we had the foundation skills all around the
classroom, reminding the class of the skills we needed them to have to be a
successful learner. Whole school assemblies spread the message beyond the Year 6
group which was the target of the programme. Soon other staff were commenting on
confidence, and getting along with others...persistence was frequently heard and
a focus on organisation became more widespread”.
(Head teacher, Dudley)
Small Group Interventions
Small group intervention, in which children with difficulties can spend all or part of the
school day, or use after school, is a well-established form of intervention. The survey
suggested that it was the most common response. There are variations to the size of
the group, the activities within it, the adults who run it, the ratio of adults to children
and the length of time children remain in it.
In a commentary on the Nurture Group, an intervention first piloted in the early
seventies, one of the founders notes that to work effectively schools assume some
29
“It’s a group for seven kids – and what makes it special is that it IS for those
seven kids...It’s a place where a quiet girl can start to speak up. She can
put her hand up and nobody will laugh...It’s a place where you can find out
developments which have not always been achieved by deprived and disadvantaged
children when they start school. Without an early introduction to organisation and
routine, the demands of the large group in school with its need to give and take and
be patient, may be mystifying and overwhelming.
Aims
A small group is easier for these children to cope with, and offers an opportunity for
a higher child-adult ratio. There are many other benefits from small groups including
the chance for children to establish close relationships with one another, the physical
proximity of children and adults leading to closer links between the adults and
children in the group, and the sense of a place and an experience that is special.
Group work may extend to parents, too, where a safe place in which people are on
your side can be supportive.
The advantages of small groups are that:
children who need support can be identified and targeted
the support children receive can be varied according to need
specific therapeutic, social learning can training can be delivered
children learn to relate to other children as there are smaller numbers to relate to,
and they can get to know them better
children learn to relate to adults by having more of them to relate to and getting
to know them better
there is flexibility in the ways groups can be integrated into the school and the
curriculum.
Considerations when Selecting a Group Approach
There are a number of issues to be considered when planning a group approach.
It is important to do this before exploring the specialist help that might be available
from outside organisations. For example, there is little point in trying to set up a group
if there is no space at all in which to hold it.
30
that someone has a real skill – at art, say, and where the others will admire
him for it. It’s a place where children and adults can get to know one
another, work together, speak and be listened to...”
(Organiser, Pyramid Clubs in a group of schools)
Issues to consider:
How many children need extra help? If numbers are small, schools may decide
to collaborate in establishing a group. If numbers are large, different children
may spend different periods of time in a group.
Will the group be for children from one year group, or will the group need to
include children of mixed ages?
When will the group take place? During school time, immediately after school,
at weekends? Will it continue during school holidays?
Where will the group be held? In a school classroom? In another space on
school premises? Off school premises?
How much time will children spend in a group? (This can vary from the whole
school week to a weekly after-school session and everything in between.)
Will the school’s staff be involved in a group, will it be run by specialist staff
from outside the school or will it be run jointly?
If the group is to be held in school time, what are the implications of removing
children from class in relation to the curriculum and other school activities and
for staff? Can a group be integrated and how will this be achieved? How will
children be moved out of the group and reintegrated into their classes?
What resources does the school have which might support a group approach?
Premises, equipment, staff skilled at a small group approach, either teaching or
ancillary staff; volunteers; a PTA or other mechanisms which might raise funds
to support it?
Examples of Group Approaches
Interventions that provide groups for children who have difficulties at school either run
during school time or outside school hours. Examples of both types are given below.
The way in which children are selected to take part is important. Intervention
organisations generally work with schools to make the selection and often offer
mechanisms for doing it successfully.
31
D. Nurture Groups
How it works
Nurture Groups are for groups of 10 to 12 pupils at primary level. The groups
function well across a two-year age band so it makes sense to start as early as
possible. They are run during school time but in a room that has soft furnishings
and cooking facilities. The children have breakfast there, which gives them
important opportunities for learning to relate to others. The children register with
their mainstream class every day, are collected and taken to the Nurture Group
room, usually for most of the day, but re-join the main class at the end of it.
Children are expected to use the group for a short time – usually less than one
school year – gradually spending increased periods in the mainstream as they
are able to cope. A teacher (sometimes the SENCO) and a Learning Support
Assistant staff the group. Volunteers may contribute – improving the staff-child
ratio further. The staff ‘model’ considerate behaviour towards one another.
The rationale of groups is that satisfactory emotional, social and cognitive
development in the earliest years is the product of adequate and attentive
early nurturing care. Missing this, children are unable to engage with normal
age-appropriate school demands. The group gives the child a chance to
experience this missed early care by teaching in ways that suit the child’s
developmental levels.
Relationships in the group are warm and affirming, with an emphasis on talking
and listening. Rules are discussed with the children, who are made aware of the
consequences of behavioural choices rather than punished for them. Feelings
and behaviour are talked about, and children are helped to see themselves as
valued members of the group, and to understand that they will feel better if they
join in constructively.
The key tool for schools is the Boxall Profile. It is used to measure a child’s level
of emotional and behavioural function, highlighting areas for intervention. It is in
32
D. Nurture Groups continued
two parts. Developmental Strands looks at the child’s development and
responses in class how that influences the ability to learn. The scores reveal how
well or badly the child has gone through the early learning processes, organised
experiences and internalised controls. The Diagnostic Profile identifies behaviours
that inhibit or interfere with satisfactory involvement in school. The scoring results
in three groups of children:
self-limiting’ – isolated, uninvolved, almost non-functioning
‘undeveloped behaviour’ – shows unmet emotional needs;
‘unsupported development’- children with such adverse life experiences that
they avoid emotional attachment, have internalised a view of the world as
hostile and react with self-hate, with hostility to others, sometimes with rage.
A completed Profile shows the child’s areas of strength and deficit and helps in
the construction of individual educational plans. It also develops teachers’ skills
in managing behaviour that they have previously found threatening to their
professional confidence. As one teacher wrote: “Confronted with a child whose
anxiety-provoking behaviour seems to make no sense, the Profile is where you
start. It gives you insights and suggests points of entry into the child’s world.”
How the programme is implemented
Essential ingredients for Nurture Groups are space and staff. One school
governor, enthusiastic about the impact on her primary school, felt that this was
a good use of the school’s funds for special educational needs but that every
child and teacher in the school had benefited from the group: “One troubled child
can affect the life of the whole school”.
There are three Certificate Courses at the Universities of Cambridge, Leicester
and London and some LEAs have commissioned courses for their own staff.
INSET courses, lectures and workshops can be arranged throughout the UK.
33
“We all need caring for – the children ask for that sometimes,a cuddle,
a chance to enjoy themselves by playing down on the floor. That kind
of thing is good for us as well as the children.”
(LSA, Nurture Group)
D. Nurture Groups continued
A Handbook is available which contains the essential Boxall Profile with permission
to copy it, instructions for its use and illustrations of its application over time.
Although standardised for use with children aged 3 – 8, it makes sense to start
early interventions as early as possible. Primary schools visited for this research
were using the Profile for older children as part of their placement in a group.
Is it effective?
Research into Nurture Groups is taking place at the School of Education,
University of Cambridge. Schools report measured improvements in individual
children in speech and language development, attendance, meeting targets in
Individual Education Plans, Baseline Assessment and National Curriculum Levels,
which are beyond the expectation of improvement in the Year Group. For
example, improvement in reading accuracy in one Nurture Group is reported
as 9.75 months over an eight month period.
The Nurture Group approach is very specific, though the name is sometimes used
as a generic term for in-school groups that do not use the method. It needs to be
rooted in an individual school, in its ethos and culture, so that there is a two-way
exchange. Children strengthened by the special group are able to re-enter
mainstream class, and the way things are done in school influenced by the
philosophy of the group. Nurture Groups need to be seen as desirable places
by children and parents, and staff need to be supportive.
“It was a small group on every afternoon, about 8 to 10 kids. All those children were
similar, not inferior. They all got on very well; they learned to share in there where
there aren’t so many eyes on them. When there are 30 or 35 children and some are
struggling it’s hard for them to go at their own pace. He loved the two ladies in there;
they have a way with children. It’s like having your grandma to help you.”
(A mother whose 7 year-old son is a ‘graduate’ of a group)
34
E. First Connections: The Dinosaur School
How it works
Courses for parents and children aged 5 to 10 are run outside normal school
time. Courses take place in areas where socio-economic conditions mean that
many families are under stress. They are generally advertised and the course
leader will visit parents who want to attend to discuss their problems and decide
if the course will help with them.
Schools and other agencies can also advise parents that the course is taking
place and that they and their children could find it helpful. On the whole it is an
advantage if group members have children in more than one school. Confidential
matters are discussed in groups and some parents are uncomfortable about
doing this with their neighbours.
There are ten places on each course (though this is flexible and courses often
1
start with slightly more). The course offers a 2 /2 hour session once a week for
15 weeks. Parents and children are in separate groups and come together for the
final half-hour of the session. Often there are 16 -20 children attending with their
parents. The course uses a Webster-Stratton video-based parenting programme.
Each session has distinct objectives. Written materials are kept to a minimum
and language is straightforward, to cater for a wide range of parents. Handouts
are distributed each week and homework activities are set. These are practical
things for the parent to do with the child, focusing on the material covered in the
session tailored to meet the needs of the particular family. Each weekly session
starts with an examination of how well this home practice went.
How the programme is implemented
Trained staff employed by the core organisation run each course. Courses of this
type are offered by different organisations in different parts of the UK. They
employ experienced staff with therapeutic, counselling and group work training.
35
E. First Connections: The Dinosaur School continued
A trained group leader and a colleague, often a practitioner in an agency
concerned with families, run each course. The same leaders remain with the
group throughout its life. Sessional workers, helped by trained volunteers, lead
the children’s groups. A volunteer coordinator based in the organisation recruits,
trains and supports the volunteers, mostly recruited from educational institutions,
usually studying education, psychology or social care, but there are also older
volunteers, some of whom have been teachers.
Is it effective?
A recent study, which compared this programme with several others,
particularly in their ability to change the behaviour of individual children, found
that a sample of 30 children showed a 13% positive shift in their behaviour as
a result of the course, and that a particular impact was made on social and
conduct difficulties. Improvements in social behaviour occur as a result of most
types of intervention, but it can be harder to make a difference to a child with
conduct difficulties4
The group is an important part of the process, with members getting to know
and help one another. Many parents feel relieved that others are also finding it
difficult to manage their children’s behaviour: “The mums helped each other,
you know, knowing that you are not the only one in that situation. We all felt that
people outside thought the kids’ problems were our fault...I wanted to show
I was doing something, and that it wasn’t me creating problems.”
This mother felt that the experience had improved her management of her son:
“He’d seen a psychologist who said that he needed to know boundaries and feel
safe. You have to be consistent, and the course helped me to be consistent.”
Relationships between children in the children’s group are important too.
In their separate group, the children are taught through a range of methods to suit
4 Defined by the World Health Organisation, in its International Classification of Disease as “repetitive and persistent patterns of
antisocial, aggressive or defiant conduct.”
36
E. First Connections: The Dinosaur School continued
their abilities. These include fantasy play, and instruction using large puppets.
Elements of the programme which parents are being taught are put into practice.
Children are observed and parents receive reports on their behaviour in the
group, which has the aim of improving children’s confidence and acceptance
by their peers.
These programmes use a Webster-Stratton video-based parenting programme that
covers the following elements:
Positive Parental Attention Parents discuss video-taped vignettes of parents and
children playing and learning together in appropriate and inappropriate ways and are
asked to be involved in activities with their children at home for 10 minutes every day
using the skills learned in the weekly sessions.
Praise Parents are taught to identify the behaviour they wish to promote, look out for
it and praise it. Parents are themselves praised for doing this.
Incentives Parents are taught to use rewards to encourage children to behave in
preferred ways. Rewards are used as surprises and also in collaboration with the
child, so that he or she works for benefits that have been agreed upon.
Limit Setting Parents are taught to set rules and apply these consistently, but are
supported as they cope with children’s testing of these boundaries.
Ignoring Skills Parents learn to ignore certain irritating behaviour in their children, and
not to respond by nagging, scolding or shouting at them. ‘Time Out’ is an advanced
form of ignoring, in which children are removed for a brief time from parental attention
so that they can calm down and reflect on their behaviour. It is encouraged as an
alternative to the physical punishment of children.
Natural and Logical Consequences This teaches parents to spell out to children
the consequences of their behaviour if they continue in it. The aim is to teach children
to take responsibility for their own behaviour.
37
F. National Pyramid Trust
How it works
Children have an instinctual desire for acceptance by their own age group. Once
this need is satisfied, and they have become part of an integrated group of children,
they are much more open to academic learning. The programme is designed to
reach children at the key time of 7 – 9 years. It aims to prevent problems in
adolescence, when disaffected young people are likely to be harder to reach.
Teachers of the selected year group, usually Year 3 or 4, screen all the children in
the year using a Pyramid checklist. This covers attitude, attendance, general
development and well-being.
At subsequent interdisciplinary meeting class teachers, together with people from
other agencies working with children and families such as health, social services,
education welfare and psychology staff, discuss the children who may be ‘at risk’
and the various types of support are identified.
Between eight and ten children who are likely to benefit are offered the chance to
join an after school club, running one day a week for ten weeks. The once-aweek club runs for one and a half hours directly after school. Volunteers recruited
and trained by a local Pyramid Club coordinator staff the club. Three volunteer
leaders will be at the club venue before the children arrive, run the activities and
stay until parents collect the children. The ethos of the club is of a special, select
and desirable place in a secure group. Leaders will help the group to fuse.
Activities are designed to develop interaction and loyalty between the children.
At the halfway stage there is always an outing, which the children choose.
Children who have taken part in the clubs describe the activities as being fun.
They did exciting things, made T-shirts with their names on them, liked taking
these things home, liked the leader and other volunteers. Some children
particularly enjoyed sports activities; others liked art or cooking best. Several
noted that they liked having the time to do activities for as long as they wished.
38
F. National Pyramid Trust continued
How the programme is implemented
Pyramid schemes are organised by local coordinators who develop clubs in
several schools. Each coordinator works to a local steering group that represents
statutory and voluntary services interested in the prevention of later difficulties in
children. For example a partnership could include the local authority and a further
education college interested in developing support for parents, or Health
Promotion staff, the Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service (CAMHS),
Educational Psychologists and organisations like Barnardo's and the NSPCC.
An essential first step towards establishing school clubs is setting up a local
partnership and finding the money to employ a coordinator is. An LEA or an
Education Action Zone rather than individual schools can often take the initiative.
The coordinator then explains the Pyramid process to the schools in the area
and establishes clubs in those that want them.
Schools that participate nominate a ‘link teacher’, who needs some time for this
task. On average this is half a non-contact day each term. All training and
meetings are held after school hours. The link teacher is on the school premises
when the club takes place but is not involved in running it. Several schools noted
that this was an important aspect of this programme – the club itself is a private
place. In one school it coincided with the staff meeting. “We allow the club to
happen and trust the leaders to get on with it,” commented the head.
The coordinator recruits and trains volunteers. These may come from local
colleges, via a local volunteer bureau or from among the parents and volunteers
already working in the school. Volunteers are checked and trained in the Pyramid
approach and matters like health and safety and child protection. The progress
of club members is monitored and reported to the school and the steering group.
39
F. National Pyramid Trust continued
Is it effective?
A study of 13 clubs has shown that nearly 60% of the children who participated
in a club showed an improvement in self-esteem, compared with just fewer than
25% of a control group. A more recent study concluded that children attending
groups showed improvements in emotional difficulties and relationships with their
peers. Improvements in writing skills and numeracy have also been reported
(Makins, V. 1997: Skinner, C. 1996).
G. Groups which take place off the school premises
How it works
Small group support can be provided outside the school in a building that has
been adapted for the purpose. In one area, where the early intervention project
is aimed at Year One pupils from eight local primary schools, the building is
described as “a small, secure but homely school environment, where each pupil
can follow their Individual Education Plan (IEP) and take part in small and larger
group work as appropriate.”
Practical arguments for extra-school venues include: availability of resources;
possibilities for extra activities – such as preparing food together; opportunities
for children from different schools to meet; opportunities for social learning by
children on the journey to and from the venue; reduced likelihood that the group
will be stigmatised by other children.
How it is implemented
Groups outside the school may operate using similar methods to in-school
groups. Many such groups are run by LEA Behavioural Support Services, often
40
G. Groups which take place off the school premises continued
using elements of the Nurture Group approach. In an area with a group for eight
schools, for example, a maximum of ten children attend for five mornings a
week, usually for two or three terms. In addition, the project staff, who are based
at the homely venue, work with the children both before they join the group and
after return to full-time mainstream school.
The project also works with each child’s family, meeting weekly either on the
premises or at the family home. Although this system appears to reduce the
amount of time the school will need to spend on the intervention, the experience
of areas that use it suggests that this may not be so. Joint planning and
collaboration between school and project are necessary in for children to benefit
from the group.
Once the period in the project is over, the child will need to be reintegrated into
the class, supported in the improved behaviour and the involvement with the
project staff can then be gradually reduced. This phase of reintegration may take
between half and one full term.
Is it effective?
In one area where an extra-school group has been working with ten schools,
the majority of head teachers expressed a preference for a programme to be
delivered on the school site. Most also preferred a group which would be for
children of their own school only. The heads were concerned about children
missing elements of the National Curriculum, and some felt that children were
more boisterous at school on the day following the intervention project. However,
all the children questioned felt that the out-of-school venue was better. They
said: “You can concentrate because it’s quiet, school is really noisy.” “It’s a nice
place where you can play with toys.” ”It’s not crowded, not noisy and not too
big.” An evaluation of this latter project noted that in an ideal situation the
intervention would be developed by school staff and delivered in school.
41
One-to-One
Having a special friend can help children through hard times, just as it can help
adults. This principle – of having someone on your side that is always around to help
– underpins another approach to children who are causing concern: an individual
who works with them on a one-to-one basis
“I work with one child every day. I sit in class with him for about an hour and a half
each morning to try and maintain some stability and keep him in the classroom.
When I first began to work with him I spent most of the time trying to pin him down –
even to find him sometimes was a great achievement. He would just get up and walk
out of class for no reason at all. Most of the time he went around without shoes on,
he would run around with them tucked under his arm. On occasions he would drop a
shoe if he was in a hurry and there lay the clue to where he had been. I have learned
a lot about his young life through talking to him. On the positive side I have seen a
remarkable change in him and I can talk and reason with him...To be able to work in
an open partnership with a child to the mutual benefit of us both is so rewarding.”
(Pastoral Care Worker, Schools Outreach)
The two main approaches are:
an individual trained to support children who is based in the school, so children can
have ready access either when they wish or at fixed times
a mechanism for finding, training and matching individual adults to individual
children so that they can spend periods of time together, either during the school
day, outside it, or both.
Both approaches have considerable resource implications. Although many primary
schools have built up a group of volunteer helpers from the local community, and
although existing volunteers may wish to train for one-to-one work with children,
the training is crucial. The kind of support distressed children need goes beyond
befriending and the people who are giving it will need support, help and advice
themselves.
42
The advantages of one-to-one support are that:
it is a simple concept to understand
it can be targeted on the most needy children
it is concentrated and intensive
it is a way of giving the child (and family) time to talk confidentially about problems
it may provide ‘mediation’ between the family and the school where relationships
have been damaged – because the child’s supporter is seen as independent.
Many of the methods used by whole school approaches and group-work with
children can also be applied in programmes that are delivered one-to-one to
individual children. Although it would seem that this approach is likely to be more
expensive, much one-to-one work, because it is intensive, can be carried out over
a shorter period. It may also be most appropriate for those children with the most
severe problems.
H. The Place to Be
How it works
The roots of this intervention – known as P2B for short – are in psychotherapy and
counselling. The help offered by ‘the Place to Be’ is intended to alleviate the
stresses that lead to mental illness, and it is not unlike the services that try to help
adults who are suffering from stress. The organisation describes itself as “a
preventive mental health service for children in schools”. The ethos is child-centred,
with the emphasis on allowing children to express themselves and to be heard.
The programme offers a range of supports, all based on therapeutic counselling.
A school with a ‘Place to Be’ will have a Project Manager with a therapeutic
qualification and at least three years experience as a practitioner. Some will be
qualified teachers; others may have worked in various health and personal social
service roles. In some cases managers were originally ‘Place to Be’ counsellors.
43
H. The Place to Be continued
The Project Manager supports a team of volunteer counsellors who work in the
school from a special room – the place to be – usually for two or three days a
week. The room is equipped with art and play materials. Teachers refer children
about whom they are concerned. In some cases parents suggest that help is
needed. The child attends individual sessions with a volunteer counsellor for up
to one hour per week, either for a fixed number of sessions or for an open-ended
period for up to a year. A volunteer will work with up to four children exclusively.
Each child is collected from class, brought to the ’Place to Be’ and taken back at
the end of the session. Work with individual children is tightly managed and
needs to be timetabled.
‘The Place to Be’ also offers work with children in groups, also led by trained
staff. ‘The Place To Talk’ offers individual counselling through self-referral as a
lunchtime drop-in service. In one school visited there was a post-box, into which
children could put messages about their problems as another means of access.
‘The Place to Think’ provides support for teaching staff. They can consult with
the Project Manager about the emotional needs of children. “The attitudes here
are the same as those in the Place to Be – somewhere calm and safe where you
can talk and be listened to. It takes a load from teachers when they can do this.”
How the programme is implemented
‘Place to Be’ recruits and trains both salaried staff and volunteer trainee
counsellors and therapists who do the bulk of the direct work with children.
However the programme engages closely with the school, and cannot operate
without the commitment of staff and the head teacher.
Each School Project Manager has a team of four volunteer counsellors who give
emotional support under their supervision to the children. ‘Place to Be’ provides
initial training in emotional communication with children, in two-day summer and
winter schools, plus induction into the school setting. Throughout the school year
44
H. The Place to Be continued
there are further training courses. ‘Place to Be’ has developed a counsellors’
training course that is in the process of accreditation with the Open College
Network.
Local organisation of ‘the Place to Be’ is based on a ‘hub’ or ‘cluster system
of up to ten schools. A steering group of head teachers, LEA representatives,
health and social services staff, school governors and others is responsible for
raising funding for the programme and liaising with ‘the Place to Be’ organisation.
It also investigates the potential for recruiting volunteer counsellors locally and
collaborates with the organisation in overseeing the progress of the programme
in the participating schools.
Is it effective?
This intervention is a major undertaking for a school, since it involves close
collaboration between the Head teacher, the SENCO and ‘the Place to Be’,
with several new personnel working within the school. This means that the
programme may take some time to ‘bed down’ and that in the early stages care
will be needed to ensure that expectations, both from staff and children are
realistic. It is important that all staff welcome the introduction of the programme
and ‘the Place to Be’ runs induction workshops for them to aid this process.
During 1999/2000 the organisation worked with 36% of children in 28 schools.
Teachers report that 87% of the children showed positive change. In participating
schools it is a sense of a general enhancement of the whole community that is
most often noted.
“Children tell you it works. A child comes back to the Place to Be, knocks on the
door and says he feels better; teachers feedback the improvements in individuals;
teacher retention is better: staff want to stay here now.”
(Project Manager)
45
I. Schools Outreach
How it works
This programme offers preventive pastoral care through a non-official ‘adult
friend’ based in the school that can make relationships with children and help
their personal development.
An adult worker is recruited in partnership with the school by a specialist
organisation according to an agreed recruitment profile.
“N and C are two very high spirited girls in Year 6. The fact that they both have
very strong characters has caused major problems and confrontations within the
class in recent months this has had a knock-on effect in that the class likes to
see their fiery disagreements, take sides and cause general mayhem in lessons.
The Head and the class teacher called me in and asked if I had any ideas...it
was agreed that I could see both girls separately and together for as long as it
took during that day. The first session with C. was full of anger at the many ways
N had annoyed her in the past...I went on to listen, play back what I had heard
and then suggested I bring N in to tell her side of the story...Emphasizing that I
was not there to take sides but to find a solution they were both happy with, we
went on to discuss the fact that the class were using their temperaments to
wind them both up, using them as light entertainment to get out of doing
lessons...the girls finally both agreed that they had had enough of the constant
battles...A contract was formed which stated that the girls would not be drawn
into arguments initiated by others and would keep their distance from each other
for a week.... We have now had four sessions and the girls are delighted at how
they have managed to keep their promise to each other and at the control they
feel they have gained over their own lives...The teacher has said how the
atmosphere in the class has changed...”
(Primary Pastoral Care Worker).
46
I. Schools Outreach continued
The pastoral care worker responds to situations as they arise, working with
parents, sometimes making home visits and arranging informal home/school link
events, even running childcare for parents attending parents’ evenings. The role
is a flexible one, accountable to the Head teacher.
How the programme is implemented
An interested school contacts Schools Outreach, a voluntary organisation with
charitable status, discusses the need for a worker and the financial implications.
The organisation cooperates with the school in raising the finance for the project.
Schools Outreach recruits a full-time worker according to a profile, drawn up with
the school, of the type of person likely to meet the school’s needs. The worker
will be in post for four years and is expected to live in the community from which
the school’s children are drawn.
All workers spend the first months in full-time training with the organisation for
the Diploma in Pupil Pastoral Care that is accredited by the Oxford and
Cambridge RSA Examining Board. The initial training programme, designed to
equip workers for the one-to-one pastoral care of pupils, enables trainees to
focus on the principles and practice of several models of pastoral care, with
particular consideration given to the Judeo-Christian model. Training continues
once the worker is in post, and involves the completion of a written assignment.
Workers are based either in one school or a pair of schools. They are
accountable to the Head teacher but employed and supported by the external
organisation. This distinction is important, as the outreach worker needs to be
seen by parents and children as of the school but not of any perceived hierarchy.
Workers are based either in one school or a pair of schools. They are
accountable to the Head teacher but employed and supported by the external
organisation. This distinction is important, as the outreach worker needs to be
seen by parents and children as of the school but not of any perceived hierarchy.
47
I. Schools Outreach continued
Is it effective?
A study of statistical evidence of the outcomes of this programme by Schools
Outreach itself showed a significant fall in exclusions, in particular in one school
where these fell from 50 (before worker) to four while the worker was in the
school. When the school was temporarily without a worker they rose again
quickly. In three schools Head teachers estimated that 15 children would have
been referred for multi-agency assessments if it had not been for the support
they received from the outreach workers. These heads calculated that the local
authority had made considerable savings because case conferences,
assessments and in-class support for pupils had not been necessary. Though
these figures are imprecise, they indicate the kind of impact some schools
consider the pastoral care worker has made.
J. Chance UK
How it works
Chance UK is a local, community-based organisation that recruits, trains and
matches volunteers to individual children as ‘mentors’. Mentoring is an approach
that has been used in a wide variety of situations to support children and adults
by offering them the unconditional friendship of an individual, who gets to know
them, stands alongside them, acts as an advocate for them when they need it
and helps them to reach goals which they set for themselves.
Some of the most successful schemes in the UK have been with young people,
especially those who are unemployed or ‘at risk’ of criminal behaviour. Mentors
do not have to be qualified, but they do need motivation and commitment, and
they usually receive some training. CHANCE works in three London Boroughs,
48
J. Chance UK continued
and offers its services to all the primary schools in one, and to a selection of
schools in the others. CHANCE works in three London Boroughs, and offers its
services to all the primary schools in one, and to a selection of schools in the
others.
Mentors are recruited both for children and parents. The child mentoring involves
one-to-one weekly meetings between adult and child that usually last for two to
four hours. The meetings may take place in the child’s home, on the premises of
CHANCE, in public libraries, community centres and other suitable places.
Mentors will often take the children out on visits or to pursue activities. Parent
mentoring is for eight sessions over two to three months.
Schools are briefed about the programme. Class teachers and SENCOs make
referrals using the Goodman Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire that gives
a score for behavioural problems and sub scores for hyperactivity, conduct,
social skills and peer relationship problems. Social and economic circumstances
are also taken into account.
The children who have been referred have multiple problems. All are aged
between 5 and 11 and the majority – almost all – have been boys. The
commonest behaviour difficulties are hyperactivity and conduct problems, and
40-50% have been excluded or considered for exclusion at some time.
CHANCE screens, trains, monitors and supervises the mentors. There is a
3- day training programme that covers communication and interpersonal skills,
understanding different family contexts, child protection and safety guidance,
solution-focused mentoring skills and group interaction as well as introducing the
programme and the responsibilities of mentors. Between 20% and 40% drop-out
at this stage, which is not unusual in mentoring programmes: they demand a
great deal from the volunteers. Once a mentoring relationship has been
established, fewer than 10% of relationships breakdown. New mentors can
sometimes be introduced when this happens.
49
J. Chance UK continued
How the programme is implemented
CHANCE UK is a registered charity that administers the programmes, provides
and supervises the mentors and matches them with the children. If a child is
accepted onto the programme, CHANCE staff arrange a visit to the family to
carry out a comprehensive assessment and obtain the agreement of the child
and parent. The programme staff maintain contact with the parents during the
course of the mentoring relationship. Parents also attend quarterly review
meetings to set and agree the goals of the programme for their child and to
review progress.
Each Programme Manager supports, through monthly supervisions and also
regular telephone contact, up to 20 mentors. The Senior Programme Manager
and the Chief Executive provide oversight of all programmes. CHANCE is
governed by a Board of Trustees and also has an Advisory Council which
supports and advises the programmes. The membership of the latter includes
representatives of various relevant agencies and professionals, parents, volunteer
mentors and referrers.
Is it effective?
The programme has been independently evaluated and interim findings suggest
some encouraging results. Mothers have reported positive changes in their
child’s behaviour, and improvements in their relationship with the child. Typical
observations have been that the children are more confident, better mannered,
more amenable, more considerate, loving and helpful. Teachers have noted
positive changes in behaviour, ability to communicate, willingness to share and
cooperate. There are also indications that these have led to improvements in
academic performance.
50
These three approaches – whole school, group and one-to-one – are not mutually
exclusive. Specialist organisations may offer a combination of all of them in their
programmes. Most of the organisations also work with parents.
Involving Parents
Support can be offered to parents. Intervention is concerned with ‘the whole child’
and that means the child at home and in the community as well as at school. It is
clear from accounts of unhappy children that the reasons for unhappiness and stress
can often lie at home (though they may be exacerbated by things that happen at
school). Head teachers sometimes feel that parents are not always able to reinforce
the behaviour expectations of the school.
When planning support for parents, consideration needs to include whether the work
takes place on the school premises, what methods will be used and how much
support will cost. The extra benefits for parents, particularly for their own mental
well-being, mean that some funding may be available from health sources.
Aims
Offering support to parents of children who are experiencing difficulties is a delicate
business. The aim will be to improve the situation for the child. Parents should not
feel that the child’s problems are being blamed on them. Some parents may not have
good memories of their own experience of school, and may not see teachers as
being ‘on their side’. They may see the school’s approach as ‘being told what to do’.
On the other hand, home-school liaison can make an enormous difference to the way
all parents see the role of school in their child’s life, and those who have the worst
memories of school are often keenest that their children should have better ones.
The development of home-school liaison has focused on the important contribution
of parental involvement in raising the achievement of pupils. Especially important are:
the child’s needs as the central concern
parents and children working together
51
making homework more effective
the involvement of fathers;
the recognition of parents’ own need to learn and develop.
These considerations are particularly relevant where the child is not flourishing at
school, but it is important that where interventions include parents, they do so in an
inclusive climate. Collaboration with an organisation external to the school can be
helpful in making an intervention acceptable to parents as the organisation can often
be seen as independent. Because personal and family problems may contribute to
the child’s difficulties, parents will need reassurances about confidentiality and may
draw those reassurances from the involvement of an organisation that is separate
from the school.
Parental participation in interventions is voluntary. Parents cannot be made to do it,
nor should they feel that there is any compulsion. It is therefore important that
support:
is offered with sensitivity
is easy to participate in (with thought given to questions like the comfort of the
venue, transport, timing and childcare)
sounds as though it will be enjoyable
emphasizes confidentiality.
Building Trust
This will be more attractive to parents if they feel they can trust the people who will
be delivering the support.
A father explained how his daughter 7, described as lacking in confidence and easily
distracted, had lived for a while with her grandparents when the family had housing
problems. He felt that her problems might have been caused by ‘lack of boundaries’.
He and his wife were under strain and contradicting one another, and the
grandparents would introduce further contradictions. “They gave in and let her get
52
her own way.” Waiting for the child at school he was approached by the leader of
a group for parents, who introduced herself and talked about the programme.
He understood the programme to be ‘a family meeting to help us understand our
children.’ He was very drawn to the leader: “She was a very friendly, sensible person”
and this was his initial reason for joining the group. (Father, Hampshire)
Offering separate support for parents can make considerable demands upon their
time and resources. But where the intervention is felt to be effective, parents are
willing to stick with it. This is one of the securest ways of judging if the intervention
is useful to parents: if it helps the relationship with their child most will complete
demanding courses.
“I liked going to the group. Very little judgement goes on – people naturally do judge,
but it never shows. I got a lot of understanding.”
(Mother, Oxford)
Benefits for Parents
Parents report personal benefit from parenting groups:
friendship from others ‘in the same boat’
a source of advice when they are faced with particular difficulties
increased confidence and self-esteem
better understanding of the child’s difficulties.
“Actually you come out refreshed when you go in there. You go in all tense and
you think. ‘Oh God, what a week I’ve had,’...and then you think ‘They’ve had it
worse than what I have. What am I complaining about?’ And you come out and
you’ve got it all off your shoulders. There’s nothing left winding you up...and it just
keeps you going.”
(Mother, Slough)
53
Appendices
Appendix 1:
Research
1.
2.
`Evidence to a House of Commons
select committee from child
psychiatrist Dr Stephen Scott, of the
Institute of Psychiatry, suggested that
10% of children had problems which
affected their ability to make friends,
go to school and "function
productively...persistent problems
lasting for a year or more which really
handicap the ability to be happy."
The incidence of children under 10
admitted to hospital with psychiatric
disorders like depression and eating
problems is increasing.
3.
Among the factors that contribute to
the risk of criminal behaviour in young
people are low attainment at school
and aggressive and troublesome
behaviour. Over 40% of 7 and 8 yearolds with conduct disorders become
recidivist delinquents as teenagers.
Psychiatric disorders that follow from
conduct disorders include alcoholism,
drug dependence and anti-social
personality disorders, with a range of
other anti-social behaviour.
4.
Prevention and intervention
programmes are based on the
possibility that cognitive, emotional
and social skills and school
achievement can be enhanced, and
that risky behaviour can be altered.
The best evidence that this is possible
comes from evaluations of early
childhood education.
5.
Programmes that begin in the first year
of life have shown immediate and
strong effects on children’s IQ scores
(Brooks-Gunn et al. 1992; Campbell
and Ramey 1994). There are also
documented long-term effects on
children’s emotional outcomes. For
example, the Perry Pre-School
Programme has shown lasting
reduction in delinquent behaviour at
Mental health problems in children
make more likely:
poor behaviour in school
low school achievement
school exclusion
poor social relationships
involvement in crime
drug and alcohol abuse
truanting
attempted suicide and suicide
and
teenage pregnancy, homelessness
and other problems in later life.
54
currently available about interventions.
There remains, as noted above, an
absence of experimental studies at the
primary level, but research is reported
which suggests that the receipt of
services in the primary school years
influences children’s achievement.
age 14, and less involvement with the
criminal justice system at ages 19 and
27 (Karoly et al, 1998; Schweinhart et
al, 1993).
6.
7.
Intervention programmes in primary
schools are rarely based on random
assignment of children, classes or
schools and tend to be added on to
existing school activities. This makes
evaluation of the kind applied to early
years intervention difficult, because
significant effects may be attributable
to the quality of other aspects of the
schooling besides the intervention.
There has been far less randomised,
controlled investigation of primary
stage intervention. However, some
programmes, which extend into
primary school from the early years
have undergone controlled evaluation
(St. Pierre et al. 1995; Heberle 1992)
and have shown positive outcomes for
children and families.
A complete over-view of the current
state of knowledge about intervention
is contained in the recent paper: What
do we know about Children’s
Development from Theory, Intervention
and Policy? (Jeanne Brooks-Gunn,
Columbia University, 2001). This paper
reviews all the evaluative material
8.
All the interventions described in this
report have been examined by
independent researchers. Studies have
sometimes been instigated by the
organisations who deliver the service.
A randomised, controlled study of the
Family Links Programme is underway
(Health Services Research Unit,
Oxford) and studies into the Nurture
Group approach are conducted by a
research team based at Cambridge
University. Local Education Authorities
have commissioned studies of
interventions being delivered in their
schools: researchers from Bristol
University have reported on Whole
School Quality Circle Time for Wiltshire
Education Authority, the a team from
the University of Dundee have looked
at the implementation of the same
model in Scottish Schools. Most
research uses a pre- and post-testing
method to gauge change in children
who experience the programmes. The
55
results of these studies are
summarised in the ‘Is it Effective?’
sections of this report.
9.
In compiling material for Intervening
Early information was received
from120 education authorities and
schemes in England and from 55
Education Action Zones. Thirty-five
field visits were made to schools using
some of the more commonly used
interventions.
Brooks-Gunn, J., Liaw, F.
and Klebanov, P.K (1992)
Effects of early intervention on low
birth weight preterm infants: what
aspects of cognitive functioning
are enhanced?
Journal of Pediatrics 120, 350-359
Campbell F.A. and Ramey C.T. (1994)
Effects of early intervention on
intellectual and academic
achievement: a follow-up study
from low-income families.
Child development 65, 684-698
Karoly, L.A. et al (1998)
Investing in our children: What we
know and what we don’t know
about the benefit of early childhood
interventions.
Rand, Santa Monica.
56
Schweinhart, L.J. et al (1993)
Significant benefits: The High/Scope
Perry Preschool Study through age 27.
High/Scope Press, Ypsilanti.
St. Pierre et al. (1995)
Two-generation programmes: design,
cost and short-term effectiveness.
The Future of Children 5, 76-93.
Heberle, J. (1992)
Pace: parents and child education
in Kentucky in Sticht. T.B, Beeler, M.J,
and McDonald B.A (Eds)
The intergenerational transfer of
cognitive skills: Vol 1. Programmes,
Policy and Research Issues.
126 – 148
Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001)
What do we know about Children’s
Development from Theory,
Intervention and Policy.
Paper for the Jacobs
Foundation, Zurich.
Appendix 2:
Intervention Specialists
The Bridge Foundation
12 Sydenham Road,
Cotham,
Bristol
BS6 5SH
Telephone: 0117 942 4510
Chance (UK)
Unit S1/S2
89-93 Fonthill Road
London N4 3JH
Telephone: 0207 281 5858
E-mail: [email protected]
Class Hoppers (Children Learning
Acceptable Social Skills)
Connexions
9A St John’s Place,
Newport
Isle of Wight
PO30 1LH
Telephone: 01983 527565
C’mon Everybody
Northbank Curriculum and
Professional Development Centre,
Shiregreen Lane,
Sheffield S5 6AG
Telephone: 0114 242 2514
Early Intervention Project
The Acorns
220 Stamford Road,
Dagenham
Essex
RM9 4EL
Telephone: 0208 270 6572
Family Links
Annette Mountford
Family Links
New Marston Centre,
Jack Straws Lane,
Oxford
OX3 0DL
Telephone: 01865 454004
E-mail: [email protected]
Family Nurturing Network
Ivana Klimes
Family Nurturing Network,
Ground Floor, Temple Court
109 Oxford Road,
Cowley,
Oxford OX4 2ER
Telephone: 01865 777756
E-mail: [email protected]
57
INCLUDE
Training, Advice and Consultancy
5 Prospect Place
Swansea
SA1 1QP
Telephone: 01792 556610
Nurture Groups
Marion Bennathan
Nurture Groups
24 Murray Mews,
London NW1 9RJ
Telephone: 0207 485 2025
E-mail: [email protected]
The National Pyramid Trust
Allan Watson
The National Pyramid Trust
84 Uxbridge Road
London W13 8RA
Telephone: 0208 579 5108
E-mail: [email protected]
NSPCC
Education Programme Office
NSPCC National Centre
42 Curtain Road,
London EC2A 3NH
Telephone:
020 7825 2500
58
The Place To Be
Benita Refson
The Place To Be
Edinburgh House,
154-182 Kennington Lane,
London SE11 4EZ
Telephone: 0207 820 6487
E-mail: [email protected]
Positive Play
Clay Cross Infant School
Parkhurst Place,
Clay Cross
Chesterfield,
Derbyshire S45 9LQ
Telephone: 01246 862179
The Quiet Place
Department of Education,
19 Abercromby Square,
Liverpool
L69 7ZG
Telephone: 01792 556610
Schools Outreach
Gordon Bailey
Schools Outreach
10 High Street,
Bromsgrove,
Worcs B61 8HQ
Telephone: 01527 574404
E-mail: [email protected]
School Inclusion Project Primary
Camden Education
100 Stanhope Street,
London NW1 3JX
Telephone: 020 7974 8027
School House Education
10 St John’s Vale
Deptford
London SE8 4EN
Telephone: 0208 691 7102
The Whole School Quality
Circle Time Model
Jenny Mosley
Whole School Quality Circle Time
28A Gloucester Road,
Trowbridge,
Wiltshire,
BA14 0AA
Telephone:01225 767157
E-mail:
[email protected]
You Can Do It!
Sue Overy and Janet Dobson,
Prospects Education Services,
C/o Prospects South London
Head Office
7th Floor Grosvenor House
125 High Street
Croydon
CR0 9XP
Telephone: 020 8649 6400
E-mail: [email protected]
Organisations which offer general advice:
National Association for
Pastoral Care in Education,
Institute of Education
University of Warwick
Coventry CV4 7AL
Telephone: 02476 523810
E-mail: [email protected]
Young Minds
102-108 Clerkenwell Road,
London EC1M 5SA
Telephone 0207 336 8445
E-mail: [email protected]
59
Mental Health Foundation
20 -21 Cornwall Terrace,
London NW1 4QL
Telephone 0207 535 7400
E-mail: [email protected]
Association of Workers for Children
with Emotional and Behavioural
Difficulties
c/o Allan Rimmer
Charlton Court
East Sutton,
Kent ME17 3DQ
Telephone 01622 843104
E-mail: [email protected]
Coram Family
Coram Family Campus,
49 Mecklenburgh Square,
London WC1N 2QA
Telephone: 020 7520 0300
E-mail: [email protected]
60
Appendix 3:
References and Further Reading
About the problems that mean that
children have difficulties:
Asher, S. and Coie, J. [eds] (1990) Peer
Rejection in Childhood Cambridge
University Press
McCord, J. and Tremblay R. [eds] (1992)
The Prevention of Anti-Social Behaviour in
Children Guilford. New York
Robins, L. and Rutter, M. (1990) Straight
and Devious Pathways from Childhood to
Adolescence Cambridge University Press
About the impact of these difficulties:
Graham, J. (1988) Schools, Disruptive
Behaviour and Delinquency: A Review of
Research Home Office Research Study 96.
HMSO London
Goleman, D. (1995) Emotional Intelligence:
Why it can matter more than IQ
Bloomsbury. London
Hartley-Brewer, E. (1999) Hindered by
Unhappiness: a review of primary school
interventions to support children who
cause concern Coram Family. London
Hayden, C. (1997) Exclusions from Primary
School: children ‘in need’ and children with
‘special education need’. Emotional and
Behavioural Difficulties Vol.2. No.3 Winter
Mental Health Foundation (1999) Brighter
Futures: Promoting Children and Young
People’s Mental Health.
Report on the first major enquiry into the
factors affecting mental health and
emotional development among young
people.
Pugh, G. (1999) Children and Families:
a view at the millennium Community Care,
Sept.
About the difference interventions
can make:
Ball, M. and Awan, S. (2001) Never Too
Early Crime Concern and Thames Valley
Partnership
Barlow, J. and Stewart Brown, S. (1999)
Pilot Study of a Home-School Linked
Parent-Training Programme Health
Services Research Unit, Department
of Public Health, Oxford.
Bennathan, M. and Boxall, M. (2000)
Effective Interventions in Primary Schools:
Nurture Groups David Fulton. London
Bernard, M. (2000) ‘You Can Do It!’
Education: Research background
and research evaluation studies.
You Can Do It! California
61
Brooks-Gunn, J., Liaw, F. and Klebanov,
P.K (1992) Effects of early intervention
on low birth weight preterm infants:
what aspects of cognitive functioning
are enhanced? Journal of Pediatrics
120, 350-359
Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001) What do we know
about Children’s Development from Theory,
Intervention and Policy. Paper for the
Jacobs Foundation, Zurich.
Buchanan, A. and Hudson, B. [eds] (1998)
Parenting, Schooling and Children’s
Behaviour. Ashgate. Aldershot (Includes
Webster-Stratton, C. and Taylor, T.
Adopting and Implementing Empirically
Supported Interventions: a recipe
for success.)
Campbell F.A. and Ramey C.T. (1994)
Effects of early intervention on intellectual
and academic achievement: a follow-up
study from low-income families. Child
development 65, 684-698
Cole, T. Visser, J. and Upton, G. (1998)
Effective Schooling for Pupils with
Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties
David Fulton. London
Dawson, N and McNess, E. (undated)
A Report on the Use of Circle Time in
Wiltshire Primary Schools) School of
Education, University of Bristol
62
Department for Education and Employment
(2000) Statistics of Education: Permanent
exclusions from maintained schools in
England Issue 10/00
Stationery Office. London
Heberle, J. (1992) Pace: parents and child
education in Kentucky in Sticht. T.B,
Beeler, M.J, and McDonald B.A (Eds) The
intergenerational transfer of cognitive skills:
Vol 1. Programmes, Policy and Research
Issues. 126 – 148
Highfield Junior School (1997) Changing
out school: Promoting positive behaviour
Highfield Junior School (Torridge Way,
Efford, Plymouth, Devon PL3 6JQ) and
Institute of Education (20 Bedford Way,
London WC1H 0AL) – describes how one
school introduced a range of interventions
in consultation with the children, with
dramatic results.
Higgins, C. and Watt, S (1999) Turn Your
School Round: Create a Listening School
Scottish Executive
Hurry, J. and Sylva, K. (1988) Long-term
effects of two interventions for children
with reading difficulties QCA
Karoly, L.A. et al (1998) Investing in our
children: What we know and what we
don’t know about the benefit of early
childhood interventions.
Rand, Santa Monica.
St. Pierre et al. (1995) Two-generation
programmes: design, cost and short-term
effectiveness. The Future of Children
5,76-93.
Kraemer, S.(2000) Promoting Resilience in
Children in International Journal of Child
and Family Welfare Vol. 4 No.
Schweinhart, L.J. et al (1993) Significant
benefits: The High/Scope Perry Preschool
Study through age 27. High/Scope Press,
Ypsilanti.
Little M, and Mount K, (1999) Prevention
and Early Intervention With Children in
Need. Dartington Social Research Series
Sharp, S. and Cowie, H. (1998)
Counselling and Supporting
Children in Distress Sage. London
Makins, V. (1997) The Invisible Children
David Fulton/ National Pyramid Trust
Skinner, C. (1996) Evaluation of the
Effectiveness of Pyramid Clubs held
in 1995-96 University of Surrey
Maughan, B. (1994) School Influences in
Rutter, M. and Hay, D.F. [eds] Development
through Life. A Handbook for Clinicians
Blackwell Scientific Publications
Mosley, J. (1993) Turn Your School Round.
Wisbech. Learning Development Aids
Mosley, J. (1996) Quality Circle Time in the
primary classroom. Wisbech. Learning
Development Aids
Mosley, J. (1998) More Quality Circle Time.
Wishbech. Learning Development Aids
Osborn, A.F. (1990) Resilient Children: a
longitudinal study of high-achieving socially
disadvantaged children Early Childhood
Development and Care 62. pp23-47
Sylva, K and Evans, E (1999) Preventing
Failure at School Children in Society,
13,4 278-286
Utting, D. (1996) Reducing Criminality
among Young People: a sample of relevant
programmes in the United Kingdom. Home
Office Research Study 161. Home Office
Research and Statistics Directorate.
London
Webster-Stratton, C. and Herbert, M.
(1994) Troubled Families, Problem
Children: working with parents, a
collaborative process. Wiley
63
Appendix 4:
How much will it cost?
1.
Intervening early will cost money. Even
if the school draws on existing
resources – teaching staff and LSAs,
parents and volunteers – there are
likely to be financial implications.
2.
Some examples of cost levels are
given below, but these are intended
to illustrate a range. Intervention may
be more or less expensive than this.
a. Training course for all teaching staff and LSA’s
in whole school approach:
Cost per trainer (depending on status):
£800 – £1,500
b. Package of staff training, support and manuals
£2,000
c. Cost of training one school with 200 pupils in nurturing
programme and providing three parent courses:
£3,000
d. A small group for 8 children run for 5 hours
a week by two LSAs
Cost per annum for LSAs and equipment:
£4,000
e. School coordinator, volunteer and equipment expenses for
school-based counselling project
Cost per annum
£13,000 – £15,000
f. Local coordinator to provide groups for a cluster of primary schools,
plus running costs of groups at c. £150 each
Cost per annum: coordinator
£15,000 – £20,000
Clubs @ £200 each
£2,000 – £3,000
g. Salary of in-school pastoral worker and costs per annum:
64
£20,000 plus
Notes:
Primary schools have used part of their SEN budget to pay for interventions or to
contribute to a fund that includes finance from elsewhere.
Local Education Authorities often support a school of groups of schools who feel
an intervention is needed to help pupils.
Specialist intervention organisations can help a school to raise money, including
by making approaches to charitable trusts and foundations.
Collaborating with other schools in the area reduces the cost. A training course
like that described at a. above can cost as little as £10 per head if enough
staff participate.
3.
There will also be costs in terms of
staff time. As a general rule, the
cheaper an intervention is in cash
terms, the more input from school staff
there will need to be. So, for example,
a whole school approach will be
regularly implemented by class
teachers each week, and regular time
will be needed at staff meetings to
discuss and coordinate the
implementation. Time should also be
set aside for staff to use the group
techniques to develop their
relationships with one another, and this
will include all ancillary staff in the
school. Regular support sessions from
the specialist organisations that train in
these techniques usually take at least
one INSET day a year.
4.
Group work makes less demand on
staff time, unless staff volunteer to run
an after-school group. Usually
volunteers are recruited from outside
the school and the main requirement
of staff is to service on steering
groups, to liaise about children who
need the service, and, in some
schools, to be on late duty elsewhere
until after-school clubs end. The liaison
point for such groups is usually the
school’s SENCO.
65
5.
Many of the more expensive
approaches – particularly one-to-one
work – involve the employment of
specialist staff. The onus is on
teachers to refer pupils to such staff
when they need help, but many oneto-one schemes are keen for pupils to
self-refer, and try to maintain a
distance from classroom activities and
preserve the child’s confidentiality. This
can be a delicate matter, and school
staff may need to spend some time in
induction sessions to understand how
to work with this independent facility
within the school.
6.
Work involving parents is often
delivered separately by specialist
agencies and may be conducted on
sites other than the school. The main
role for the school here is likely to be
to make sure that parents know that
the service is available, and to explain
to them how it can help. It is important
that all school staff understand exactly
what is being offered and what
demands it will make, so that the can
tell parents what to expect.
No intervention will be completely cost-free, in terms of money, time and effort,
but the benefits to individual children and to the school in the longer-term can
far outweigh the cost.
66
Acknowledgements
The Department for Education and
Employment funded Intervening Early in
response to a proposal from a seminar
arranged by Coram Family and the
National Pyramid Trust.
Elizabeth Hartley Brewer carried out much of
the preparatory work. The fieldwork and initial
draft were the work of Mog Ball. The project
was co-coordinated by Steve Harwood,
Development Director at Coram Family.
A number of educationalists, academics,
policy makers, writers and service providers
with experience and expertise in relevant
fields supported the project, the report from
which was also trialled with a number of
schools.
We would like to thank all of the people
involved and particularly the schools and the
children who generously gave their time to
support the project.
Research Advisory Group
Sean Cox
DfEE
Elizabeth Hartley-Brewer
Journalist
Steve Harwood
Coram Family
Deborah Loeb
Young Minds
David Moore
Ofsted
Alan Thompson
DfEE
Alan Watson
The National Pyramid Trust
Professor Sheila Wolfendale
University of East London
Coram Family is one of England’s oldest
charities, founded by Captain Thomas Coram
who established the original Foundling
Hospital for abandoned children in London in
1739. Coram Family today works to build
resilience in vulnerable children through
intervention – specialist therapeutic work with
vulnerable children; prevention – multi-agency
community based approaches for children at
risk; and promotion – influencing policy and
practice with the evidence of what works.
67
Notes:
68
http://inclusion.ngfl.go.uk
Copies of this publication can be obtained from:
DfES Publications
PO Box 5050
Sherwood Park
Annesley
Nottingham NG15 0DJ
Tel: 0845 6022260
Fax: 0845 6033360
Textphone: 0845 6055560
Email: [email protected]
Please quote ref: DfES/0131/2002 Intervening Early
ISBN 1 84185 674 6
PP3/D21/PUB010308/0202/14
© Crown copyright 2002
Produced by the Department for Education
and Skills
Extracts from this document may be reproduced
for non commercial or training purposes on the condition that the source
is acknowledged.