from the observation that there is no single mode of migrant transnationalism:
etc'
there is significant scope for research exploring heterogeneity, differentiation,
in
established
firmly
now
concept itself is
[Vertovec 2009). In any event, the
oogoing
with
in other fields - see transnational corporations),
studies
migration
[as
appreciation of limits'
research that demonstrates increasing nuance and a healthy
on topics other
The concept oftransnationalism has also been adapted for research
to operate
understood
now
afe
processes
than mlgration: a wide range of social
need to transcend
outside t"h" .onfirr., of thelation-state, such that researchers
,methodological nationalism', that has long framed a Sreat deal of social science
the
(Ameiina and Faist 2012).
See also: tntegration; Assimilatiln; Circular migratiln
KEY READINGS
Foner,
today and at the
N. (1997b1 'what's new about ffansnationalism? New'lork immigrants
turn ofthe century', Diaspora,6 (3J:355*75'
california Press'
The Transnationalvillagers. Berkeley, cA: University of
pitfalls and
transnationalism:
of
'The
study
(1999)
P.
Landolt,
and
L.E.
Guarnizr:,
A.,
Studies'72
{2):217_37,
promise of an emergent research field,, Ethnic anà Racial
New lmmigrants. Berkeley, cA:
smith, R.c. (2006) Mexican New Yorh: Transnational Liues of
University of California Press.
Vertovec, S. t2009) Transntttionalism' Abingdon: Routledge'
Levitt,
p (zool)
portes,
39
Undoounnentcd
(I[[esail)
Mnngratilon
Definition: Migration that
is
not
officialty sanctioned by the state in the destination
overstaying 1ne's
reiults from ctandestine entry or (more cammonly) f rom
by ane's visa'
authorized
n1t
visa aÀd/or engaging in activities (e.g. employment)
country;
it
The common-sense understanding of i1lega1 immigration
instances of public discourse (e'g' politicians' speeches) on
tabiy inadequate. In a 'lay' perspective, those who enter
authorization are in essence criminals, and the Sovernment
available in most
the topic is lamen-
a country without
has a responsibility
to '.io something'
in
1.r address the threat thel' pose. -I'irat
thieat is laken to he clire.
some quarters: among other evils,
iliog.rl inrrni!rJ1iùr.ì rlleqcc.lir,1.,,n,,i1,.,
n,rl tolrlri s, . ui.it;. ,rrr,l,..rmii.rcs
nJtiulttl icler-rtity,, and entboriies the
state,s loos of
.Llntrol over its horriers.
'T'he lirst dlilìclrltl'
r'vith this persp(.cri\re appears i, a c.nsideratior
o1terminoj_
ogli coi'er"nntents iiircJ certaitr t!pes ol
'illeg:rl imrnigr;rtion', in part
i.recause
inte.est-groups dre contt-nt r,l,ith ther
tern-r
it
regitir.nizes trre,r.i,r, ard order,r"esponse
these groups enihrace {.'irìegar.aiiens',
p.,purn, in t}re I js, ,,,.,rt"r;;;. jr.,i,r
e'c, rrore
rJ,'-rrì1'] (lthi:rs, howe'r:r; berieire it
is irnaccepLahie to drscr.ibe peopre as,iiregal,
{thrrs the skrgan,'no oiìe is irlegal', cohe* et a1. 2it03J.
An arternati'c tern.ì, ,r"r,.locr_
rtmeritr:rl ìmnrigratiorr, sus8esls that
rornr.iinmigrants mr-rely lrcl< certain rJocu_
ments;ind sìgnals a great'er;lccept;ìncc
of irnrnigr-atior
nlore generarlr,, eve, i,r.hr,
legally authorized. scrrorars tnigrrt
prerer to ,,r,, ,r.ui.nr ,;;;ril,
;;;
these polìtir:aj cornmjtmc.ts, irur it
is,'r r'-rr:ar".hat there d'e atlrrge,,ui'e11,ueutraì
it is .ot
l,'rmi.(..rr,'rr:{ltt,r'1:.qlr)tcthat,irr.,guilr rìr
il.aritf,",',r",ì:jri'f:ì.i;rr.J;;ìr,,
'iliegal'or'urrrJoc,;uner:tr:cl',
b,r. hr. alloìr,s that one calr cris.ern poìiticr1
or normaiivc co,.otations 1:or those arter*r:ti'es:ìs
r,veri.,Cranrjert^",rrlrrr,ion has sor_ne
rt*re,c). (e.g. sperrrr 2rxlg), though it s'ggests
fì.rrtir.e *.,a th,r, perhaps shadv
heha'iotrr' trn ac{ciirior, irreg*iar migration
(iie ril,rigrrri.;;,ì ir"n',r.t, m.re rhan a
rxaner of individu:rl berhaviorrr: iriiviclual
ie
te\tr as r,viien some irreg,lar lton.,n,,ir, ,1,,;;::::,:ì[:li:.'ffi:f;i.]:;::T'fl
cl'-'rrl1'' becomc'regurar'br'' r'irtur:
of lìon'.,rììrnn accessi.'r to the Eur-opean (Jni.,
i'lì"iandaff ilidori 20I 0l
'fhe demaricl iòr e
rar,r, ancl orcrer' r.rspo,se uoted
above rios lecl ir rr:cent years
to just rhat, particr-rlrrr-v", in tlit'i-rsA,
r,r'ith
i..rriìses rn erpenclrttire o, rrorcieri:ontt"oi effor^ts, a liigh-tech fence
'ast
[ar:tua11y a high r-netal rvail in ser:tions of.t'e
hor"der *'ith \/lerico'- the 'rron
curìai,'1, et..T'he prrrasr_. ,jirst tl,rat, ir-i the
prtiious
1
il"
s'ntence has a dorrhli: nrea*ing, hor'r.errer:
thr:rr: is mr:ch r:viderce that this respo,se
has hecn i,e1Ìècrirrc i, cletc'rring
unauthorizeti cr.ssirrgs. Irsteari, it hls
6rive.
nrigrailts to cross in motr r",-r,o," Llr-\efi
t.Lriolls, ìea<iing to thousilnrjs of
cleefhs
liorn heat exhaustiÙn and ciehy.rretron (Jui
,rron z0()7]. Reinvigorati:cl borcler con_
trol f'vith ìts unilbrtrs, gadgets, etc is
1:erhaps bett.:r uncicrstoocl pri*ariÌ1. as a
jorrri of poìitical 'pe,tbnnanc,e', I1rrrr,r,,ui,.
n
."rr...r.r,rtio, or. sr,te authoritv,
{./t'ndrea:2000: 8}tirat seeks t_r: rnoliifl, r,oters
[si-e Ne\,!,ror.ì ZflOgi.
'['he ireihctiven.ss
of cortror eir{orrs ror:used ., thc irorder
;u oniv oiie of.the
jaclors- co,tributirg
to
inimigration di:scri[.;eci
,,
,rl.*li' or rrnt]or:u_
inentcrl. l"{any:.rr-iclocLrrìle,teci irrmrigrrnLs
'ar:iouslr,,
r.nter the desti.ation .'-à.rnr* via per_
trcctl-v lega1 i,eiì,s hut ther rr.come ,r*aor,u*"rtec,l,
r,r,rrerr the' ergege in ,ctivities
rìoL pernritted bt'thc'isa.allo-uvirrg
thr:ir en1ri,: lor exa.rp1e, rr'-,,r-",r1r1,"n.
abar.ic.lc;r
their stridies a,ri fincl
,tr,,..,.,poro.1,,,,
o,,
,,r.h. or.erstai. their
lu1]-time 1ubr,,
ii'L: ft'q r)rur''r;rne rrtilg1
'vorl<ers
.Arrorrr.l.r,,rr- ir,rnr,", ,t,,ì
tuìtì,,.,',,i',,,r,ì,,; :ì ,i'::l
to lea,e
thejr appricatìons {irr rcfr-rgei: r,r,.,,
nr"-.uli".,"a.
"r'hen
rir. proSlen-r o1,
ilìcgal imnrigr:rtiori is ir1, no nreairs soiely,
a
ftil";;-;:'.;,,i.,'il.- n..,U,
Anoti-rer clra*'l,-ack of the 'ìlregar'
term;norogy enrerges ir.r the facr that
mar'
'rlrr'1ri':J"114'1 irir:rrttr,al ,,n,r,,.u,n-,,1,,cr irrrrri.ir.;rrrts.r\\ri.rir)ir]).(ioi,,rnn;t,rtt
agencies typically approach detention and deportation as administrative rather
than criminal justice procedures - in no small measure because they theo require
a lower burden of proof to satisfy 'due process' requirements (Carens 2008J. On
the other hand, the US government [perhaps recognizing limitations of border
controls) in recent years has begun redirecting enforcement efforts to 'internal'
sites, sometimes prosecuting (and then imprisoning) undocumented workers for
identity theft, i.e., for having provided someone else's Social Security number to
their employer (Bacon 2008).
More attention is typically focused on 'supply' fthe migrants) than on 'demand'
(the employersJ, particularly in the USA fAnìdreas 2000; Kwong 1997J. Some
European countries, on the other hand, have long imposed significant penalties on
employers of undocumented workers and gerierally experience lower levels of
undocumented immigration, though sanctions are by no means a panacea
(Freeman 1994; Martin and Miller 2000). Eady American attempts to implement
sanctions, in 1986, were conspicuously unsuccessful (e.g. Fix 1991); they were
perhaps even counterproductive, in that employers, who were not required to
verify the authenticity of documents presented by their workers, were protected
from prosecution for merely having'checked' them.
Political and moral debates about undocumented immigrants are unsurprisingly
quite complex. Carens (20081 argues that lack of legal status does not justify denying migrants' basic human rights such as emergency medical treatment, education
for children, and work-related rights [e.g. minimum wages and safe conditionsJ.
Failing to guarantee these rights can be counterproductive with respect to the goal
of reducing incentives for migration, insofar as it renders immigrants more exploitable and thus more attractive to employers. Some observers are particularly troubled by provision of education for undocumented children because it enhances
their identiffcation with the 'host' country, making departure,/deportation both
less likely and more traumatic. But Carens notes that the children cannot be held
responsible for iIlegal entry and argues that uneducated children would only
become marginalized adults, as the feasibility and legitimacy of deportation
declines the ionger they stay. Caiifornia voters expressed their displeasure with
these matters by approving Proposition 187 in 1994 (excluding undocumented
children from schools and undocumented immigrants generally from a variety of
pubiic services and faciiities), but its subsequent invalidation by a federal court
demonstrated that liberal states fand their electorates) face substantial iimits in
their ability to deny basic rights to illegal immigrants. Even sq undocumented
immigrants are typically quite vulnerable, unable or unwilling to access rights they
formally have, out of fear that contact with authorities will lead to deportation
(Bosniak 2008; Clark 2013).
The rhetoric of illegality' suggests that the destination country genuinely rejects
the immigrants who carry this label: this migration violates the law, ostensibly the
expression of the public will (at ieast in democratic countries). But some elements
of the destination country plainly want illegal immigrants - and it is often their
very illegal§ that makes them attractive (e.g. Bacon 2008). Again, lacking proper
documents, the immigrants are vulnerable and thus more easily exploited; if they
complair, the ernploi,er might dispcsc of the prohlem hy xls61n, the :rur.horities
[ruho can detair-r anci deport], and so there :rre ièrver complaints. ln the USA,
nlembcrs of Congress, governors and others have somctimes interfèred ip f'ecieral
enforcemerit e{rforts, forcing the Immigration and Naturalization Service
[rvhosr
sLlccessor is nolv pnrt ,:f the Depar:tmr:nt of l-iomeland Secrrrity) to .,vithdralr. fiom
r'r'orkpiace raids fN,'lartin nnrJ lv{i1ler 2i]00). Large nrrmbers of priya1e inciivicluals
employ undocurnented horrsekec.pers, gardeners, nannies, etc., and sorne social
Ìl1o\icment groups <-'mbrace nttdocLrmented imrnigrants <ln humanitarian a1c1 ciyil
rights ground
Irr aJ.lition, \\ r'aith\ ( r)Lrl1.ric5 polie i, r orr tr.rde rrrrd orh.'r e\ r,n(ìnli( n-r.rrrrr-:
arguably displace r,vorkers ir countries liker l\,lerico, le:idirrg them to perceiyr,. rìc)
alternative tc; nrigration t,.r the i iSA, rvhere nlenrr efijplovers prefer thent to rrative
workers (Johnson 20*7). Some ohservers, highlighting thc racial ciirnensiol 6f
rligratiotl restrictions, itrglle that migration control regimes arc a contponelt of
'glohal aplrtheid', such that clandc'stine migration is a legitimate firrrr of resistanr:e
[Spener 2009).
L)n occasion, some countries havr: in c'sseui:e conceclecl rjefèat, oflerirg opporrunitir:s lor regr-rlarization [rmresties] to iarge numbers of undocumentr:d immì-
grants.'Ihc LJSA in I986 of'ferecl arnllestì/ to inoir rhan 3 rnillion people, and Spain
has urrdcfisken no 1ìrver than five episocl-.s of 'norrnalizarion'since ì98r1 (L<tpez
2008J. As Nervtor.r (2008J shou,s, lvhile 'illegal immigranrs' are usually consrrucrecl
iìs targ€rts of di'rnonization, more positive fbrms of polìtic;,rl ci:lrrstruction--c clo sorÌletimes gait: srvay. Critics \vorry thet these elecisions oiiiy irrcrease i6i:erntives fòr
illegal immigralion, and there is currently significant opposition (thorrgh s6me
sigrificant sLrpport as \,vellJ in the LISA to propos;rls for another emnesty to adclress
tliesitrrationofrougl-r11,ìlmillionundocrrmentedimmigrants.Orrtheotherhand,
this oppositioil can be Franr.:d as an in-rplicit decision to carry ot living r,r,ith this
largr: rrurnber: deportation on this scalc.,vouiil he r,r,ildly unrealìstic, many emplov€r'-s ;i11. happy to have them, ancl i'nany n-rigrants themselves r,r,or"rld face difficult
prospects Lrpon returil [though as notr.d ir.i other c]rapters, many migrants dr,r
choose to return].
'I'he experierrces of undocumented inrmigrairts
shorv that tìrere arer lirnits tn
H'ìrat sotne scholars di:scribe as a litrman rights r-evolution in recent decacit-s.
Whiler sorne lbrirs o{t migration have led to an expansion anc{ clir.ersilication of
citizenship, this transfbrrnation has hacl only linritecl irrpact on tht situatio; gf
migrants iacking 1ega1 status, rvith rnany e'xperiencing irrcreasing insecuritlr
{VerdLrzco ancl cle l-ozano 2011J. one sign of this limited scope is the fact rhar
the Inlernationill (lonl'ention on tht- Protection of All À,,ligrant Workcrs ancl
l,'{embers of Their Farnilies, proposing to guarantee key rights {br rnigrants regarcìless of legal status, has beerr ratilìed by verv fer.v conntries. The rnajor di:stination
couutries in particular h,lve declined to adopt it - irr esseflce coniìrming thcir
ptlsitiorl that 1ega1 irrrlrigration st:rtus ìs a prr:condition for holc{ing rnan.\,b11sic
rights [Dar.rr.ergne 2008].
One commotrly thinks of ill,:gal imnrisration as a challenge fìrced by r.irlatrihv
countries, pr:teirtiai11.. overrun or srn,amped bv migrants originatirg in por:r
countries - but this picture is incomplete [if not simply wrong). Other chapters have noted that migration flows among poofer countries are substantial,
and many of these flows contain large numbers of undocumented immigrants.
Individuals from wealthy countries can also become illegal immigrants, though
usually without the same risks or stigma: Europeans living in another EU country afe required to register their new residence but are not commonly consid-
ered illegal when they do not fTriandafyllidou 2010). One of the biggest
gfoups of undocumented immigrants in Australia consists of Americans who
have overstayed their tourist visas (Dauvergne 2008J.
$ee also: Human trafficking and smuggling; Deportatizn
KEY HEADINGS
Bacon, D. (2OOS) iltegal People: How Glnbalization Creates Migration anà Criminalizes lmmigrants.
Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Newton,L.(2008j lllegal,Alien,orlmmrgrant:ThePoliticsof
York Universi§ Press.
Spene4
D.
lmmigrationRelorm.NewYork:Net'
Border.Ithaca,
l2OO9) Clandestine Crossings:Migrants and Cayotes ontheTexas-Mexico
NY: Comell Universi§r Press.
Triandafyllidou, A. and Lundqvist,
A. [ed$ (2010) Irreplar
Realities. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Group.
Migration
in
Europe: Myths and