Regional Oral History Office
The Bancroft Library
University of California
Berkeley, California
The Wine Spectator California Winemen Oral History Series
Cornelius Ough
RESEARCHES OF AN ENOLOGIST
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS, 1950-1990
With an Introduction by
A. Dinsmoor Webb
An Interview Conducted by
Ruth Teiser
in 1989, 1990
Copyright ~ 1990 by The Regents of the University of California
Since 1954 the Regional Oral History Office has been interviewing
leading participants in or well-placed witnesses to major events in the
development of Northern California, the West, and the Nation. Oral history is
a modern research technique involving an interviewee and an informed
interviewer in spontaneous conversation. The taped record is transcribed,
lightly edited for continuity and clarity, and reviewed by the interviewee.
The resulting manuscript is typed in final form, indexed, bound with
photographs and illustrative materials, and placed in The Bancroft Library at
the University of California, Berkeley, and other research collections for
scholarly use. Because it is primary material, oral history is not intended
to present the final, verified, or complete narrative of events. It is a
spoken account, offered by the interviewee in response to questioning, and as
such it is reflective, partisan, deeply involved, and irreplaceable.
************************************
All uses of this manuscript are covered by a legal
agreement between the University of California and
Cornelius Ough dated June 27, 1990. The manuscript is
thereby made available for research purposes. All
literary rights in the manuscript, including the right
to publish, are reserved to The Bancroft Library of the
University of California, Berkeley. No part of the
manuscript may be quoted for publication without the
written permission of the Director of The Bancroft
Library of the University of California, Berkeley.
Requests for permission to quote for publication
should be addressed to the Regional Oral History Office,
486 Library, University of California, Berkeley 94720,
and should include identification of the specific
passages to be quoted, anticipated use of the passages,
and identification of the user. The legal agreement
with Cornelius Ough requires that he be notified of the
request and allowed thirty days in which to respond.
It is recommended that this oral history be cited as
follows:
Cornelius Ough, "Researches of an
Eno1ogist, University of California,
Davis, 1950-1990," an oral history
conducted in 1989, 1990 by Ruth Teiser,
Regional Oral History Office, The
Bancroft Library, University of
California, Berkeley, 1990.
Copy no.
cataloging Information
OUGH, Cornelius S.
California, Davis
(b.
1925)
Enologist, University of
Researches of an Enologist, University of California, Davis, 1950­
1990, 1990, 66 pp.
Experiments as winemaker and specialist at University of
California, Davis, 1953-1972:
red wine technology, controlled
fermentation, flor sherry, dissolved oxygen determination, sorbic
acid, pesticides, rootstocks, mechanical harvesting, histamines in
wines, browning studies, diethyl dicarbonate, metals in wines, and
sulfur dioxide; teaching and writing about wine analysis; directing
graduate student research; work on clones, genetic engineering,
urethane, yeasts; advances in equipment; chairman of Department of
viticulture and Enology, 1981-1987; work in Israel, Brazil, South
Africa, Australia.
Introduction by A. Dinsmoor Webb, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus,
Department of viticulture and Enology, University of California,
Davis.
Interviewed in 1989 by Ruth Teiser for the Wine Spectator
California Winemen Series. The Regional Oral History Office, The
Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
TABLE OF CONTENTS -­
Cornelius Ough
PREFACE
i
INTRODUCTION, by A.
Dinsmoor Webb
v
INTERVIEW HISTORY
BRIEF BIOGRAPHY
vi
vii
YOUTH AND EDUCATION
1
CAREER BEGINNINGS,
1925-1950
Dr. Amerine's Technician, 1951-1953
Army Service, 1951-1953
UC Davis Winemaker, 1953-1957
3
3
4
5
EXPERIMENTS AS WINEMAKER AND SPECIALIST, 1957-1972
Red Wine Technology
Controlled Fermentation
Teaching and Writing About Wine Analysis
F10r Sherry
Dissolved Oxygen Determination
Sorbic Acid
Pesticides
Wine Color
More on Controlled Fermentation
Rootstocks
Mechanical Harvesting
Histamine in Wine
Esters
Browning Studies
Diethy1 Dicarbonate and Dimethy1dicarbonate
Mold and Rot
Metals and Other Constituents
Red Wine Headaches
Sulfur Dioxide
Watering of Grape Juice
7
28
TRAINING WINE MEN
31
TEACHING AND DIRECTING GRADUATE STUDENT RESEARCH, SINCE 1972
34
CHAIRMAN, DEPARTMENT OF VITICULTURE AND ENOLOGY, 1981-1987
36
7
8
10
11
13
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
19
20
21
22
23
24
26
EXPERIMENTS, CONTINUED: RECENT YEARS
Clonal Work
Department Work on Genetic Engineering
Urethane Research
Yeast and Nitrogen
Laboratory Equipment Improvements
More on Urethane Research
WORK
In
In
In
ABROAD SINCE 1965
Israel
Brazil
South Africa
39
39
40
42
43
44
46
49
49
51
51
WINE INDUSTRY ORGANIZATIONS
Wine Institute Technical Advisory Committee
American Society for Viticulture and Enology
55
WARNINGS ON LABELS
57
JUDGING AT TASTINGS
59
ROOTSTOCKS AND PHYLLOXERA
60
ONGOING WORK
63
TAPE GUIDE
64
APPENDIX I -- Curriculum Vitae
65
APPENDIX II -- Bibliography of published works
69
INDEX
81
54
54
i
PREFACE
The California wine industry oral history series, a project of the
Regional Oral History Office, was initiated in 1969 through the action
and with the financing of the Wine Advisory Board, a state marketing
order organization which ceased operation in 1975. In 1983 it was
reinstituted as The Wine Spectator California Winemen Oral History Series
with donations from The Wine Spectator Scholarship Foundation. The
selection of those to be interviewed is made by a committee consisting of
James D. Hart, director of The Bancroft Library, University of
California, Berkeley; John A. De Luca, president of the Wine Institute,
the statewide winery organization; Maynard A. Amerine, Emeritus Professor
of Viticulture and Enology, University of California, Davis; the current
chairman of the board of directors of the Wine Institute; Ruth Teiser,
series project director; and Marvin R. Shanken, trustee of The Wine
Spectator Scholarship Foundation.
The purpose of the series is to record and preserve information on
California grape growing and wine making that has existed only in the
memories of wine men. In some cases their recollections go back to the
early years of this century, before Prohibition. These recollections are
of particular value because the Prohibition period saw the disruption of
not only the industry itself but also the orderly recording and
preservation of records of its activities. Little has been written about
the industry from late in the last century until Repeal. There is a real
paucity of information on the Prohibition years (1920-1933), although
some commercial wine making did continue under supervision of the
Prohibition Department. The material in this series on that period, as
well as the discussion of the remarkable development of the wine industry
in subsequent years (as yet treated analytically in few writings) will be
of aid to historians. Of particular value is the fact that frequently
several individuals have discussed the same subjects and events or
expressed opinions on the same ideas, each from his own point of view.
Research underlying the interviews has been conducted principally in
the University libraries at Berkeley and Davis, the California State
Library, and in the library of the Wine Institute, which has made its
collection of in many cases unique materials readily available for the
purpose.
ii
The Regional Oral History Office was established to tape record
autobiographical interviews with persons who have contributed
significantly to recent California history. The office is headed by
Willa K. Baum and is under the administrative supervision of James D.
Hart, the director of The Bancroft Library.
Ruth Teiser
Project Director
The Wine Spectator California Winemen
Oral History Series
June 1990
Regional Oral History Office
486 The Bancroft Library
University of California, Berkeley
iii
CALIFORNIA WINE INDUSTRY INTERVIEWS
Interviews Completed by 1990
Leon D. Adams, Revitalizing the California Wine Industry, 1974
Leon D. Adams, California Wine Industry Affairs:
1990
Recollections and Opinions,
Maynard A. Amerine, The University of California and the State's Wine
Industry, 1971
Maynard A. Amerine, Wine Bibliographies and Taste Perception Studies, 1988
Philo Biane, Wine Making in Southern California and Recollections of Fruit
Industries. Inc., 1972
John B. Cella, The Cella Family in the California Wine Industry, 1986
Charles Crawford, Recollections of a Career with the Gallo Winery and the
Development of the California Wine Industry. 1942-1989, 1990
Burke H. Critchfield, Carl F. Wente, and Andrew G. Frericks, The California
Wine Industry During the Depression, 1972
William V. Cruess, A Half Century of Food and Wine Technology, 1967
Jack and Jamie Peterman Davies, Rebuilding Schramsberg:
California Champagne House, 1990
The Creation of a
William A. Dieppe, Almaden is My Life, 1985
Alfred Fromm, Marketing California Wine and Brandy, 1984
Louis Gomberg, Analytical Perspectives on the California Wine Industry, 1935­
1990, 1990
Joseph E. Heitz, Creating a Winery in the Napa Valley, 1986
Maynard A. Joslyn, A Technologist Views the California Wine Industry, 1974
Amandus N. Kasimatis, A Career in California Viticulture, 1988
Morris Katz, Paul Masson Winery Operations and Management, 1944-1988, 1990
Legh F. Knowles, Jr., Beaulieu Vineyards from Family to Corporate Ownership,
1990
Horace O. Lanza and Harry Baccigaluppi, California Grape Products and Other
Wine Enterprises, 1971
Louis M. Martini and Louis P. Martini, Wine Making in the Napa Valley, 1973
Louis P. Martini, A Family Winery and the California Wine Industry, 1984
iv
Eleanor McCrea, Stony Hill Vineyards:
Winery, 1990
The Creation of a Napa Valley Estate
Otto E. Meyer, California Premium Wines and Brandy, 1973
Norbert C. Mirassou and Edmund A. Mirassou, The Evolution of a Santa Clara
Valley Winery, 1986
Peter Mondavi, Advances in Technology and Production at Charles Krug Winery,
1946-1988, 1990
Robert Mondavi, Creativity in the Wine Industry, 1985
Michael Moone, Management and Marketing at Beringer Vineyards and Wine World.
Inc" 1990
Myron S. Nightingale, Making Wine in California. 1944-1987, 1988
Harold P. Olmo, Plant Genetics and New Grape Varieties, 1976
Cornelius Ough, Researches of an Enologist. University of California. Davis.
1950-1990, 1990
Antonio Perelli-Minetti, A Life in Wine Making, 1975
Louis A. Petri, The Petri Family in the Wine Industry, 1971
Jefferson E. Peyser, The Law and the California Wine Industry, 1974
Lucius Powers, The Fresno Area and the California Wine Industry, 1974
Victor Repetto and Sydney J. Block, Perspectives on California Wines, 1976
Edmund A. Rossi, Italian Swiss Colony and the Wine Industry, 1971
Edmund A, Rossi, Jr., Italian Swiss Colony. 1949-1989:
Third-Generation California Winemaker, 1990
Recollections of a
Arpaxat Setrakian, A. Setrakian. a Leader of the San Joaquin Valley Grape
Industry, 1977
Elie Skofis, California Wine and Brandy Maker, 1988
Andre Tchelistcheff, Grapes. Wine, and Ecology, 1983
Brother Timothy, The Christian Brothers as Wine Makers, 1974
Ernest A. Wente, Wine Making in the Livermore Valley, 1971
Albert J. Winkler, Viticultural Research at UC Davis (1921-1971), 1973
f
I
~
I
v
INTRODUCTION --Cornelius Ough
Cornelius Ough is one of the few among those devoting their lives
to the study of wines who was born and spent many of his early years
in the beautiful North Coast wine country of California. Cornelius,
"Corny" to his friends, recalls his youthful memories of trips from
their home in Oakville to St. Helena for the purchase of the family
dinner wine from the old Beringer winery. Local schooling was
followed by the B.S. degree in Chemistry from the University of
California, Berkeley, which well qualified him for the position of
assistant to Professor Amerine on the Enology staff at Davis in 1950.
Having recently joined the Department as Assistant Professor of
Enology, I met Cornelius first at this time and became much better
acquainted on his return from military service in 1953.
Cornelius progressed rapidly up the ladder of positions in the
Experiment Station, and was soon advanced to the specialist series,
and later, on award of the D.Sci. degree from Stellenbosch University,
to the full academic position of Professor. These advances reflected
increasingly greater successful responses to challenges--first in the
field of wine analyses, and later as a planner, team leader, and
administrator. His distinguished leadership as Chairman of the
Department of Viticulture and Enology from 1981 to 1987 speaks clearly
of his accomplishments.
Cornelius is probably atypical of the majority of those recorded
in the wine oral history program, in that his efforts have been not so
much toward direct production problems of winemaking but more toward
solution of related analytical, legal, and developmental problems.
Lest these types of problems be considered of lesser importance,
understand that they are likely critical to the future of the
California grape and wine industry. I believe them so.
Davis, California
18 June 1990
A. Dinsmoor Webb
Professor Emeritus of Enology
vi
INTERVIEW HISTORY -- Cornelius S. Ough
Professor Cornelius S. Ough is one of the quiet contributors to
the advance of the California wine industry. In addition to his
research, he for six years headed the Department of Viticulture and
Enology at the University of California at Davis. For most of his
career, working in his office and laboratory and at foreign
institutions, he has solved technical problems on a level understood
by mainly his fellow-enologists. Many of his solutions, however, have
proved practical when carried into application in wineries and
regulatory agencies. To give access to his work, he has constantly
published technical papers. They and his books are listed in
Appendix II. In this interview, the many significant applications of
his researches were explored.
The first session of the interview was held on January 9, 1989,
in the conference room of the Wine Institute. He had come to San
Francisco to make some preparations for the sabbatical leave he was
about to take. The second session was held in his office at Davis on
November 10, 1989, after his return from that leave, most of which he
had spent working in South Africa.
Because Professor Ough speaks precisely, few corrections were
necessary in the transcript except to confirm technical terms
unfamiliar to the transcriber and the editor--a task he attended to
with the affable patience that clearly has marked his long career.
Ruth Teiser
Interview-Editor
July 1990
Regional Oral History Office
486 The Bancroft Library
University of California at Berkeley
Regional Oral History Office
Room 486 The Bancroft Library
vii
University of California"
Berkeley, California 94720
BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
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1
YOUTH AND EDUCATION, 1925-1950
[Interview 1:
9 January 1989]1
Teiser:
Let's begin at the beginning, when and where you were born.
Ough:
I was born in Napa on the 28th of July, 1925.
Teiser:
Did that predispose you towards an interest in wine?
Ough:
Not at all. No, I was going to be a forest ranger. After
listening to a forest ranger speak, I decided there were too many
veterans from World War II going into that area. I had a very
good chemistry teacher, so I got interested in chemistry instead.
Teiser:
Before the war you had gone to high school and junior college,
hadn't you?
Ough:
Yes, I went to Point Arena High School, and graduated from Placer
High School, then went to Placer Junior College for two years.
Teiser:
Had your family moved to the Mother Lode then?
Ough:
Yes, they had moved to Colfax.
Teiser:
How did they happen to go to Colfax?
Ough:
Oh, my father was a mechanic. We used to live up in the coastal
area, near where Gualala is, but my sister needed to get to a
warmer climate. My mother believed Gualala was too isolated, so
we moved to Colfax. My dad worked there as a mechanic. I went
to Placer College and drove a school bus. Then for two years
during World War II I worked as a truck driver for the army out
1This symbol (##) indicates that a tape or a segment of a tape has begun
or ended. For a guide to the tapes, see page 64.
2
of Sharp's General Depot. This was near Stockton. I
San Francisco to the piers and hauled freight. I was
time--I had high blood pressure, which I still have.
time they didn't know how to treat it as well as they
drove to
4-F at the
At that
do now.
After that I went back to junior college at Auburn, and
graduated from there in 1947. I went to [UC] Berkeley after
that, and got a B. S. degree in chemistry there.
Teiser: Was the chemistry teacher who interested you in the subject at
junior college?
Ough:
Yes; he had taught at Berkeley. He had lung problems and had
moved up to that area to get out of the Berkeley area. He was an
excellent man.
3
CAREER BEGINNING
Dr. Amerine's Technician. 1950-1951
Ough:
At that time I started to look for a job. I didn't know what
enology was, but there was a job posted for a lab technician for
enology up at [the University of California at] Davis.
Dr. [Maynard] Amerine was the one who wanted this technician.
I
talked with him, and he hired me. It was the best move I ever
made!
[laughs]
Teiser:
It sounds easy, but I'm sure it wasn't.
Ough:
It wasn't that hard.
Teiser:
Had you specialized in any branch of chemistry?
Ough:
No, it was just a B. S. in general chemistry.
Teiser:
Had you worked with anyone there in Berkeley with whom you kept
up later?
Ough:
No.
Teiser:
You didn't know Dr. W. V. Cruess or any of those people?
Ough:
I didn't know anybody in the food science department at all.
didn't take courses there; I took straight chemistry and
biochemistry.
I
So when I got up to Davis, I didn't know what enology was.
I asked Dr. Amerine, and he told me it was winemaking and
fermentation.
It sounded interesting to me at the time.
4
My only exposure to wine as a boy had been that my father
and I used to go out to farm run by a Portuguese man in Napa to
buy eggs. He made his own wine, Portuguese style, in the barrel
with skins and all, and let it sit for a year. Then he'd start
to use it. It was practically vinegar. As a young boy, that
turned me off of wine. Young people are very sensitive to acid,
anyhow, and it was very acid wine--terrible to drink. I used to
have to drink it. I loved to go to the farm, but I hated to
drink the wine. But in fact we'd drink it every time in a small
glass.
So I wasn't that interested in wine at the time, but I got
the job and then got very interested in it. It's a good field.
Teiser: You certainly landed in the right spot, with Dr. Amerine.
Ough:
Yes. I didn't know him from Adam at the time, but I was very
impressed with him. Over the years I've been more impressed with
him. He's really a remarkable individual. I worked very closely
with him the whole time I was there, from 1950.
I worked for a year for Dr. Amerine as his technician, and
then I got drafted into the Korean war.
Army Service. 1951-1953
Ough:
I walked in feeling that I would surely be 4-F again. I was very
relaxed, and the doctor who examined me said, "Oh, you've got a
little bit of high blood pressure, but that's not the kind that's
going to hurt you. So you're in." Like that. So I was in the
army for two years.
Because of my degree I got into a specialist group. In
basic training I think there were about ten of us who got sent to
Camp Gordon, Georgia, which had a Criminal Investigation
Laboratory. We did forensic analysis; they needed people there
for that. I spent the time there doing such things as blood
stain typings and working with identification of marijuana seeds-­
the usual forensic work. It wasn't very interesting, really,
compared to other things, but it was better than marching up the
hills in Korea, I figured. So I didn't complain. The whole
bunch of us never got any promotions other than PFC [Private
First Class] because all the jobs we were filling called for
officers. They couldn't find any qualified officers. They used
5
to try to talk us into going to officers' training school, but
that meant an extra four years. They didn't talk one person into
doing that. [laughs]
That was two years, and then I came back to Davis. In the
meantime I met my wife when I went to Atlanta for a training
session in parasitology. She was working as a lab technician.
We were married shortly after that.
UG Davis Winemaker. 1953-1957
Ough:
When I came back in 1953, Dr. Amerine had another technician at
that time, but the job was open for the winemaker for the
department. I assumed that job, and my sole instruction from
Dr. Amerine at the time was, "Well, with the white grapes you
take the juice off the skins, add some S02 and some yeast; and
for the red grapes you leave them on the skins for a while." I'd
seen it going on, and that's the way they were doing it. So I
continued to do it, and I got interested in how it was done and
everything. I guess I had an inquisitive mind, and I started to
do my own experiments along the way. They turned out reasonably
well. Over the years I came down and gave a few talks at the
Wine Institute Technical Advisory Committee meetings.
Then Bob [Robert] Mondavi offered me a job with [Charles]
Krug [winery]. I told Dr. Amerine about the offer, and it looked
like I was at a dead end at the University. He said not to be
too hasty, that he had to go on a trip for a week or two, and not
to make any decisions. He was going to go talk to Dr. [Albert
J.] Winkler, the department chairman, and see what could be done
for me. He did, and I waited about a week. The Mondavis kept
after me; they wanted a decision. So I went and talked to Dr.
Winkler, and he said it didn't look like there was much chance
for me to be a specialist, and that probably I should go ahead
and take the job.
So I did, and the next day Dr. Amerine came back. He was
unhappy. That night he called up the president of the University
and got me a specialist appointment, and made Dr. Winkler come to
my house and tell me that night.
Teiser:
What year was that?
Ough:
That was about 1957.
6
So it was settled. I called the Mondavis and explained to
them, and they said it was okay and they were very understanding
about it. So I was a specialist for a number of years at the
University.
7
EXPERIMENTS AS WINEMAKER AND SPECIALIST, 1957-1972
Teiser:
Let me take you back. You said that after you became winemaker
you thought of some experiments to make, and made them. What
sort of thinking were you doing? Were you solving problems that
you encountered?
Ough:
Basically problem-solving type things, yes. I think probably one
of the things I did that impressed Dr. Amerine the most, even
though it didn't work very well, was silicon coating on the
inside of bottles so you could shake down the champagne yeast
better. It was something that had never been tried before, and
it didn't actually work that well. But it was that type of
ili~g.
Red Wine Technology
Ough:
I changed the way we made the red wine at the department, and
apparently it had an effect on the whole industry. It used to be
that they'd leave the grapes and the skins together until they
were dry. I didn't know any better, so I was pressing the juice
off the skins earlier for the red wines.
Teiser:
Compare what they were doing to what you initiated.
Ough:
At the time, most of the red wine was made by leaving the skin
contact until they were dry and then separating the juice from
the skins. What I did was separate them earlier. It made a wine
that matured quicker. Several of the professors picked up on
this and thought that was a nice advantage.
Teiser:
Did it reduce the tannin?
-----------------
------------_.. _---- .-.
----
-. ---.. _.- ....
_-­
8
Ough:
Yes. And I worked hard, I guess, and impressed him. I did other
things--small things. It's hard to go back and remember all the
little things you did. Once I was lecturer, a specialist, then I
initiated a lot of experiments with Dr. Amerine. I could use his
technician and do the analyses and things.
Teiser: What do you have to do to achieve the rank of specialist?
Ough:
I've explained some of the things I did, like initiate
experiments. You had to show initiative, and show ability to get
the job done well. At that time we made in some years a thousand
experimental bottles of wine. Dr. [Harold P.] Olmo was in the
process of making lots of hybrid wines at that time. We were
able to handle a lot of them by hard work and effort. I think
the hard work, as much as anything else, impressed Dr. Amerine.
I was willing to work and get the job done.
Controlled Fermentation
Ough:
Dr. Amerine had obtained experimental controlled fermentation
equipment. We were working jointly on experiments there in
developing flor sherry. So there were a lot of experiments going
on at that time, defining how wine should be made, really. Skin
contact time--we did a lot of very critical experiments after we
got the controlled fermentation equipment. Temperature
fermentation on reds and whites--a lot of controlled experiments
that gave the industry a lot of basic information to control wine
composition and quality.
Teiser: Was the industry asking for it, or were you--?
Ough:
They furnished the money for the controlled fermentation
equipment.
Teiser: Was that jacketed steel tanks?
Ough:
Yes. They were bought for the initial purpose of determining
whether you could control the fermentation by pressure. The
Germans had been touting this as how they made their natural
sweet wines, by building the pressure up in the tank. This
stopped the yeast fermentation and growth. But we showed that
under California conditions it wasn't practical, and it saved the
industry millions of dollars, really, just by the showing them
they shouldn't do it.
9
Teiser:
You wrote a paper on it.
Ough:
Yes, we wrote several papers on it. It was a joint work with
Dr. Amerine at the time. There were all sorts of controlled
experiments that we did.'
Teiser:
Was it a period in which the industry was going forward
particularly?
Ough:
Yes, they were converting from dessert wines to table wines in
that period of time, very rapidly. And a lot of them didn't have
a great deal of knowledge about table wines, especially the [San
Joaquin] Valley wineries, whose table wines then were just not
the best quality. We were trying to upgrade the quality of all
the wines, and table wines primarily. We were working to try to
find what things affected the quality of the wine--co10r, aroma,
taste.
Teiser: You said this was a period when some of Dr. 01mo's new varieties
were coming in.
Ough:
Yes, there were quite a few new varieties coming in at that time.
Teiser: Did you do special experiments with them?
Ough:
We did some with Ca1zin, which was one of the poor ones,
actually. We noted some of the better ones, I think. It had an
influence on Ruby Cabernet being selected, and so on. But 01mo
pretty much did those himself. He made the decisions himself on
those; right or wrong, it was his decision on these hybrids.
There was very little influence from us.
Teiser: Was it later that you conducted experiments on Cabernet clones at
Oakville?
Ough:
Oh, we're still working on those.
Teiser: It was in 1957 that you became a specialist.
Ough:
Yes. Then in '72, I became an eno10gist, which is a faculty
position.
'See also page 11, and Bibliography of writings by Cornelius Ough,
Appendix I.
10
Teaching and Writing About Wine Analysis
Teiser:
Had you been teaching before that?
Ough:
I was teaching graduate students, but no formal teaching. At
that point I did start to teach a class with Dr. Amerine on wine
analysis. We developed the class that year, and then carried it
on from then on, and I still teach it. Over the years we wrote a
chapter for an encyclopedia that covered most of the methods, and
then we wrote the book on wine analysis, and just recently we
revised it again--it's just been published this last year, in
'88. 1
Teiser:
I see you were involved in a book that Dr. Cruess had started.
Ough:
Yes, The Technology of Winemaking.
Teiser: That keeps coming out in new editions, doesn't it?
Ough:
Yes. I think it's changed now. The last edition--the fourth
edition--was the last edition that will come out under Avi
Publications. But Reinhold-Nostrom hopefully will be publishing
it again, and I won't be involved in that. It will be Dr. Vernon
W. Singleton, Dr. Linda Bisson, Dr. Roger Boulton, and Dr. Ralph
Kunkee, I think. They are rewriting it, and it will be a
complete new book. I have just completed a text, and it is at
the publisher (Haworth Press). It is titled Winemaking Basics,
and should be in print by mid-1990.
Teiser: As I look at your bibliography, I see that you must have done a
tremendous lot of research.
Ough:
As I say, we kept busy.
Teiser: How did you keep your projects separate?
Ough:
Well, I have a folder for each one, and keep the folders
separate.
[laughter] No, there's not that many projects,
really. A lot of them were relatively short term. In enology
you can have a short term project and get a lot of information in
a short time. This was an interesting era, I think. It's more
that there were so many things that hadn't been done that I could
lC. S. Ough and M. A. Amerine, Methods for Analysis of Wines and Musts,
second edition (New York: J. Wiley & Sons, 1988).
11
see needed to be done, and they weren't that hard to do. Most of
the experiments were relatively simple, direct experiments, like
temperature of fermentation. You know, people talk about it, but
nobody had done any critical experiments where they'd have water
baths and ferment the wines at strict temperature variations to
find out how the wines changed.
Teiser: I guess the means hadn't been at hand for long, had they?
Ough:
No, probably not. And also gas chromatography had come along and
we could do a lot of volatile analyses that hadn't been done
before. As new equipment becomes available, it opens up new
fields of research.
Like now we can do things we couldn't do two years ago. To
me these are tremendous things, that we can find answers to
problems that we could never answer two or three years ago, just
because equipment is here now and we can do it. A gas
chromatograph allows detection of as many as 200-500 components
in wine. I think this is partly why there are so many
publications. It was in a time when there was a great evolution
of equipment, and its application was appreciated. We had
equipment that we could do these things with, they were there to
do, and we did them. We purchased a gas chronomatograph/mass
spectrograph, which allows us to measure compounds to one part in
a billion.
Sometimes the money to get the equipment was not easily
available. Many times I took grant funds to do analyses that
were rather routine and unrewarding in order to accumulate funds
to buy the equipment that was needed for good wine research.
Neither the University nor the wine industry contributed much for
this equipment. The money came from private sectors wishing
products to be tested or tried in winemaking. I never gave other
than honest answers, and many times the money came as gifts with
no formal contract. My word was the bond. Without this source
of funds, my laboratory would never have been able to do the
research that was done.
Flor Sherry
Teiser:
I think you've written twice at least about flor sherry.
12
Ough:
Yes. This was Dr. Amerine's project, really, to start with. He
had the idea, which I think was an excellent idea--it made sense.
Normally flor sherry grows on the surface of the wine, in the old
conventional style, and it takes it years to impart all the
flavors. The way people had tried to improve that was to use
very large, flat tanks where you had a lot of surface area. Or
they'd coat the yeast on wood chips and then trickle the wine
over them. The Australians did that, and still do it. It's a
secret, they think [said with a wink].
But Dr. Amerine's idea was why not just get the yeast
growing in submerged culture? We had these controlled
fermentation tanks which were ideal for this, so we started to do
it and we were successful. We could make the wine in a very
short time, impart all the flavors that the yeast would normally
impart in their growth cycle on the surface. It couldn't impart
the yeast autolysis flavors or the barrel flavors, but we could
get the other flavor very successfully.
Teiser:
What came of it?
Ough:
Well, Gallo [winery] made millions of gallons of it, and I'm not
sure that they don't still make a small amount. Phil [Philip]
Posson at The Sierra Wine company was in the business of making
it for years and years. The sherry market has declined now.
Teiser:
I seem to recall that it makes a superior sherry.
Ough:
Yes. I remember the Gallos came up and we had a tasting. Ernest
and Julio came up to Davis, and we had the various sherry blends
we'd made set out. They were very impressed, and went back and
were making it in hundred-thousand-gallon tanks shortly after
that. And a number of the wineries did produce it.
Myron Nightingale was the first one to try it commercially.
I remember I had a bottle of this from one of the first lots that
he made, and I gave it back to him a few years ago at a
celebration honoring him.
Teiser:
What did Gallo label its flor sherry?
Ough:
They didn't label it as flor sherry. They used it to blend with
their regular baked sherry. It was in their cocktail sherry
blend. That's the main use of it.
Teiser:
It's like the traditional Spanish method, isn't it?
13
Ough:
Yes, most Spanish-type sherry has some flor sherry in it.
Teiser:
Were there other special wines or unusual wines that you worked
with?
Ough:
[laughs] I don't know. It's more difficult for me to know what's
most important than it is for you.
Teiser:
Anyone who wants to know what went on can look at the literature,
but unless you explain what the practical results were, we don't
know which had impact.
Dissolved Oxygen Determination
Ough:
I've highlighted some of the ones that I thought were important.
One of the things that we did early, about the same time as we
did the flor sherry work, was dissolved oxygen determination.
There was a meter that had come out that had been used in
measuring blood oxygen (Clarke Oxygen Electrode). So we thought
this might be applied to wine.
1111
Ough:
So we did some work on it and found we could use it to measure
dissolved oxygen of wine. One of the problems the wineries had
over the years was oxidation of their wines. Through the
development and use of this meter we were able to show them how
they could go in their winery and determine where their oxidation
problems were, and then they could prevent the oxidation. It
turned out that things like centrifugal pumps were sucking a lot
of air into the wines as they pumped them around. Wines that
were held at cold storage, even though no oxidation occurred in
cold storage, became supersaturated with oxygen. When they moved
the wine out they oxidized. So it was a matter of application.
It was very useful to the wineries to know how to minimize
oxidation.
Sorbic Acid
Ough:
And we were one of the first ones to talk about use of sorbic
acid in wines, at least on a publication basis. John Ingraham,
14
who was a microbiologist in the department then, and I published
a work on that. Sorbic acid has been used for many years in
wines now.
Teiser: Did that affect the way it has been used, then?
Ough:
I think so. We sort of set the tone for how it should be used.
John Ingraham and I also worked on the wine fungicide diethyl
pyrocarbonate--DEPC. The wineries picked this up for use
immediately, and used it effectively for about eight or nine
years. That's the one that makes ethyl carbamate, which is
urethane, which is a carcinogen. The amount of ethyl carbamate
formed by this additive was relatively small--one or two parts
per billion--but it was banned for use by the FDA [Food andDrug
Administration]because of the Delany Amendment. This part of the
Food Law states that if you add anything to a food product and it
causes a carcinogen to be formed, then it can't be added. Little
did they know that many wines normally have a hundred or a
thousand times more naturally in them. At the time we were
looking at new wines which had very little or none, but later on-~
I'll get to that later.
Teiser: You continued your studies of urethane, didn't you?
Ough:
Yes.
Teiser: Are you still continuing?
Ough:
Yes.
It's very big right now. 1
Pesticides
Ough:
And we were one of the first ones to look at the distribution of
pesticides in wine, what happened when they fermented. We
actually worked with the Enviromental Toxicology Department at
Davis. We got together and fortified these wines with pesticides
and then analyzed them to see where the pesticides went. Some of
them disappeared completely, others went only into the
distillate, others reacted with the yeast and precipitated out,
and others ended up in the wine. But we determined what the fate
of these pesticides were once they were in the juice.
lSee also pages 21-22, 42, 44, 46.
15
Teiser:
Did you ever take it back into the vineyard?
Ough:
No, but it would be in the vineyard. If it was there on the
grapes, it would be in the juice. At the time we got very bitter
condemnation from some of the people who had vineyards and from
the wine industry--"Why are you doing this? It's just bad
publicity for wine.
But later on the same people were patting
us on the back for doing this and getting them off the hook
later. This happens quite often. You know, you can't hide it
under a rug; you've got to be honest with your research and put
it out and tell the truth. Otherwise it comes back to haunt you.
II
Teiser:
Wasn't there a general controversy about the various benefits and
ill effects of pesticides of various kinds?
Ough:
Yes, there still is. Recently, down in Delano, they're saying
it's causing all these problems. There's no evidence that it
does, but it's always a controversy anytime you have anything
like this.
Teiser:
It seems to me that Dr. [Emil] Mrak used to speak up and say--
Ough:
Yes, I know. I listened to him talk about this and say that it's
really a small matter compared to other things that could cause
you problems. He used to love to say that peanut butter could be
potentially far more dangerous than any wines you'd drink, and
you give gobs of it to children.
Wine Color
Ough:
We did a lot of work on things such as seeing how light affected
people's appreciation of wine. Under incandescent light, the
wine looks a lot redder than if you're under florescent light,
which makes wine look bluish. People actually have a preference
for the more reddish wine, usua11y--a1though not always.
Teiser:
Didn't you have booths there at Davis with different colored
lights in them? Did you work with those?
Ough:
We actually set up special lights to do this. Our routine
tasting booths have a red light and a white light (an
incandescent light), but no florescent.
16
More on Controlled Fermentation
Ough:
Even through 1965 and into 1966 we were still working with the
controlled fermentation equipment and doing a lot of experiments
there.
Teiser:
Did you stop that line of inquiry because you thought you had
found out what was needed?
Ough:
Well, all we could do with that equipment, I think, we had done
pretty well. It was pretty bulky equipment, it was out of date
equipment, and it was difficult to work with. To put it
together, we had a crane on the top that lifted off the lid; the
lid weighed about five hundred pounds. It was one of the
original penicillin-growing tanks that was used in the penicillin
industry, and it wasn/t designed for what we were trying to do
with it. It was designed for high pressure fermentation, and we
were doing a lot of other things in it. Once we found that
wasn/t a practical way to approach the problem of fermentation
control, we went to temperature control and showed that that was
the best way to approach it. If we wanted to measure the gas
flows out, we had to use a monkey wrench about three feet long
with a piece of pipe in the handle to tighten the bolts with.
The head was slightly warped. It got to be too much, really. It
just wasn/t very practical anymore.
But we continued to do the work. We replaced the heavy
equipment with some water baths. We could put two or three five­
gallon jugs in at a time in each bath. We had five different
baths so we could maintain different temperatures,l
Teiser:
By that time had some of the wineries themselves picked up the
research?
Ough:
Oh, yes. A lot of the wineries did a lot of good research. I
would never say that we did everything at Davis--far from it.
The Mondavis, for example, at Krug were doing a lot of research
on blanketing with gas. They were the first ones to do it
commercially, and they did a lot of work on that, and very good
work. The Mondavis still do a lot of excellent research.
Andre Tchelistcheff in this period of time was doing an
awful lot of good research at Beaulieu Vineyard. He didn't say
l See also pages 8-9.
17
too much about it, never published very much, but he was working
on fermentation temperature also. He was influencing the quality
of wines in Napa Valley quite a bit.
Most of the winemakers in Napa Valley were intelligent
people, and they could read just as well as we could. Maybe they
did not publish research like we did, but they did a lot of
similar work.
Teiser:
Was Gallo developing its labs then?
Ough:
Oh, yes. Of course, they never tell you all they're doing, ever,
or very seldom. But they probably were ahead of the University
in many, many aspects of research, undoubtedly. Because they had
a lot more equipment than we ever did, and still do, in their
laboratories. But they don't publish the results very often.
Rootstocks
Ough:
We got interested in rootstocks and did quite a bit of work with
them, and I still am working with rootstocks. Some people said
it affected the quality of the wine and others said it didn't.
It's still sort of an unanswered question, whether it does or
doesn't. The rootstock depends a lot on the soil that it's
growing in, and there are many aspects of it under investigation.
But we did some of the original work that showed that over in
Oakville, in our vineyard, you could find differences between the
wines made from one rootstock compared to another. But then you
start to look at the vigor of the rootstock and the whole thing
gets very complicated, because rootstocks that grow very
vigorously in deep soil are absolutely no different than weak
rootstocks in rich soil. If you have shallow soil and a vigorous
rootstock, you do get differences that you don't see in deep
soil.
Teiser:
Did you do any experiments with vines on their own roots?
Ough:
Oh, yes, that too. As a matter of fact, we're just winding up an
experiment on that now in the Central Coast area, with Jack
Foott, the farm advisor down there. We've done five years of
trials with two different varieties, eight different rootstocks,
and own roots--looking for differences in wine quality,
differences in composition of the grapes, and so on.
18
Teiser:
Maybe you'll eventually settle the question of whether pre­
phylloxera wines were better? [laughs]
Ough:
I doubt it. It's only better in your memory.
better when you're younger.
Everything is
Mechanical Harvesting
Ough:
We did a lot of work with skin extracts, mechanical harvesting.
We got involved in that in 1969 and 1970, when mechanical
harvesting was first starting to be used for harvesting grapes.
We worked with the agricultural engineering department--Jack
Coffelt--to develop equipment to simulate transport of grapes.
Once the grapes are mechanically harvested and they are
transported, they are in much different condition than grapes
that are hand-picked. They are slushy, and they're getting
vibrated. What Coffelt did was go out and ride the trucks with a
device that would record the motion, and then he could translate
that to a simulator. The device would shake the tanks and give
the same motion as the grapes being transported in a truck. The
effects of this transport on the quality of the wine that was
produced, and the composition of the juice, was reported on.
We were able to show that under normal conditions you might
have a maximum of ten to twelve hours to get those grapes to the
winery, if they were mechanically harvested, before adverse
effects occurred. In contrast, even after twenty-four hours with
hand-harvesting there was very little effect on the grapes. So
we were able to get people, if they were going to harvest
mechanically, to deliver the grapes more rapidly. Also to
harvest at night when it was cooler, for the white grapes.
Teiser:
Did you do some experiments with that?
Ough:
Yes. Not actual field experiments, but we did the temperature
experiments with the grapes in the container. We showed that
when they are warm they deteriorate more quickly than when
they're cool. It's logical, but we were able to show it
dramatically.
19
Histamine in Wine
Ough:
We looked at some things like histamine in wine. Histamine is a
compound that causes the surface blood vessels to dilate, and
tends to put one into shock. There was a lot of commotion back
in the '70s about this aspect of how if you had high histamine
you were liable to get headaches and things like that. So we
surveyed California wines and found out they didn't have very
much histamine. 1 We could see no relationship with any
treatments or anything; it was just something that was just there
in small amounts, period. We did show that some of the Burgundy
wines had very high levels of histamine, and still do, but other
than that none of the rest of them had very much.
Teiser: Was there any difference between red and white California wines?
Ough:
No. We were convinced from our own experiments that malolactic
fermentations would not give any added histamine, although some
of the Germans had been publishing that it did give exceedingly
high levels. We couldn't find that with the normal flora that
were used in our wines. We didn't ever publish it because there
was such an overwhelming amount of literature from Germany saying
that it did. We said we must be wrong and we backed off and
didn't publish that particular part of it. But later on-­
actually just published last year--we did publish a paper that
showed that, yes, it absolutely did not add to the histamine in
the wine. They had some wrong data they were looking at;
something was wrong with their experiments. We did show that you
can grow the malolactics in grape juice and produce high amounts,
but not in wine.
Esters
Ough:
Then we looked at the esters in wines. We had a graduate student
from Brazil who was interested in esters, so we developed methods
to measure esters in wine.
Teiser: What's the significance of esters in wine?
lSee also pages 24-25.
20
Ough:
They give the wine the fruitiness that you smell. The actual
fruity smell in most wine is due to the esters that are present.
We showed that different yeasts cause different amounts of esters
and different kinds to be produced. Oxidated yeast, such as
Pichia and those oxidative yeasts, will form ethyl acetate, which
is a spoilage ester. Whereas Sacchromyces form the "good"
esters, you might say. They don't form much ethyl acetate, but a
lot of others that are very fruity. So we worked on that with the
graduate student, Carlos Daudt. He came back later to get a PhD.
and worked on volatile amines in wines.
We applied the use of an ammonia electrode to measure
ammonia in wines, and that's in use in the industry now.
Browning Studies
Ough:
Early on, we had done some experiments with glucose oxidase
enzyme which, along with catalase enzyme, will supposedly remove
oxygen from wine. Our experiment showed that in all cases the
oxygen was removed, because we could measure it with the oxygen
electrode. But in some cases the wines actually got browner. We
weren't quite sure why at the time, but later on we put a
graduate student on this project. He was able to show that the
catalase was inactivated by the alcohol that was present. It was
necessary for the catalase to be active to remove the hydrogen
peroxide that was formed from the glucose oxidase activity.
Since it was inactivated, there was hydrogen peroxide left in
wine and that caused browning of the wines. So we could explain
why we had this result where the oxygen disappeared but the wines
got browner.
1NI
Teiser: Oxidation occurred during bottling also?
Ough:
Yes, it could occur during bottling as well. One of the things
that the industry tries to do is limit the amount the oxygen
that's in the bottle itself. I can't claim any credit for any
research in this area. Professor [Harold W.] Berg probably did
most of the research in that area in the department.
21
Diethyl Dicarbonate and Dimethyldicarbonate
Ough:
Another thing we worked with--once the diethyl dicarbonate, or
DEDC, as it was called then, was banned from use--was dimethyl­
dicarbonate, a methyl analogue. It doesn't form the ethyl
carbamate, the carcinogen, so theoretically that should be one
that could be used in wine. We worked on that. The first paper
we wrote on it was in 1975. Incidentally, it got approved for
use in 1988; it took it thirteen years to get approved for use.
It is as effective as DEPC was, without the danger.
In the meantime we did a lot of work and published a lot of
papers on it--methods of how to analyze for it, the amount of
methanol that was produced, and so on. But the interesting part
of why they chose the other compound I think probably reflects
some of the thinking of people in these large companies. I had
talked to the scientist in Germany who had developed these
compounds. He said that the reason they chose the diethyl
dicarbonate was that it didn't make any methanol. When it broke
down during hydrolysis, it made ethanol and CO2 , which was ideal.
But when it reacted with ammonia it made the ethyl carbamate,
which is urethane, which is bad. But he said it made such a
little amount, about a part per billion under normal use, that
they thought nobody would ever see that. They thought nobody
would ever come up with the fact that it did make it in wine.
The dimethyldicarbonate made a measurable amount of methanol,
which is a bad thing in wine--in Europe, especially. This was
because of all the problems that arise from people using wood
alcohol to make artificial wine or to fortify wines.
We used it about seven or eight years before it got caught
up with. It got caught up with because Swedish scientists did an
improper experiment. A graduate student on a weekend did an
experiment where the answers were off by a factor of a thousand,
and he published it unknowingly. That caused the compound to be
banned, and it caused the attention to be generated. Then the
methods were improved. The one part per billion that was formed
could be measured.
Like I say, it took thirteen years to get the
dimethyldicarbonate approved. I took two trips back to the FDA
to explain everything that had been done, that I had done, and
explained why the industry wanted to use it, and so on.
Teiser: Do you encounter much poor research or published papers?
22
Ough:
Well, this was published in Science, which is supposed to be a
top-notch science journal. I refuted their data, and a good
German scientist did also. By two different methods we refuted
their data, and Science would never even publish an
acknowledgment or a letter saying that it was wrong. They just
stonewalled the whole thing. I published my paper in the Journal
of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, and they sent it to the
Swedish scientist to review. In it I pointed out that it was
careless or erroneous work, and he admitted that it was and asked
that I please not mention his name. [laughs] So I deleted his
name from it.
Teiser:
Once something gets into Science, it's likely to be permanent,
isn't it? People might refer to it forever.
Ough:
Yes. And that compound will never be used again because of that,
even though it's not that serious a factor in health.
Mold and Rot
Ough:
We got involved also in mold and rot--I get involved in all the
good things--trying to determine threshhold levels of mold
tastes. It's always been a problem: wineries buy grapes, and
they want to reject the grapes if they're moldy or rotted. It's
very difficult to do this in a truly honest manner. You know,
it's very subjective. Gallo, for example, has it written into
their contracts that their winemakers will make that decision
based on the appearance and odor of the grapes when they are
delivered to the winery. They can reject them if they want to.
Well, this is very subjective, and everybody wants to get
something that's more objective to this decision. And I'm sure
Gallo does, too. But it's very difficult. We've never come up
with anything where you can take an analysis of the juice there
and really make a decision whether there's some mold and rot in
those grapes or not. Because it doesn't change things enough, or
some things change and some things don't change. They've tried
numerous different tests--antibody tests and things like that-­
for these molds and rots, and still have not been successful.
Teiser:
Don't they often check the grapes themselves before they go in?
Ough:
When they're mechanically harvested they're a slurry. You can
look visually for the mold and rot in hand-harvested grapes, but
23
it's a very difficult thing to do in mechanically harvested
grapes. Also they want a measurement that takes only around
twelve to fifteen minutes. A truck comes in, it's sampled, and
it's going to dump its grapes or it's going to leave, one of the
two. It is in line, and you can't hold it up more than fifteen
minutes. So it's not easy.
We did some work on volatile amines in wine--not histamines
but other amines. We determined that there were very few of them
in wines. It was Carlos Daudt's Ph.D. thesis. We could isolate
all these amines and show how much there was of them. They came
mainly from the grapes. This had never been reported before.
Metals and Other Constituents
Ough:
We also got to do a certain amount of--you can call it drudgery
work, if you want, or routine work--where we looked at many of
the metals in three hundred different California wines. This was
supported by the Wine Institute. The Wine Institute has this
program where they voluntarily try to control the composition
that they think might be adverse, and this is agreed to by the
BATF [Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms]. Sodium was a
problem in wines--because wine itself naturally is very low in
sodium, maybe ten milligrams per liter. This is sodium-free for
all practical purposes. Some wineries were ion-exchanging and
removing the potassium by adding sodium in its place for wine
stability reasons. There were some people who didn't know how to
do it properly and were just saturating the wine with sodium,
going well above what ought to be a normal amount.
When this started, Professor Berg was in charge of this
program, and he did the analysis for several years. When he
retired I picked it up and did it the last year, and also looked
at the metal ions as well. The program has been very successful.
Two years before he had done a survey and found, I think, only
two or three wineries that still had above the three hundred
milligrams per liter limit that had been arbitrarily set. Out of
three hundred wines there wasn't one over the limit. So it was
very gratifying. I think everybody concerned was pleased that
wineries had voluntarily lowered it to a point that was
acceptable to everybody.
Teiser: Is ion exchange still used much?
24
Ough:
Oh, yes. It's used primarily, I think, more for dessert wines
than table wine, but some wineries still use it for table wines
also. Cold stabilization is a better choice. As people get
better temperature equipment, then they have the ability not to
use ion exchange but to use temperature. But there are other
uses for ion exchange as well as stabilization.
Red Wine Headaches
Ough:
We looked at red wine headaches. That's an interesting one.
That was done in 1983. We were interested in people who say they
get headaches from drinking wine. A lot of people will tell you
this, especially as they get older. We thought we would see how
many there are, and see if we could tie down what's in wine that
causes it. People have been saying for years that they got
headaches because of the histamine in red wine.
Histamine is a material that's in the cells of the body and
can be released by things you're allergic to. Bee stings are an
example: when the bee stings you, histamines are released in the
body, causing an allergic reaction. These may cause you to go
into shock. It causes the peripheral blood vessels to dilate,
and then your heart beats faster, trying to keep the pressure up.
This reaction comes mainly from allergies. The histamine is
in the cells all the time, and the allergic reaction releases the
histamines into the body to cause these reactions. It has to get
into the blood stream before it can cause any problem. If you
ingest histamine through your mouth and into your stomach, the
body has excellent mechanisms to detoxify these histamines very,
very rapidly in the body. If you happen to be taking a certain
type of medicine, monoamine oxidase inhibitors, then oral
ingestion can be a problem. Otherwise, the body handles it very
easily. Some people have taken up to a gram of histamine orally
with no problem.
People have been talking about this for years--that when you
drink wine with histamine in it, you get headaches because of the
histamine. Well, it normally can't get into the bloodstream to
get to your head, to start with. The only way it can get in
there is if you happen to draw it into your lungs, where you can
get a quick transfer into the blood stream. But that's not going
to happen normally when you're drinking wine, unless you choke on
it or something, and then the levels would be extremely low.
25
We wanted to try this a little further. We asked for people
in the University who had headaches from red wine to respond to
us. In the Cal Aggie paper at Davis we asked for volunteers. We
got about a hundred people to volunteer who said they got these
kinds of red wine headaches. First we sent them a survey sheet
and asked them to fill out details. Those who said they got a
headache from any alcohol consumed we deleted out of the program.
Only those who said just red wine caused the problem we went
around to and talked with in more detail. Finally we selected
about fifty people to take part in the survey.
We set up the experiments in our department and had a
medical doctor there. We gave them measured amounts of red wine
and asked them what their response was. This was around four
o'clock in the afternoon, in a relatively empty-stomach situation
for them. Some would say, "I think I'm getting a headache. I'm
not quite sure; I feel a little funny." Well, you drink a large
glass of wine on an empty stomach, you may feel funny [laughs].
None of them ever had anything that we really could call
significant. We had one that we could give her anything, and
she'd say, "Gee, I feel awful." She was just an over-reactor,
you know.
We went on and gave them some white wine that had food
coloring in it, and then later we'd give them the same white wine
with no food coloring: no significant difference between their
verbal responses with either wine. We gave them antihistamine
tablets that should prevent allergic reactions, or placebos. We
did a double blind study on that: no significant difference
between them.
The only conclusion we could draw from this study was that
this group of people did not react to wine in any sense to cause
an allergic type reaction or histamine headaches of any sort.
Our conclusion was that this older group could not handle toxic
substances as well as younger people. If you eat a big, heavy
meal and drink red with with it, the load of tannins--phenols-­
in the body can get to the point where it may be slightly toxic
to you. We thought that was probably why these people reacted-­
or thought they reacted--to red wine with headaches. They may
have gotten headaches, they may have gotten upset stomachs, their
hearts may have beat faster, but it was probably due to the
toxicity of the phenols. That's the only answer we could draw
from the study.
In the initial survey we did have two or three people who
would hardly talk to us. They said, "All I have to do is take a
---------------~. ---------~------~------
26
few sips of wine and my head feels like it's going to burst."
Those were probably really allergic people, but they wouldn't
play the game at all; they didn't want to have anything to do
with us [laughs]. There probably are people who are allergic,
but these are very few.
Teiser:
I wonder if a comparable experiment might be done with diluted
rum, or something that isn't the same composition as wine, and
see if people don't get headaches from the same amount of alcohol
in that.
Ough:
Oh, I'm sure they would. Of course, if you drink too much--we
started by giving them two big glasses, and a few of them started
to walk out a little bit tipsy, so we decided that was no good.
We were giving them plenty, and if they were going to react, they
would have reacted, and they didn't.
Teiser:
Wasn't the persistent rumor that red wine gave people headaches
one of the things that increased the use of white wine?
Ough:
Yes, I think so. I myself used to be able to drink plenty of red
wine with meals with no problems. Now, if I drink more than two
glasses I do get the same symptoms that people report--a
headache, upset stomach, pounding of the heart, and things like
that. I can still drink a lot of white wine. I think it's the
phenols in the wine.
Sulfur Dioxide
Ough:
We also got involved in sulfur dioxide trials, when the business
of all these allergies to sulfur dioxide was rampant a few years
ago. We were asked to do some experiments with Dr. Ronald Simon
down at Scripps Research Institute (Clinic) in San Diego. There
was also another doctor involved (I forget his name; he's John
De Luca's personal doctor, too). The industry was going to have
to label wine, and they weren't sure whether it was going to be
for free S02, which is the unbound S02, that's found to have
acetaldehyde and other aldehydes or ketones in the wine. We
generally make two measurements on the wine, one on the free and
one on the total, which includes the bound. The limit that the
FDA had set was ten parts per million. Well, if it was just for
the free, many people knew they could have wine under ten parts
per million and have good wine, but bound they couldn't. Because
there's enough naturally bound in wine that almost every wine's
27
going to have at least ten parts per million, which was the limit
they had set that you had to label with.
So I went back to talk to the FDA, and I talked with the
director of the FDA. I made my pitch for the industry, about how
there was not evidence in the literature anyplace that the bound
S02 has any effect on people; that it's only the free that caused
problems. So if we were going to be limited by this, why not
have the limit just for the free S02. Then some of the wineries
could get under the ten par~per million and be happy. He said,
"Are sure you know for a fact that there's no effect of bound S02?"
I said no, but there was nothing in the literature that showed
there was. So he said why didn't I find out. [laughs]
So we did this experiment with Dr. R. Simon. All of his
previous evidence was on free S02. He has a large contingency of
people throughout the U. S. who are allergic to S02' He brings
them in to Scripps Clinic and tests them. We made a chemically
pure bound S02. It was available to put in grape juice. We had
some grape juice that had absolutely no S02 in it. We packaged
it and did a double blind study. We took it down to him and
said, "Okay, mix this and this together and give it to your
patients in this order."
He did, and it turned out that about half the patients did
react to the bound S02, and about half of them didn't. That was
enough to convince the industry that they might as well bite the
bullet and say, "Okay, we'll go with the label and that's all we
can do." They didn't fight it, and they went with labeling. It
probably hasn't hurt them one little bit.
I think Dr. Simon learned a lot about this, too. Because
you can develop a pretty good theory on what's going on with
this. There is an enzyme in the body, sulfide oxydase, which
reacts and destroys the sulfur dioxide--converts it to sulfate.
That is present in humans; most everybody has a large amount of
it. Every day you convert lots of sulfur dioxide to sulfate in
the body. It's a normal way of removing this toxic substance
from the body. People who are highly allergic and have lung
dysfunction, such as asthma or emphysema, seem to have a lesser
amount of the enzyme. So it gets into their blood via the lower
gut. In their stomach it remains as a bound form, but when it
gets to the intestines the pH is such that it's immediately
freed.
Teiser:
So you found the mechanism.
find ways to lower the SO 21
In response, did the wine industry
28
Ough:
They've made all efforts to lower it, yes. I've been following
the average 80 2 levels in wine for a number of years. I started
in 1966, I think, analyzing wines to see what the 80 was. It's
dropped from an average of 150 or so to less than a hundred now,
over that period of years. That's a big drop. It's an accident
if the content of wine gets over the legal limit now. Nobody
ever puts over two hundred any more if they're good winemakers.
There are always a few who have a problem and add extra, but
normally speaking the 802 levels are very much lower in wine than
they used to be. And the legal limit is going to be lowered,
too, in a short while.
Teiser: Has there been research on any substitute for sulfur compounds?
Ough:
There's lots of research. In fact, there was a time (I don't
know if it's still in effect) when the French government had
offered a million francs to anybody who could offer a successful
substitute for sulfur dioxide, but it was never given. [laughs]
It's a remarkable substance in that it's an anti-oxident, and
anti-microbial as well. It's not very good on inhibiting yeast,
but it is very good on inhibiting bacterial growth. That's why
it's primarily used--that and the anti-oxident effect on wines.
It reacts with hydrogen peroxide to bind it up when it's formed
in wines. It's very difficult to make good wine without it. You
can make wine without it, but it's not very good, especially
after a few months; it loses a lot of character.
Watering of Grape Juice
Ough:
What about watering of grape juice? We had a graduate student
working on a project for the industry. Well, let me go back and
explain the situation. The state inspectors came around and
looked at the wineries during their crush. This one state
inspector came around to a winery, and they were putting water
into their grapes. He (or she) was a young, new person, and said
they couldn't do that; it was against the law. Well, the winery
owner didn't think it was, and the winemaker didn't think it was,
but he stopped doing it while the inspector was there, at least.
But that sort of flared up and got to be a problem for the
industry--is it or isn't it?
The state law says you can only do what is normal, sound
winery practice as far as adding water. Federal law says you can
reduce the Brix of the juice to twenty-two Brix, if it's above
29
that, by the addition of water. They have two conflicting
regulations here. So I was asked to do two things. One was to
do a confidential survey of the industry to see how many people
actually added water to reduce the sugar so you'd have less
alcohol. The other was to find out why in some areas you got
more alcohol with the same degree Brix on grapes. The coastal
counties usually always got more alcohol for the same degree Brix
on grapes.
First I did the survey and went around and talked to
approximately a hundred wineries. I'd say for the most part they
were all very open and told me that yes, they added water. In
fact, a few of them even mentioned that they added water to their
wine, which I reminded them was highly illegal. Just a few of
the wineries said that, and it was confidential; no one would
ever know which ones did. It turned out that something like
44 percent of them said yes, they added water routinely to lower
the grape juice to the point where they would be within the legal
limit of the alcohol for table wine, which is fourteen percent.
If they got over that, they got stuck with a dessert wine tax,
and they didn't want that, so they'd lower the alcohol. In the
coast counties you have to wait longer to get the acid down so
that it makes a good, balanced wine, and the sugar goes up when
you do that. So you're caught between a rock and a hard place.
You either add water, or you have to add something to remove your
acid, which is harder on the wine than adding water at that
point.
The way that turned out, it quietly went away. When that
many people do it, it's sound commercial practice by anybody's
standards. Then we worked for three years to find out why--it
was not obvious--many of these coast county grapes obtained a
higher percent alcohol than certain grapes. We had done some
studies back in 1957, where a paper in Hilgardia showed this same
effect. Our Davis vineyards always gave less percent alcohol per
degree Brix than did our Oakville vineyards, but we never knew
why.
We had this graduate student doing this project. Two major
factors [turned up]. One, when you have raisins in the grapes
(overripe grapes start to shrivel and raisin), they're very tough
and don't crush very easily, and the juice doesn't come out of
them very easily when they are crushed. The ones that are crisp
and firm split open and the juice comes out easier, and they're
generally lower Brix. So you had this high degree sugar leaching
out later, after you've taken your sample out of the fresh
crushed grapes. After it's been in the tank for a couple of
30
hours, the Brix goes up because of the sugar content. That's one
reason. The other reason, and the one that's probably more
important, is if the juice is high in nitrogen, you grow a bigger
yeast crop. You might not think the amount of yeast produced is
important, but it will use up sugar for yeast cell material,
leaving less for ethanol production.
31
TRAINING WINE MEN##
Teiser:
Over the years I suppose you've developed lots of relationships
with wineries--just personal relationships.
Ough:
Oh, yes. I've had a lot of graduate students over the years who
are out there in pretty prestigious positions nowadays--a lot of
winemakers, and some of the winery owners' sons have gone through
Davis, too, like the Wentes, Mondavis, and Martinis, to name a
few.
Teiser:
Yes, that's a change, isn't it, now that you have former students
in the industry?
Ough:
Yes. Well, there was Louis Martini, and some of the earlier
ones, but there weren't nearly as many then as there are now.
There are a lot of them who went through Davis out there now who
are winemakers, and in a sense that makes life easier for us, in
that they are fairly well trained, I think. While each winery
has a different style, the basic training of the students is
adequate so they can understand what they are doing and why they
are doing it, and that's very important.
Teiser:
Do those former students come to you with problems?
Ough:
Occasionally, yes, but not too often. Most of the problems are
relatively easily solved in the wineries nowadays. They pretty
well know what they should do and shouldn't do.
Teiser:
The special courses that the University gives now, for the
industry or anyone, are mostly pitched at newcomers, aren't they?
Ough:
Yes. Once in a while we give a refresher course, but for the
most part they're for newcomers. It's very difficult, if a
person hasn't been in the industry before, hasn't gone through
Davis or Fresno. If they just come in with, say, a degree in
---------------~
--------­
32
chemistry from some place, they need a little back-up
information, usually, before they can adequately do their job.
So some of these courses are designed for that sort of thing.
It's a general course in enology, really--bringing them up to
date, taking it to a fairly high level, and topping it off with
how S02 reacts in wine, what it reacts with, and things like
that--stablization practices, hydrogen sulfide formation. All
these things are touched on in these kinds of courses.
Teiser: It must have been quite different--I suppose that when you were
first in the department, all kinds of people came for short
courses, didn't they?
Ough:
Yes, we had a lot of people. In fact, a lot of people who are
now winemakers in the industry came, and a lot of the owners came
in those days. There weren't that many wineries, you know.
There were only about 120 wineries or so in the early days, in
the '50s, so there weren't that many people. We'd have short
courses of twenty or thirty people, and we'd give laboratories
with it and have tastings and so forth. Now when we have a short
course, two or three hundred people show up. It's full, and it's
only lectures, no labs, because you can't give that many labs.
So it's quite different.
Teiser: We've just been interviewing Jack Davies--some people certainly
started out boldly, didn't they?
Ough:
Yes. I remember Professor Berg and I went up to see Jack and his
wife, when I think they'd had the wine down for only a year or
two, to taste their wines and look at their stability problems.
And did they have stability problems at that point! There was
this wine that was just as cloudy as all get-out. It was in the
bottle, and was a milky type precipitate, and there was no way
they were going to get it out of the bottle. Neither one of them
knew very much about winemaking, I don't think, to start with. I
think they had read about winemaking, but that's about it. But
they've made some extremely good wines.
We had more time; until I started to teach I had a lot of
free time, and the faculty used to visit the wineries often.
Maybe one or two or three of us would go out and spend a day
visiting wineries to find out what their problems were, and just
general talking to them, interchanging information.
I remember going into Beaulieu Vineyard one day with
Professor Berg. Andre [Tchelistcheff] says, "Let's taste some
wines." We said okay, we had an hour or two; so he pulled out
33
wines from as far back as '37. He had a whole series of
Cabernets--everything he had bottled over the years. There were
some really good Cabernets coming out of BV. We tasted those
wines, and it was a real experience, something you'd never do
now, because people can't save that much wine or take the time.
A lot of that went on in those days.
wines and talked to a lot of people.
You tasted a lot of
Teiser:
What's happened to Cabernet since then, just in general?
Ough:
I don't think it's declined any. I think they still make some
very good Cabernet out there. There's a lot of Cabernet growing
on the wrong soil right now in the deep Napa Valley soils where
it doesn't do very well; it doesn't mature properly there, and
most of the people know it. But the market was such at the time
when they planted it--there was a big market for Cabernet, and
you could sell anything that had seventy-five percent Cabernet in
it from Napa Valley. Now gradually it's going to be converted,
I'm sure, and they'll be planting it where it grows better, in
shallower, drier soils.
Teiser:
Maybe it's just nostalgia that makes me think--
Ough:
Oh, you always remember that they tasted better. Everybody does
that. I think it's probably because your taste buds were more
acute when you're young, and your nose was more sensitive. I
know I'm to the point now where I almost hate to taste because
there's never the aroma there that I used to remember. So I have
to work a lot harder to get an answer now than I used to. I
think it's just because I'm less sensitive now, because the wines
aren't any less good.
34
TEACHING AND DIRECTING GRADUATE STUDENT RESEARCH. SINCE 1972
Teiser:
To go back to your teaching career, you said you started
teaching-­
Ough:
I can tell you exactly--it was in '72. I was teaching a course
in wine and must analysis with Dr. Amerine. We joint-taught it
for about three years, and then he retired and I kept it up.
Teiser:
What other courses have you taught?
Ough:
That's the main one I've taught, really. I've ta?ght a lot of
short courses; I'm involved with a lot of those. But as far as
formal courses, that's the main one that I've taught. I've
organized seminar courses and that sort of thing, and brought in
outside speakers. I've been mainly involved in research more
than teaching.
Teiser:
The University has been flexible, hasn't it?
Ough:
Yes. You see, a junior appointment can vary. Mine was ten
percent teaching and ninety percent research. The average is
twenty-five percent teaching and seventy-five percent research.
Teiser:
How did yours happen to be that?
Ough:
That's just what they gave me. I guess they figured I was a
better researcher than a teacher. Some of them have forty
percent teaching and sixty percent research. A lot depends on
what's available in the University at the time. There have been
times when we've had to split people--take some percentage of
time away from everybody to get somebody a faculty teaching
position, because FTE [full time equivalent] wasn't available in
teaching, but was with research. The dean has no problem with
FTE in research.
Teiser:
The research has also involved students, has it not?
35
Ough:
In a sense; in graduate research, yes.
have a lot of students.
And I do a lot of that; I
Teiser:
Isn't working with you on research pretty good experience for a
graduate student? I should think he would gain a great deal.
I
Ough:
Oh, hopefully he does, yes. Because we plan the experiments and
he does them, and I critique as he goes along. It's all planned
out, and if it doesn't work we have to figure out why. It's good
experience, I think. Most of them haven't complained too much.
Teiser:
Do many of those, then, go out into the industry?
Ough:
Most of them do, yes. We have group teaching in Davis. Most of
our enology master students are in the food science group. Then
there are Ph.D. students in microbiology and in environmental
chemistry. Most of my Ph.D. students are in environmental
chemistry, and the others were master students in food science.
I've had a few from the microbiology group, but not very many.
I'm more chemistry oriented.
Teiser:
For someone like you is it more trouble to have a graduate
student on a project than not sometimes?
Ough:
Sometimes. Sometimes they do a beautiful job with very little
direction needed. Other times they do nothing right and you're
working with them all the time. You know, you're trying to help
them do it right, and there's always something going wrong. Some
people have a knack in the lab, and some people don't. I've had
a few that were just plain out-and-out klutzes. They could never
really get an answer that they should have gotten. Even when you
knew ahead of time what the answer ought to be, they couldn't get
it. But that's rare.
Teiser:
Do you screen those out, or try to screen them out before you
take them on?
Ough:
It's difficult to screen them out. Sometimes you can, and you do
screen them out if you can. But you can't always do that.
36
CHAIRMAN, DEPARTMENT OF VITICULTURE AND ENOLOGY, 1981-1987
Teiser:
When you became chairman of the department--
Ough:
When I became king?
Teiser:
That was in 1981.
Ough:
Yes. I was there as chairman for six months, and then I went on
sabbatical for six months. Dr. [Walter M.] Kliewer was acting
chair at that time. The chairman is a thankless job, as most
everyone who's been chairman I'm sure has told you. It's not a
fun job. There's never enough money to do what's necessary, the
dean always gives with one hand and takes with the other, and
it's a very frustrating position. There are no real decisions
you can make; decisions are all up the line some place on
everything. Your work is mainly administrative--signing papers,
writing proposals that mayor may not get approved, and so on.
Teiser:
Well, you had a long sentence!
Ough:
Yes. I was
frustrating
answers and
else. It's
Teiser:
Did the department change during those years?
Ough:
Yes, we had a big turnover. Most of the older people retired in
that period of time. Dr. Webb retired, and [Lloyd A.] Lider,
James Cook, [Klayton E.] Nelson--in fact, most of the
viticulturists, except for Kliewer, left in that period of time.
So we hired most of the new viticulturists during that period. I
think we hired one enologist in that period of time.
Teiser:
Were you involved in recruiting new people?
[laughs]
You followed Dr. [A. Dinsmoor] Webb?
happy to get out of it. I really was. It's a very
job, especially if you're a person who likes to get
get things done in a hurry and move on to something
not a fun job for somebody like that.
37
Ough:
Yes, I was pretty much involved. As chairman you have to
convince the dean that you need somebody, in the first place. If
you just sit there, nothing happens. You lose that position and
you never get it back, so you've got to fight for it. It's not
automatic that you get a person replaced. You've got to justify
it, and that's a lot of work to do it right. You get your
justification, and then the procedures for getting people are
time consuming. You have to interview, and get a committee
together to look over these and select who's going to come in to
give seminars, and so on. It takes a lot of time to do it right.
Teiser: Does Davis have an easy time attracting people?
Ough:
I think so. Probably not as easy as Berkeley, but I think we do
pretty well. Of course, we're sort of unique. We're the only one
in the system that has the viticulture and enology, so in that
sense we're unique. And we don't go out asking for
viticulturists or enologists; we're out after plant physiologists
or chemists or biochemists--somebody basically trained so they
can bring in some expertise. We don't want an old viticulturist.
We need some young person who can add something to the techniques
and who has interest in the field. We got some pretty good
people, I think.
Teiser: I think there were fears in the early eighties that losing all
those people you were going to have a drop in quality.
Ough:
We had a lot of problems with the industry thing. We weren't
doing enough in viticulture because some of the older people had
slacked off a little bit. They were close to retirement and they
weren't doing very much any more. Few of the viticulture faculty
were doing any laboratory work. There were a lot of long-term
field studies underway that were not yielding any useful
information. These ills have been pretty well cured now. In
fact, we've got to push these young people out, get them out to
see what the vineyards are like, and they're starting to do that
now.
But it's difficult, you know. When you bring young people
into a department and there's very little financial support for
them, and the industry isn't going to give them very much money
until they prove that they can do something. It's pretty
difficult on them. They've got six years to get their tenure,
and if they don't get a lot of good publications in that six
years, they're not going to be kept. It's especially difficult
in something like viticulture, which is a field-oriented crop.
It takes five years to grow a plant up. If you plant an
38
experiment, you're not going to get anything out of it for five
or six years, when you get a crop that's useful. So it's a very
difficult problem for these young people--to get money to do the
research and to convince the industry that they can do something,
and convince their faculty peers that they have some scientific
expertise. It's just not easy, so I feel for them.
39
EXPERIMENTS, CONTINUED:
RECENT YEARS
Clonal Work
Teiser:
I'd like to ask you about the Cabernet trials at Oakville.
Ough:
The clonal trials? It's not a big deal. There are clones
planted up there. In fact, Kliewer has clones planted, and we
had some clones planted up there. They're just to see how they
react differently. We've made wine out of them for a number of
years. We have some that are small-berried, and some that are
larger-berried, and these make a difference in the color of the
wine. Because the smaller the berry, the more skin pigment there
is there and the more color you get to the wine, because there's
less juice per skin. Outside of that, so far we haven't seen a
lot of difference. But we're just now getting to the point where
we can start to analyze the wines; they're mature vines now.
We did have a Pinot noir experiment in Carneros Creek
vineyard. When we finished we had about five years of crop data
on that, and we were able to recommend a number of clones that
were better than others. Clonal work has just recently become of
interest to the industry. The reason is that only in the past
ten or fifteen years have the industry winemakers started to
travel, to go overseas and look at the other countries. We've
been doing it all along on our sabbaticals, but they haven't.
They've now begun to go to some place where they see a great big
grapevine, and they say, "Oh, we've got to have that." It may be
in an experimental vineyard, and they'll ask what the vine number
is. They'll get the number, and they'll want to import it.
They'll get it all imported, and it takes years to get it through
index and everything else. They may find out eventually that it
was one that was sent from Davis originally. Things always look
better on the other side of the street, you know. The farther
I
h
~
11
II
40
away you get from home, the more spectacular things that you see
seem to you.
So this has been one of our problems. There's been such a
commotion over these clones in other countries, and half of them
are just heat treated vines that have been sent over from here,
or they've heat treated their own vines and they're now free of
virus. Not to take anything away from the people in the
industry, because I'm sure they will see or have seen some things
that are better than what we have available now.
01mo did clonal selections very early. He developed the
Chardonnays. The Chardonnays that were available before 01mo did
his clone study had many shot berries. They had yields of about
a quarter of a ton per acre. He did these clone studies and
found ones that didn't have shot berries. That's why we have
Chardonnay now in California. Before that there was none
p1anted--1ess than fifty acres of Chardonnay. It was only
because he did the clone study and got this good Chardonney
selected that they have it now.
The same thing may happen with Zinfande1. What they're
looking for is a loose-clustered Zinfande1, because the Zinfande1
right now is very tight clustered and it rots very easily. If
you do enough clone studies you may pick up one that has a loose
cluster. If you walk in enough vineyards and look at enough
vines, you may find one. If you find a natural loose-clustered
Zinfande1, it's worth its weight in gold.
Department Work on Genetic Engineering
Teiser:
Is genetic engineering going to change all this soon?
Ough:
I think so. We worked very hard to get a good genetic
microbiologist in the department. We have one, Linda Bisson, a
young person who is very bright and well trained. She did her
post graduate work at Harvard, and she's an expert on Sachromyces
cerevisiae. We were very lucky to get her. She knows how to do
this kind of work and will do it as time goes on. Right now
she's doing the necessary preparation--finding out where the
genes are, cell mapping, and this sort of thing. It's not short
term. This is the kind of thing that takes from ten to twenty
years before you get anything, unless you're very lucky. It's
the future of the industry as far as genetics development.
41
Yeast that metabolizes urea completely is a possible genetic
development, for example. That's a very easy possibility,
probably, to enhance the number of genes in there that make the
enzymes. It's the kind of thing that they can do. And that's a
possibility to help solve this ethyl carbamate problem.
Flavor enhancement of wines is another possibility. There's
no reason, once they figure out how to do it, to transfer the
genes that are in the grape and give the flavor to the grape
directly into the yeast itself and produce the flavors during the
fermentation--I don't see why this can't be in the future. It's
just a matter of time and the amount of money that is spent in
that area. But once it's done, then you can have wines that have
a high Zinfande1 flavor, if you want that, or a high whatever
flavor, and it will be natural fermentation.
Grape breeding is the same thing. Now they're beginning to
transfer genes into the grapes. One of the things being tried is
to protect them from phy110xera, or from nematodes, or some leaf
disease. These are the kinds of things that the grape
geneticists are working on, and if successful are a real boon to
the industry.
Teiser:
Are they working on "direct producers"--is that the term?
Ough:
No, that's an old thing. Direct producers are crosses between
vinifera and non-vinifera that produce grapes that are not as
good as vinifera, but not as bad as the other species. They were
originally developed to resist phy110xera.
Teiser:
I suppose there are other ways you can make grapes genetically
resistant.
Ough:
Yes, I think so. It's just a matter of time to work that out.
Right now they're working on diseases that attack the leaves of
the grape. They're trying to find some toxin that the bugs won't
like that they can breed into the grape--they can transfer that
gene into the grape.
II/I
Teiser:
It will be a wonderful new world.
Ough:
Yes, if it ever happens. And I think it's a matter of time and
money. How fast it goes depends on how much money the industry
is willing to put up for it. And there's a limited amount they
42
can put up, because there are other problems to face. But we
have the people there who are working on it. You know, it's just
like when I first came to work in Dr. Amerine's laboratory--we
had a colorimeter and a pH meter, period. Now in the same
laboratory I have an excellent spectraphotometer; a pH meter
that's ten times more sensitive than the old one; a G.C./M.S. so
that I can identify the compounds that we didn't even know
existed in wine before, down to part per billion levels, and
quantitate them at that level; an amino acid analyzer; an HPLC.
We can do all these things so easily and more accurately now.
It's a long time in my life, but in the period of science
it's a very short time, and there's been a tremendous change.
And I don't see why these changes won't continue and be rapid as
new techniques are developed.
Teiser:
You've certainly seen a lot of progress so far.
you would be optimistic.
I can see why
Ough:
Oh, tremendous progress. I am very optimistic, and I know the
caliber of the people working now is excellent. They are very
sharp young people, and in general will solve a lot of problems
for the industry and make a lot of progress.
Urethane Research
Teiser:
Did you say that you have a specific project for your sabbatical
in Australia and South Africa?
Ough:
I'm going to work on urethane. Yes, they're very interested in
it down there. They're just getting started on it, and I'll be
able to help them pretty much. When you go to the southern
hemisphere for a sabbatical, you get two summers in one. So when
I go down there I'll get to do twice as much in one year
[laughs]--two fermentation seasons. It's nice to be able to do
that, really. Also you get other peoples' ideas thrown in, too.
Teiser:
Is urethane a problem with them as much as it is with us?
Ough:
Oh, yes, it's a problem world-wide. In fact, some of the
liqueurs made in Europe were astronomically high in ethyl
carbamate--twenty or thirty milligrams parts per million instead
of parts per billion. It was enough to immediately say you can't
ship any more of that, and you have to change your practices. It
43
came from a different source from what it is in wine, but it was
there.
Teiser:
So it's a valuable field to work in.
Ough:
Oh, I think the work I've done has been very rewarding to the
industry. I think we've averted any real problems the industry
might have. 1
Yeast and Nitrogen
[Interview 2:
10 November 1989]##
Teiser: We lost a portion of your last interview; it did not record.
I ask you to repeat:
May
What was the importance of yeast?
Ough:
Yeast depends on the nitrogen source in the grapes to be able to
reproduce itself and grow. The amount of yeast varies greatly
with the amount of nitrogen in the various grapes. This in turn
varies with the fertilizer added to the vineyard or whether they
irrigate the vineyard. Nevertheless, the more nitrogen in the
grapes, then the yeast grows to bigger numbers in the juice. In
doing this they use the carbohydrates of the sugars for the main
bulk of their weight. It's not nitrogen, but it's the main
amount of the weight of the yeast.
So the less nitrogen there is, the less carbohydrates are
used, so the better the efficiency of the conversion of the
carbohydrates into alcohol. When you have more nitrogen they
make more yeast, and that can be significant in the amount of
carbohydrates used for that purpose.
Teiser: Did that study have any practical consequences?
Ough:
Practical in the sense that it tells the winery that if they have
a lot of nitrogen in their grapes they're going to get less
alcohol for the same tonnage of grapes. It also explains to them
why they get high alcohol from some of their vineyards and not so
1See also page 41.
44
much alcohol in others from the same amount of sugar that's in
the grapes.
Teiser:
Is it difficult to test for nitrogen?
Ough:
Not too difficult, no.
Laboratory Equipment Improvements
Teiser: One of the thinfs you mentioned earlier that I wanted to ask you
to enlarge upon a little was the effect of better testing
equipment--better equipment in general in the industry. That
comes up in connection with this. Have they always been able to
test for nitrogen?
Ough:
Yes, they could always make rough tests using fairly simple
equipment, but as time goes on there's a tendency to get more
elaborate equipment so you can test faster and more accurately.
For example, different varieties of grapes have different makeup
of amino acids, which are really the building blocks for protein
and the main source of nitrogen. Some of them have a good
complement of the ones they could easily ingest and grow on, and
others have not so good complement; they grow slower on these and
not as well.
It's just like the advancement of science in anything: you
need to find out more details. Then you can do a better job of
fermenting the juice.
Teiser: Has the improvement in equipment in genera1--say, since 1950,
since you started here--had really significant effects?
Ough:
Oh, yes, no doubt about it. For our laboratory: when I came
here, almost everything was done simply by chemical
determination. Now we have instruments that are automated.
Consequently, we can go to greater detail, get much more
information in a very short time.
Teiser:
Is there still equipment that should be developed?
strong needs?
lSee also page 40.
Are there
45
Ough:
Always needs. There's always a want list that you have in the
back of your mind for equipment that you'd like to have so you
could take the next step forward in your research. While you do
with what you have, you can always visualize that you could do a
little better if you had a little more. It's a matter of money,
always, to buy the equipment. It's not so much that the
equipment isn't there; it's the money to buy it.
Teiser:
But the equipment exists?
Ough:
Oh, yes. Better mass spectrometers, for example. While there
are ones on campus to use, it's awkward because you have to get
in line to use them, and then you have to prepare your samples
and it's not always easy have a fresh sample ready to go when
your turn comes up. You need the equipment in your own lab to do
the work properly.
Teiser:
Everybody says that the Gallo wine company has a fine laboratory.
Does it have all the advanced equipment that exists?
Ough:
They have essentially the same equipment as we have right now.
They have the same GC mass spec, table-top model, that I have in
here. They have a different model of an amino acid analyzer than
I have, but it's very similar; it accomplishes the same results.
It's probably more expensive and probably runs, perhaps, a little
more efficiently than ours does, but nevertheless it accomplishes
the same thing. They're just one segment of the industry, but
they're as well equipped as we are in the enology side. Perhaps
not so in the viticulture side. They're one of the few who are.
Teiser:
Do most large wineries now have the same sort of equipment?
Ough:
Yes. The larger ones are starting to get the more elaborate
equipment now.
Teiser:
What about the little ones?
Ough:
Yes. There's a very good lab in St. Helena where people send
their samples and can get ethyl carbamate analysis done now in
the same way we do here, and things like that.
Do they use independent labs?
46
More on Urethane Research
Teiser: Another thing that you discussed that was lost in the taping is
more on your work on ethyl carbamate'·-is that the same as
urethane?
Ough:
Yes, it is.
Teiser: Could you discuss your work in that?
Ough:
That's something I've spent the last two years now working on.
Prior to that, in 1972 or '73, I spent a year working on it from
a different point of view. Ethyl carbamate is a carcinogen, and
it's a natural product of any fermented beverage; it's always
there to a certain extent, in olives, yogurt, bread, and in
anything that's got a yeast fermentation or makes ethanol. We
found that out many years ago--ten or twelve years ago or more.
Originally it was thought to be there by the addition to the
wine of diethyl dicarbonate, which was a fungicide. It did react
with ammonia to give ethyl carbamate. There are small amounts of
ammonia left in wine normally, and in wines that have been
sweetened with concentrate there was a little bit more ammonia
that came from the concentrate. It reacted with the diethyl
dicarbonate to give small amounts.
However, further work showed that ethyl carbamate could be
found to develop in all fermented foods and beverages. There was
a report that we gave that saki wine from Japan had considerably
more urethane or ethyl carbamate in it than did normal wine.
That was never followed up by anybody except the Japanese, who
worried about it and did some studies which, it turned out later,
were very helpful to our industry.
Then nothing happened until recently in Canada, where they
determined that some of the sherries and sweet wines had very
high amounts of ethyl carbamate. So we started to work on that
immediately, and determined that the source was probably urea,
and that it would form from the reaction of ethanol and urea with
heat. For the last two years we've been trying to determine
exactly how to regulate urea production by yeast. We have found
out that certain yeasts don't excrete very much urea. Urea is a
breakdown product of arginine, as it's one of the amino acids in
'See also page 42.
47
the juice. As the yeasts metabolize the arginine, they produce
ornithine, another amino acid, and urea.
The urea normally is metabolized by the yeast into ammonia
and carbon dioxide. But under special conditions the yeast will
excrete the urea out into the medium, and if there's sufficient
arginine still present in the medium, then it will not take that
urea back in. It leaves it there, and it ends up in the wine.
It can react with ethanol and end up with high levels of ethyl
carbamate. That's basically the story on that.
Teiser: And the practical consequences?
Ough:
Well, in Canada they have set limits on the ethyl carbamate that
can be present in wine. So far the FDA and the BATF have not set
limits. They're doing a very conscientious study of the
carcinogicity of ethyl carbamate. There has been no good study
done yet, and they're in the process of doing that. It should be
through by 1990 or 1991. At that time they'll set limits. But
they have imposed on the California wine industry--in fact on all
the wine industry in the U.S.--to instigate research on this, and
to monitor themselves and see what levels are actually present in
the wines that they're selling. And they do this; the industry
itself has been monitoring the amounts there, as well as the BATF
monitors the commercial wines, as does the FDA.
The research has been done primarily here at Davis, between
myself and Linda Bisson, who is also working on it. There's some
work in New York state going on on it, too. We have determined
where it comes from, and we know that certain yeasts will not
excrete urea, but we're in the process now of trying to figure
out why some of them don't leave any urea behind and others do.
We know that the high levels of arginine in the grape juice are
harmful and cause more urea to be excreted. So we have a pretty
good handle right now on how to control it.
We know how fast it's formed. If you have a certain amount
of urea at a certain ethanol concentration at a certain
temperature, you're going to get a certain amount of ethyl
carbamate at a given time. We know that temperature is very
important in the development. We informed the wineries that they
should keep their wines cool, which they try to do anyhow. It
may corne to the point where someday, in the not-too-distant
future, wine will be kept like beer is, under refrigeration as
much as possible. This will hinder the formation of the ethyl
48
where it comes from.
up.
There are still a few odds and ends to wind
While I was in Australia I also worked on it. I spent most
of my time in those four months in Australia working on that
problem with the microbiologist, Dr. Paul Henschke. We found out
that we could actually control the amounts formed by aeration to
stimulate the growth. So if we didn't have any air there we
didn't get any formation of urea in the media, and if we had air
there we got formation of it. That was a pretty important step
in my estimation. Also we found that we could repress the
formation of urea by the addition of ammonia, which tends to turn
off the pathways into the yeast--they don't take in very much
arginine. We've been working further on that here, and there are
some chemicals that we may be able to add in the future if
they're approved for use, which may possibly help on this problem
also. But we don't know yet.
Teiser:
You're continuing right now?
Ough:
Oh, yes, that's in the process now. In fact, the fermentations
are going on in here on those experiments to see if it will work.
Teiser:
You mentioned that diethyl dicarbonate was replaced--
Ough:
It's been replaced by dimethyl dicarbonate.
with ammonia, the same as the other did, but
carbamate, which is not a carcinogen. After
to convince the FDA to approve this for use,
(or early this year) it was approved for use
if people want to use it as a fungicide.
Teiser:
Is the earlier diethyl carbonate still used at all?
Ough:
No, it's been banned since '72, I believe.
This reacts also
it forms methyl
ten years of trying
finally last year
and is available now
49
WORK ABROAD SINCE 1965
In Israel
Teiser:
You spoke earlier of your work in Israel.
When was that done?
Ough:
Oh, gosh, the first time I was there was in 1965.
Teiser:
How did you happen to go to Israel in 1965?
Ough:
In 1965 the Israeli government asked the FAO--the agricultural
branch of the United Nations--for a representative to come from
Davis to help them set up their research facilities in the wine
institute there. They have a wine institute there that's a
little different from ours; it's a regulatory institute for
export of wine, and it's also a research branch. Dr. Amerine
thought I was qualified enough to do that at that time, so I went
and spent eight months there. I took the farnily--my wife and two
little gir1s--and we stayed in a very nice part of Tel Aviv. I
commuted to Rehovat, which is where the wine institute is.
I spent the eight months advising them, and advising the
wineries about what they ought to do in the way of varieties,
maturity studies--the whole gamut of grape and wine problems. In
fact, I was very frustrated when I went back ten years later and
they hadn't done a great deal of what I had advised them to do.
That's the way things are, I suppose. I went back there in 1975
for two months to see if it was feasible for them to set up
mechanical harvesting of grapes. I'd had some experience with
that here, so I was asked to back there again for the FAO. I was
unhappy because they hadn't done what they had promised they
would. There was nothing I could do about it that time.
But when on sabbatical leave in South Africa in '82, I came
back by way of Israel to visit old friends and to give a few
50
talks. When I was there I met one of the government ministers of
food, who was rather unhappy with the lack of success of the
Israeli wine export business. It was mainly one winery, the
biggest, that exported. It was a co-op, and they had been doing
everything over the years that I had asked them not to do. The
farmers ran the whole operation. They grew grapes in large
volumes and low quality because it paid off to them better, the
way they'd set their pay scales.
They had the Golan Heights from Syria by then, and I
convinced the minister that they ought to invest in a winery
there. It was a very good wine area, and they ought to plant
high class varieties. As well as that, they ought to invest in a
good California-like quality winery and get a consultant to come
over and get it started for them. He went along with it, and
loaned the money to a kibbutz to do this. It was a very, very
big kibbutz, actually. It had lots of other interests and lots
of good people who knew how to manage businesses.
They set the winery up, and they got Peter Stern, one of our
former students, who is a consultant here in California, to help
them run it. He went over there three or four times a year to
make sure everything was running right, tasted the wine, and told
them what they ought to do. In the meantime they had sent
several people over here to get educated and return to the
winery. In fact, one just went back--Tally Sendvoski. They've
been very successful; they've won lots of international prizes,
and they sell more wines in the United States than they can make.
That was one of the things I told them: There are so many Jewish
people in the United States who would buy Israeli wine if it
tasted good. The Carmel winery had not been exporting good wine.
Their labels would be upside down or crooked--just poorly
designed labels and that sort of thing. This other winery did
things right--first class--and they really grew.
Teiser: One of the factors, as I recall, in the wine from Israel is that
it's sweet, and I guess it's traditionally sweet.
Ough:
No, not all of it. Actually, they make standard table wine now,
just like we do. They also make sweet wines. There are many
people who have wine only on passover and such holidays, and also
on Saturday night when they have their special meal. If they
normally don't drink wine with meals, they have a small glass of
sweet wine. That's sort of traditional. But there are a lot of
people who are not that religious who drink good wine and like
good wine, and that's the market that they were after. So the
table wines are much like our table wines.
51
Teiser:
That's an interesting story.
Ough:
I'm happy to see the success of it, because I knew it could go if
they would do what I told them to. It's very gratifying to have
somebody believe in you enough to invest quite a few millions of
dollars into the project to get it going. And to have it be a
big success made me happy.
In Brazil
Teiser:
You spoke of your work in Brazil.
Ough:
I was in Brazil in '76. I had a student here, Carlos Daudt, who
came and got a masters, and then came back and got a Ph.D. He
wanted me to come and help them get started on wine research in
their university down there where he worked. So I was down there
for about two and a half months helping him get started. I just
looked around the industry and really did the few little
experiments I could do to get him started on doing some research.
Since that time he became dean of the graduate school, and now
he's back again as a professor down there in the department of
food science. In fact, he wants me to come down again.
##
He wanted me to come back and spend some time down there in '91,
so I mayor may not. I don't know; it depends. I just got back
from sabbatical; I can't leave again too soon.
Ough:
In South Africa
Teiser:
I know you've done extensive work at Ste11enbosch.'
Ough:
Yes, I spent quite a bit of time in Ste11enbosch, in South
Africa.
Teiser:
How did you happen to go there?
'See also page 42.
52
Ough:
Well, we had a student here, many years ago, who came and was
happy here at Davis. He studied with Professor Berg, and got to
know the rest of the faculty. When he got back, why, he
convinced his boss that he ought to get the faculty to come and
spend some sabbatical time down there. They were very generous
in actually paying your way down and giving you living quarters
and things like that. So it made it worthwhile from a financial
point of view to go there on sabbatical. Then the University of
Stellenbosch is right in the same town, and also the Viticulture
and Enology Research Institute is there. Also there's a
horiticultural research institute there. So almost everybody
from the department, over the years, has gone down there for a
sabbatical leave. I went twice, and was very happy with the
treatment and also the facilities there. You could do research,
and also the professor at Stellenbosch University who was in
charge of the enology department and the one in charge of the
viticulture department were students here at Davis.
Teiser:
Who were they?
Ough:
Joel Van Wyk, who was the enology one, and Chris Orfer, who was
viticulture. Chris is retired now, but Joel Van Wyk is still
active and chairman of the department.
Teiser:
What kind of problems did you study there?
Ough:
I studied maturity problems of the grapes and ethyl carbamate
when I was there last time; I spent two months there on my last
sabbatical there. General problems in enology, really--I spent
~ime interviewing and going out to the wineries and seeing what
they were doing, and then doing some practical type experiments:
color extraction, and almost anything that we could do down there
to help them with their problems.
This time I spent most of my time in the lab working on
ethyl carbamate. I went through their commercial wines and found
out how much urea they had in them. Also they had set up some
experiments ahead of time, because the vintage was done when I
got there, and I analyzed those also for urea. I found out they
had about the same amount as our wines do. No surprises.
Teiser:
It's my impression (and it may be wrong) that they have a
capability of growing a great many grapes.
Ough:
Oh, they have limited areas. The climate is much like
California, and its areas are far more limited than the
California areas. Their areas of grapes are along the coastal
53
plain and in a few interior valleys. After that the climate is
too hostile. You can't grow them on the east coast; it's jung1e­
like. You can grow them, but they don't make good wine. And the
interior is far too cold in the winter.
Teiser:
What is the market for their wines?
Ough:
There used to be a big market in Europe, especially England, for
sherry, and they still have a big market in Germany. Norway buys
wine from them. Probably other countries buy it bulk and rename
it to skirt political problems.
Teiser:
I don't see any in England now.
Ough:
No, they ship very little now to England because of the boycotts.
There used to be a little bit in the U.S., too, but not any more.
Teiser:
I think you have a degree from Stellenbosch.
Ough:
Yes, a Doctor of Science degree. It's an honorary degree, but
it's based on two hundred publications or so [laughs]. They give
those degrees to people who, in their minds, have accomplished
something during their lifetime. They've given one to
Dr. [Vernon L.] Singleton, also. Two people in Australia have
them: Bryce Rankine and Chris Sommers. I'm on a board now to
judge a German scientist, Dr. Rapp. I'm what is called his
external examiner. You have to write up a list of your reprints
and write something from them. I mean, it takes a little while
to do, so it's a little more than saying, "Yes, I'll take it."
You have to do something to get it.
54
WINE INDUSTRY ORGANIZATIONS
Wine Institute Technical Advisory Committee
Teiser:
Would you discuss your work with the Wine Institute Technical
Advisory Committee? This brings you back again to California.
Ough:
I've been either a consultant for the Technical Advisory
Committee of the Wine Institute or been at their meetings, I
think, since the mid-1950s. I had a very active test program
early in my stay here, evaluating different materials: pectin
enzymes, diethyl dicarbonate, ascorbic acid--a lot of things that
have very practical influence on the industry: temperature of
fermentation and all the variables you could imagine. I worked
with Dr. Amerine on some of it, some with Professor Berg, and a
lot of it by myself. In the days when the Wine Advisory Board
was active, they had meetings four times a year and I often spoke
at those as well. I was working on practical applications.
Teiser:
Did they underwrite these?
Ough:
Not all of them, no. Many of them were underwritten by the
people who made the products, who wanted to sell them. They
would furnish money to do the research, and I would evaluate and
give my honest opinion to the industry on them. And I stress
"honest," because you have to be honest in this business or you
don't last very long. You can't say, "This is great stuff," and
then have somebody in the industry go out and try to use it and
it doesn't work. They'd say, "What's wrong with that guy?" The
first time they'll forgive you; the second time they won't listen
to you any more. So you have to be very honest. It's worked out
very well over the years.
Teiser:
The Wine Advisory Board was discontinued.
with the industry?
How now do you deal
55
Ough:
The Wine Advisory Board itself was an organization to draw money
from the industry and use it for various purposes. The Wine
Institute Technical Advisory Committee was a committee of the
Wine Institute. It was advisory to the owners of the wineries
that were the members. It's the one that handles the grievous
problems--the technical problems of the industry. The ethyl
carbamate committee is a special subcommittee, which I'm on now,
that handles this special problem. There's another subcommittee
on ethanol emissions from fermenting wines. I'm a member of the
technical committee. The technical committee now only consists
of ten or fifteen people. They're the top scientists in the
industry. I'm the consultant from Davis, and there's also a
consultant from Fresno State on this committee.
American Society for Viticulture and Enology
Teiser:
Are you active in the American Society for Viticulture and
Enology?
Ough:
I have been over the years. I've been through the offices. 1 My
activity at the present time has been limited to publication in
their journal. I'm not a member of the board or anything any
more. Past presidents try to step away; that's always been the
policy. When you get through your tenure of office, you should
let the next group of people do the best they can. You may not
like what they do, but unless they ask you, you generally don't
interfere.
Teiser: Can you evaluate what that organization has done over the years?
Ough:
It's been extremely valuable, I think, to the industry, because
it gives them a forum for technical papers to be given, it gives
them a forum for new equipment to be shown and exhibits, and it
has a journal which is a fairly prestigious journal in enology
and viticulture. It's a good journal; it's effective. People
from allover the world publish in it, so it's an international
journal, really. I think they've done, over the years, a good
job. They've contributed to the industry and to the University.
Many people have contributed free time to this; we all have
contributed over the years. I was treasurer for three years, and
that's a time-consuming job, and no pay involved at all; they
1professor Ough was president in 1980-1981.
56
never have paid their officers anything except travel if people
request it.
They have, in the past few years, hired more people, so it's
easier. But when I was president we had about 2,500 members in
the society, and one full-time person who operated the journal
and the administrative part of it. Now they have two people in
administration and two people for the journal, and the membership
is approximately the same number. So you can see that many of us
contributed a lot in the old days to the actual operation. We
did everything: got on the phone and called people, lined up the
exhibits, made plans and arrangements for the meetings. We went
out and found places where we were going to meet, we argued with
the hotel people until we got the prices right, and everything
like that. But it was very interesting; I enjoyed it immensely.
We rewrote the bylaws while I was there. I lot of interesting
things went on.
57
WARNINGS ON LABELS
Teiser: You spoke earlier of California State Proposition 65, which
requires warning labels on many products. I think that cuts
across some of the things you/ve just discussed.
Ough:
Prop. 65 was, I think, very misleading when it was voted on by
the public. It was supposed to be a clean water act; that/s what
it was published as and talked about. It actually turned out
that they weren't interested in water; they were interested in
food. They want to keep all possible carcinogens out of food.
While that's a noble enterprise, there's the practicality of it.
It's different from the Food and Drug Administration laws of
the federal government. They say you can regulate these things
that are naturally present in food, but only to the point where
it becomes an economic hazard to the companies. You can't just
say, "In peanut butter we found some micro toxins , and you're
going to have to quit making peanut butter unless you can get rid
of all those things." Well, you can't do it. So what they do is
set a regulation of a certain level for microtoxins, and peanut
butter has a level of ten parts per billion of these toxins in
there. People feed it to their kids and don't worry about it,
but the toxins are there.
The state law is being handled by administrators--set by
administrative decree--and many of them just don/t understand
what's going on. They have a science advisory committee, but
they're pretty well overrun by the politicians on this, in my
opinion, and forced to make decisions that are not necessarily in
the best interest of the public or the people involved in the
industry. It's more to suit what the politicians think ought to
be done, in my humble opinion. [laughs] I'm not happy with them.
Teiser:
Is there anything to be done about it?
58
Ough:
Not until people realize that the price of everything goes up
when you do these things. You can argue against it, but it's
very dangerous to argue against it. You can say, "A little bit
of carcinogen isn't going to hurt you," and it really won't, but
they turn the argument around and say you can't allow anything in
there that could make problems. They want pure food, you know?
59
JUDGING AT TASTINGS
Teiser:
You have done work on criteria for qualifying people as judges in
wine tastings. What do you think of the value of these tastings
overall--these great contests that they have?
Ough:
As far as selecting judges, yes, you can pick out judges who are
consistent, sensitive, and who know wine. You can find these
judges by proper tests. But as far as the judging meaning very
much--like in the Orange County tastings, or the Los Angeles
County Fairs, or even now the Sacramento State Fair--you could
probably use another set of judges and get another set of answers
every time you did it. That's my opinion of it.
60
ROOTSTOCKS AND PHYLLOXERA
Teiser:
I know you continue to do rootstock experiments.' I see there's
an article ("Rootstock Effects on Wine Grapes," by John H. Foott,
Cornelius Ough, and James A. Wolpert) in California Agriculture,
the July/August 1989 issue. Is it a serious threat of phy110xera
that you're working against?
Ough:
Yes. I probably am not going to be very much involved in it. My
main involvement in this was because there was nobody else in the
department willing to do it. This particular experiment was with
Jack Foott. But there is a real need. In the San Luis Obispo
area and in the Monterey area, most of the grapevines are on
their own roots, and phy110xera is slowly infesting the area.
It's only a matter of time until the vines are going to start
dying--rapid1y dying--down in that area. They have to know which
are the proper rootstocks to use--which do the best in that area.
IIfI
Teiser:
Have you made trials in Monterey County?
Ough:
These were in San Luis Obispo County, but they're very similar in
climate and soils. There are other trials set up around the
state now. I'm not necessarily involved with them. We have one
trial in Oakville that we're winding up in a couple of years.
There are new viticulturists in the department now who have all
of a sudden become very interested in this subject and will
probably proceed to follow it up over the years.
There is a new strain of phy110xera in Napa Valley, and it's
a very serious threat to the whole area. They call it "type B
phy11oxera." The rootstock that all Napa Valley is planted on,
'See also pages 17-18.
61
which is A x R #1, is adequate for the old phylloxera that was
there previously. But this new strain that has developed is more
virulent, if you want to call it that, and will attack these
roots.
Teiser:
As I remember, in the old strain the bug was wingless.
winged form?
Is this a
Ough:
No, it's just different in that it can attack the rootstock
that's been used for years up there. It's a marginally resistant
rootstock; it wasn't the best choice, in my opinion, but I had
nothing to do with the selection of it, so I can't be too
critical about it. The people who did it thought they were given
the best rootstock available. You know, if you have a very
resistant rootstock, it generally has some disadvantages: it may
be hard to graft to; it may be, like St. George, very vigorous,
which makes the plant grow a lot of vine and many less grapes
sometimes. So it's generally a trade-off when you make a
recommendation for rootstock.
Teiser:
Are there other approaches?
Ough:
There have been approaches. You can fumigate the vineyard area
and plant your grapes, but eventually the other areas you move
your tractor or your pickup through will pick up the larva on the
wheels of the equipment and bring it in and deposit it in your
vineyard. It's almost impossible to prevent this kind of spread,
and it would probably be almost impossible to completely
sterilize the vineyard, as well. There are probably phylloxera
down deep where the sterilate doesn't get to. It's a very
difficult problem for the industry.
Teiser:
It's expensive, isn't it, to replant?
Ough:
Oh, yes, very expensive. You shut down for three years, is
essentially what you're doing, and four years in the coast
counties, before you get a crop that's even a significant crop,
and it isn't the best crop. It's five years, really, before you
really get a crop that will make you some money.
Teiser:
Could you plant the rootstock itself in a tract and then T-bud or
something like that?
Ough:
Oh, yes, that's done routinely. They do plant just the rootstock
and let it grow up for a year, and then they bud on the upper
part to it. That's standard practice. You can do it either way-­
or you can bench graft and plant the plants to start with. It
62
doesn't make any difference as far as time to maturity; it takes
the same length of time. If it wasn't for the roots--if you just
want to change variety--you can just cut the old variety off and
put a new one on, and you've got a crop within the next year.
That's okay, but when you have to take the roots out-- One thing
you can do, if you want, is to plant a rootstock next to that
plant, and not take the plant out. You can grow it up for a
couple of years and then take the old one out, but I think it's
very messy; it's hard to get the old one out because the roots
are intertwined. It's not the way to do it.
Teiser:
There's no easy solution?
Ough:
No easy solution.
63
ONGOING WORK
Ough:
Recently in Australia, I set up for a people-to-people visit. I
will probably go back in March and take a group of people down
there to see the industry. That's not research, but it's good
public relations for the University, I guess.
Teiser:
Back here, are you now doing some teaching?
Ough:
Yes, I'm teaching my class in wine analysis. Dr. Amerine and I
finished rewriting our book [Methods for Analysis of Musts and
Wines], and it's been published last year. I'm in the process of
getting another book published now; it's at the printer. The
title is Winemaking Basics. So I keep busy.
Teiser:
You enologists never finish a book, do you?
then you start updating it.
Ough:
That's right. That [points to shelf] is the last references for
a revision for that analysis book that we just published. Up
there is the original reprints that we garnered, and all those
boxes are full of reprints.
Teiser:
The update material takes up one and a half shelves.
Ough:
Yes. Those are all reprints that we got since the book was
originally published. I keep a running file of them, and keep
filing them as I get them. It's the only way you can do it. If
you don't, you can't just start it after five years or so and try
to get everything out of the literature. It's impossible; you
just don't have that kind of time, so you get it as you go and
keep it up.
Transcriber and final typist:
Judy Smith
You publish it and
64
TAPE GUIDE -- Cornelius Ough
Interview
tape I,
tape I,
tape 2,
tape 3,
tape 3,
1: 9 January 1989
side a
side b
side a (side b not recorded)
side a
side b
1
1
13
20
31
41
Interview
tape 4,
tape 4,
tape 5,
2: 10 November 1989
side a
side b
side a (side b not recorded)
43
43
51
60
65
APPENDIX I
CURRICULUM VITAE
Cornelius Steven Ough
May 14,1990
Vital Statistics
Born July 28, 1925, Napa, CA, U.S.A.
Parents native born citizens of U.S.A
Married--wife, Anne (deceased); daughters, Elizabeth, 30 and Francie, 27
Education
Diploma
A.A.
B.S.
M.S.
D.Sci.
Placer Union High School, Auburn, CA, June 1943
Sierra College (Auburn Junior College), Auburn, CA, June 1947
Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA, September 1949
Food Science, University of California, Davis, CA, September 1971
Agriculture, Stellenbosch University, South Africa, Dec. 1976
Armed Service
1951-53
United States Army - Served in Criminal Investigation Laboratory as a
chemist. Honorable discharge.
Employment
1950­
Present
Department of Viticulture and Enology, University of California, Davis,
California
Present Position
1972­
Present
Professor of Enology and Enologist in the Experiment Station
Duties
Research into methods of wine and must analysis, investigations into the effect
of rootstock, crop level and maturity on wine quality, investigations into the
effect of fermentation variables on wine quality and the development of yeast
and bacteria inhibitors for stabilization of bottled wine, special interests in
nitrogen compounds in grapes and wines. Developed and taught a course in
wine and must analysis and assist in several other courses. Responsible for
guiding the research projects of a number of graduate students.
66
c. S. Ough
2
Curriculum Vitae
May 14,1990
University Service
Served on many University, College and Department Committees. Adviser and
Chair for undergraduate major and graduate groups. Chairman of the
Department of Viticulture and Enology, 1981-1987.
Special Assignments
FAO expert to Israel for 8 months in 1964 to help develop an experimental
winery and research program and to advise wineries. Many lectures given and
several published. FAO consultant to Brazil for FAO to establish research
program in enology at Federal University in Santa Maria, two months in 1975.
FAO consultant to Israel for 2-1/2 months to advise on mechanical harvesting of
grapes for wine.
Professional Societies
Member of the American Chemical Society; The American Society for Enology
and Viticulture; Australian Society of Viticulture and Enology; South African
Society of Enology and Viticulture; Sigma Xi; Phi Kappa Phi (honor society);
New York Academy of Sciences; and Fellow in the American Institute for
Chemists.
Activities for the American Society of Enology and Viticulture include five years
as a member on the Technical Projects Committee, three years on the Board of
Directors, two years as Secretary-Treasurer, first and second Vice President, one
year as President, and Program Chairman for one Annual Meeting. Member of
the International Liaison Committee. Reviewer and abstractor for the '.&a.&TJlerican
Journal of Enology and Viticulture. Reviewer for the Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry, European Journal of Biochemistry, Journal of American
Official Analytical Chemists, South African Journal of Viticulture and Enology,
and Journal of Science Technology.
67
c.
S. Ough
Curriculum Vitae
May 14,1990
3
Publications
Over 200 articles in scientific journals have been published since 1957. In
addition, a text, Wine and Must Analysis by M. A. Amerine and C. S. Ough has
been published by Wiley & Sons Publishing Co., N.Y., 1974, and translated into
Spanish and published in Spain (Analisis de Vin y Mostos), Scribia, Zaragoza.
Coauthored the new edition of Technology of Winemaking, Avi Publishing Co.,
1980; another text, Methods for Analysis of Musts and Wines, Wiley, 1980,
Second Edition 1988 (Ough and Amerine); and two chapters for Food Additives,
published by Dekker; two chapters in Plant Analysis (1988).
Public Lectures
Since 1969 over 140 public lectures or papers at professional meetings have
been presented.
Industry Related Activities
At the present time and for the last 11 years have been an active consultant of
the Wine Institute Technical Committee, two years as a consultant for the Non
Beverage Wine Products Division, and served two years as a member of the
Scholarship Committee. Recently a consultant to the Bureau of Alcohol,
Tobacco and Firearms, IRS, Treasure Island, CA, a consultant to PEPSICO in
New York, a consultant to Owens-Illinois, Toledo, Ohio. Leader of the People
to People, Viticulture and Enology Delegation to the Republic of South Africa,
April-May 1985 and to Australia and New Zealand March-April 1989. Served as
a consultant to FDA for the Wine Institute and for the Mobay Corporation.
I have instigated several industry pilot-plant trials and demonstrations which have
been important in changes of the practices of the California wine industry. (Flor
sherry-submerged culture, diethylpyrocarbonate sterilization of wines, early
pressing of wines to allow for early maturity, use of fumaric acid as an acidulant,
etc.)
Served as a judge at both state and county wine judgings and prepared a
number of papers on the subject. Helped set-up judges' screening tests.
68
c. S. Ough
4
Curriculum Vitae
May 14,1990
Industa Related Activities (continued)
Spent two 6-month and a 2-month sabbatical leaves at the Stellenbosch Farmers
Winery in South Africa studying their methods and advising on some problems
and conducting research at the Oenology and Viticulture Research Institute in
Stellenbosch. Spent a 4-month sabbatical in Australia (Wine Research Institute,
Adelaide).
Advised Israel Government on Wine and grape Industry in 1982.
Honors
Outstanding Medical Research Relating to Wine Award for 1982-83, Medical
Friends of Wine.
"Comitato Nazional Premio Umberto Biacamano," for Scientific Achievement
from International du Prix European U. Biancamano, Milan, Italy, June 6, 1984.
"Odine die Cavalieri delle Terre di Asti e del Monferrato" (Honors wine
Scientist, Asti, Italy).
Elected a member of Academie Italiana della Vite e del Vino, Siena, Italy
(1988).
Book on Wine Analysis was awarded a prize from the O.LV. as best book in
1988.
Elected a Fellow in The Institute of Chemists (1987).
First Peter B. Sherry Memorial Lecturer in Chemistry, Georgia Tech, Atlanta
(1987).
Travel grants to five International Symposia to present papers (since 1984).
Professional Travel
Italy, France, Switzerland, Hungary, Finland, Brazil, Swaziland, South Africa,
Australia, Japan, Greece and Israel
69
APPENDIX II -- Bibliography of Published Works, from Bibliography on Grapes, Wines
and Related SUbj~cts, by the Faculty, Staff, artdStudents of the Uni­
versity of California, 1876-1980, compiled by Maynard A. Amerine and
Herman Phaff, pp. 156-163; and from a current bibliography compiled
by Cornelius Ough.
OUGH, CORNELIUS STEVEN
2328
1958
(with M. A. Amerine) Studies on aldehyde production under pressure, oxy­
gen and agitation. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 9: 111-122.
2329
1959
(with M. A. Amerine) Dissolved oxygen determination in wine. Food Res.
24: 744-748.
2330
1959
(with M. A. Amerine) Odor profiles of wines. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 9: 17­
19.
2331
1959
(with H. W. Berg) Studies on various light sources concerning the evalua­
tion and differentiation of red wine color. I. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic.
10: 159-163.
2332
1959
A survey of commercial practices in sensory examination of wines. Amer.
J. Enol. Vitic. 10: 191-195.
2333
1960
Die Verwendung von Glukose Oxydase in trockenem 'Weisswein. Mitt.
(Klosterneuburg), Serie..A: Rebe Wein. lOA: 14-23.
2334
1960
(with E. B. Roessler, and M. A. Amerine) Effects of sulfur dioxide, tem­
perature, time, and closures on the quality of bottled dry white table
wines. Food Tech. J.4( 7}: 352-356.
2335
1960
(with M. A. Amerine) Experiments with controlled fermentation. IV.
Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 11: 5-14.
2336
1960
(with M. A. Amerine) Flor sherry production by submerged culture. Food
Tech. 14(3): 155-159.
2337
1960
Gelatin and polyvinylpyrrolidone compared for fining red wines. Amer. J.
Enol. Vitic. 11: 170-173.
2338
1960
Odor profiles as a tool for quality control. Wines Vines 41<6': 53-54.
2339
1960
(with M. A. Amerine) Study of wines by controlled fermentations in spe­
cially designed equipment. Calif. Agr. 14(9}: 10.
­
2340
1960
(with J. L. Ingraham) Use of sorbic acid and sulfur dioxide in sweet table
wines. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 11: 117-122.
2341
1961
Acetaldehyde formation in submerged cultures of non-filmforming species
of Saccharomyces. Appl. Microbiol. 9: 316-319.
2342
1961
(with J. L. Ingraham) The diethylester of pyrocarbonic acid as a bottled­
wine sterilizing agent. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 12: 149-151.
2343
1961
(with H. Stone) An olfactometer for rapid and critical odor measurement.
J. Food Sci. 26: 452-456.
2344 1961
(with M. A. Amerine) Polyethylene and cork closures and the fermenta­
tion temperature for sparkling wines. Wines Vines 42(10): 28-29.
70
2345
1961
(with G. A. Baker) Small panel sensory evaluations of wines by scoring.
Hilgardia 30: 587·619.
2346
1961
(with M. A. Amerine) Studies on controlled fermentation. V. Effects on
color, composition, and quality of red wines. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 12: 9­
19.
2347
1961
(with M. A. Amerine) Studies with controlled fermentation. VI. Effects of
temperature and handling rates, composition, and quality of wines.
Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 12: 117·128.
2348
1962
(with H. W. Berg, and C. O. Chichester) Approximation of percent bright·
ness and dominant wave length and some blending application with red
wines. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 13: 32·39.
2349
1962
(with M. A. Amerine) Studies with controlled fermentations. VII. Effect
of ante·fermentation blending of red must and white juice on color, tan·
nins, and quality of Cabernet Sauvignon wines. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic.
13: 181·188.
2350
1962
l with M. A. Amerine) Tapones de polietileno y de corcho y la temperature
de fermentacion en los vinos espumosos. EI Embotellador enero·febrero:
51·52.
2351
1963
Additives tested for possible use in wine. I. Maltol, disodium inosinate,
cyclohexylsulfamic acid. Wines Vines 44(3): 27-28.
2352
1963
The production of table wines in regions IV and V.
44(6): 56-58,60-62.
2353
1963
(with M. A. Amerine) Regional, varietal, and type influences on the
degree Brix and alcohol relationship of grape musts and wines. Hilgardia
34: 585·600.
2354
1963
Uniform methods of analyses for wines and spirits. Davis, Amer. Soc.
Enol. 6 pp.
2355
1963
(with M. A. Amerine) Use of grape concentrate to produce sweet table
wines. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 14: 194·204.
2356
1964
California commercial wine analyses-1963. Wines Vines 45(5): 29-30.
2357
1964
Chemical, physical, and microbiological stability of wines and brandies.
Rehovot, Israel, Wine Inst. 26 pp. In English and Hebrew.
2358
1964
(with V. L. Singleton, M. A. Amerine, and G. A. Baker) A comparison of
normal and stressed-time conditions on scoring of quality and quantity
attributes. J. Food Sci. 29: 506-519.
2359
1964
Die sinnemassige Erkennung von Sorbinsiiure im Wein. Mitt. (Kloster·
neuburg), Serie A: Rebe Wein 14A: 260-266.
2360
1964
Fermentation rates of grape juice. 1. Effects of temperature and composi·
tion on white juice fermentation rates. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 15: 167-177.
2361
1964
(with G. A. Baker) Linear dependency of scale structure in differential
odor intensity measurements. J. Food Sci. 29: 499-505.
Wines Vines
71
2362
1964
Selection of judges and sensory evaluation of wines.
Wine Inst. 29 pp.
Rehovot, Israel,
2363
1964
Wine growing in Israel. Israel, Ministry of Agriculture, Department of
Horticulture, Extension Service. 28 pp.
2364
1965
Report to the government of Israel on wine production and the develop­
ment of the research winery. Rome, Food Agric. Organ. United Nations,
Expanded Program of Technical Assistance Report 2025: 1·73. {FAO
accession number 52025-65·ISRJ.
2365
1965
(with M. A. Amerine) Studies with controlled fennentation. IX. Benton·
ite treatment of grape juice prior to wine fermentation. Amer. J. Enol.
Vitic. 16: 185-194.
2366
1966
The analyses of 1963·bottled California commercial wines. Wines Vines
47111: 17-18.
2367
1966
(with M. A. Amerine) Effects of temperature on wine making. Calif.
Agric. Exper. Stat. Bull. 827: 1-36.
2368
1966
1with C. J. Alley) An evaluation of some Cabernet varieties. Wines Vines
47(5): 23-25.
2369
1966
Fermentation rates of grape juice. II. Effect of initial degrees Brix, pH,
and fennentation temperature. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 17: 20·26.
2370
1966
Fermentation rates of grape juice. III. Effects of initial ethyl alcohol, pH,
and fermentation temperature. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 17: 74-81.
2371
1966
(with M. A. Amerine) Fennentation rates of grape juice. IV. Composi­
tional changes affecting prediction equations. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic.
17: 163-173.
2372
1966
(with J. F. Guymon, and E. A. Crowell) Formation of higher alcohols dur­
ing grape juice fermentations at various temperatures. J. Food Sci.
31: 620-625.
2373
1966
Iwith G. M. Cooke) A rapid semi-quantitative reducing sugar test for dry
wines. Wines Vines 47(8): 27-29.
2374
1967
(with H. W. Berg, and C. Loinger) Acid treatment of red table wine musts
for color retention. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 18: 182-189.
2375
1967
(with M. A. Amerine) Controlled fermentation. A review of controlled fer­
mentation experiments conducted at Davis: 1953-1966. Wines Vines
48(5): 23-28.
2376
1967
(with R. E. Kunkee) Effects of acid additions to grape juice on fennenta­
tion rates and wine qualities. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 18: 11-17.
NOTI CE: This materia! may be protected by
copyright law (Title ''t7 U.S. Code)
•
72
L..U
2377
1967
(with M. A. Amerine) Rose wine color preference and preference stability
by an experienced and an inexperienced panel. J. Food Sci. 32: 706·711.
2378
1967
(with M. A. Amerine) Studies with controlled fermentation. X. Effect of
fermentation temperature on some volatile compounds in wine. Amer. J.
Enol. Vitic. 18: 157-164.
2379
1968
(with M. A. Amerine) Die kontinuierliche Vergiirung Traubensaft. Mitt.
Rebe Wein, Obstbau Friichteverw. 18: 428·439.
2380
1968
(with R. E. Kunkee) Fermentation rates of grape juice. V. Biotin content
of juice and its effects on alcoholic fermentation rate. Appl. Microbiol.
16: 572·576.
2381
1968
(with C. J. Alley) Les raisins et les vins de type Cabernet produits dans
les regions cotieres de la Californie. Connaiss. Vigne Yin 2: 99-110.
2382
1968
Proline content of grapes and wines. Vitis 7: 321-331.
2383
1968
(with J. A. Cook, and L. A. LiderJ Rootstock-scion interactions concerning
wine making. II. Wine compositional and sensory changes attributed to
rootstock and fertilizer level differences. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 19: 254­
265.
2384
1968
(with L. A. Lider, and J. A. Cook) Rootstock-scion interactions concerning
winemaking. I. Juice composition changes and effects on fermentation
rate with St. George and 99-R rootstocks at two nitrogen fertilizer levels.
Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 19: 213·227.
2385
1968
(with V. L. Singleton) Wine quality prediction from juice Brix/acid ratio
and associated compositional changes for White Riesling and Cabernet
Sauvignon. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 19: 129·138.
2386
1969
Ammonia content of California grapes. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 20: 213-220.
2387
1969
lwith H. W. Berg) Pressure fermentation of red wines. Amer. J. Enol.
Vitic. 20: 118·119.
2388
1969
Rapid determination of proline in grapes and wine. J. Food Sci. 34: 228­
230.
2389
1969
(with O. Bustos) A review of amino acid analytical methods and their
application to grapes and wine. Wines Vines 50(4): 50-58.
2390
1969
(with M. A. Amerine, and T. C. Sparks) Studies with controlled fermenta·
tion. XI. Fermentation temperature effects on acidity and pH. Amer. J.
Enol. Vitic. 20: 127-139.
2391
1969
Substances extracted during skin contact with white musts. I. General
wine composition and quality changes with contact time. Amer. J. Enol.
Vitic. 20: 93-100.
(.)
\- ..
o
Z
73
2392
1970
(with M. A. Amerine) Effect of subjects' sex, experience and training on
their red wine color·preference patterns. Perceptual Motor Skills 30: 395­
398.
2393
1970
(with C. J. Alley) Effect of Thompson Seedless grape maturity on wine
composition and quality. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 21: 78-84.
2394
1971
(with H. W. Berg, R. J. Coffelt, and G. M. Cooke) The effect on wine qual­
ity of simulated mechanical harvest and gondola transport of grapes.
Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 22: 65-70.
2395
1971
Histamine in grapes and wine.
Davis.
2396
1971
Measurement of histamine in California wines.
19: 241-244.
2397
1971
l with H. W. Berg) Simulated mechanical harvest and gondola transport.
II. Effect of temperature, atmosphere, and skin contact on chemical and
sensory qualities of white wines. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 22: 194-198.
2398
1972
(with M. A. Amerine) Further studies with submerged flor sherry. Amer.
J. Enol. Vitic. 23: 128-131.
2399
1972
(with D. Fong, and M. A. Amerine) Glycerol in wine: Determination and
factors affecting. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 23: 1-5.
2400
1973
(with C. J. Alley, D. A. Luvisi, L. P. Christensen, P. Baranek, and F. L.
Jensen) Evaluations of wine grape varieties for Madera, Fresno, Tulare,
and Kern Counties. Calif. Agric. Exper. Stat. Bull. 863: 1-19. Now Publ.
1863.
2401
1973
Further investigations with glucose oxidase-catalase systems for use with
wine. New York Wine Industry Technical Advisory Panel. Geneva, New
York, Cornell Univ., Dept. Food Sci. Tech., New York State Agric. Exper.
Stat. 16-17.
2402
1974
(with R. E. Kunkeel The effect of fumaric acid on malo·lactic fermenta·
tion in wines from warm areas. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 25: 188-190.
2403
1974
(with H. W. Berg) The effect of two commercial pectic enzymes on grape
musts and wines. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 25: 208-211.
2404
1974
(with R. M. Stashak) Further studies on proline concentration in grapes
and wines. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 25: 7-12.
2405
1975
Dimethyldicarbonate as a wine sterilant. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 26: 130­
133.
2406
1975
Further investigations with glucose oxidase-catalase enzyme systems for
use with wine. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 26: 30-36.
541vs. M.S. thesis, Food Science, UC
Agric. Food Chem.
NOTICE: This material may be protected by
copyright law (Titie 17 U.S. Code)
74
2407
1975
Mechanical harvesting of wine grapes, Israel. Wine fermentation. Rome,
Food Agric. Organ. United Nations, AG:DP/ISRI73/001. 1: 1-28. (Consul­
tant report).
2408
1975
(with A. C. Noble, and D. Temple) Pectic enzyme effects on red grapes.
Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 26: 195-200.
2409
1976
Diethylpyrocarbonate and other potential yeast inhibitors for low alcohol
sweet table wines. Wynboer 543: 73. 75, 79.
2410
1976
Ethyl carbonate in fermented beverages and foods. I. Naturally occurring
ethyl carbamate. Agric. Food Chern. 24: 323-328.
2411
1976
Ethyl carbonate in fermented beverages and foods. II. Possible formation
of ethyl carbonate from diethyl dicarbonate addition to wine. Agric. Food
Chern. 24: 328-331.
2412
1976
(with W. A. Winton) An evaluation of the Davis wine-score card and indi­
vidual expert panel members. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 27: 136·144.
2413
1976
Studies to improve wines and winery practices. 67 pp., with 139 published
papers. D. Sc. diss., Univ. of Stellenbosch, Univ. of South Africa.
2414
1977 Improved production method-DMPC.
Wine Institute, January 10. 11 pp.
2415
1977
Investigation into crop level, rootstock and maturity effects on wine qual­
ity. Report on project V-8I-77. San Francisco, Wine Institute, Vinicul­
tural Comm. meeting, January 28. 4 pp.
2416
1978
A Davis scientist reviews an excellent fungicide, DEDC.
59(4): 30-32.
2417
1978
Enzymes: Their use in grapes and wine (other than the enzyme systems
normally associated with fermentation!. Proc. Fifth Annual Wine Ind.
Tech. Seminar (November 25, 1978, Monterey). 65-69.
2418
1978
(with L. L. Langbehn, and P. A. Stafford) Influence of pH and ethanol on
the effectiveness of dimethyldicarbonate in controlling yeast growth in
model wine systems. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 29: 60-62.
2419
1978
(with M. L. Groat) Particle nature, yeast strain, and temperature interac­
tions on the fermentation rates of grape juice. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
35: 881-885.
2420
1979
(with H. Tabacman) Gas chromatographic determinations of amino acid
differences in Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and wines as affected by
rootstocks. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 30: 306-311.
2421 1979
Progress report.
San Francisco,
Wines Vines
Improved production methods-DEPC-DMPC studies. Final report on pro­
ject T-62(a)-77. San Francisco, Wine Institute, July 28. 1 p.
75
!
2422
1979
(with E. A. Crowell) Pectic-enzyme treatment of white grapes: tempera­ ture, variety and skin-contact time factors. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 30: 22­
27.
2423
1979
(with H. W. Berg) Powdery mildew sensory effect on wine. Amer. J. Enol.
Vitic. 30: 321.
2424
1979
(with A. Caputi, Jr., and M. Groat) A rapid colorimetric calcium method.
Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 30: 58-60.
2425
1979
(with G. Analli! Zinfandel grape juice protein fractions and their amino
acid makeup as affected by crop level. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 30: 8-10.
2426
1980
A comparison of tyramine in wine and other foods.
5(4): 52-53.
2427
1980
(with A. A. Bell) Effects of nitrogen fertilization of grapevines on amino
acid metabolism and higher-alcohol formation during grape juice fermen­
tation. Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 31: 122·123.
­
2428
1980
Fermentation variables as they affect table wine composition and quality.
Vinifera Wine Growers J. 7: 139·146.
2429
1980
(with C. A. Corison) Measurement of patulin in grapes and wines. J. Food
Sci. 45: 476-478.
2430
1980
(with E. A. Crowell) Nitrate determination in California musts and wines.
Amer. J. Enol. Vitic. 31: 344·346.
2431
1980
Vineyard and
34( 7): 17-18.
2432
1980
Volatile esters in wine-source and data. Proc. Symp. Grape Wine Cen­
tennial (UC Davis), 336·341.
fermentation
practices
affecting
U. S. Pharmacist
wine.
Calif.
Agr.
*143. 1980 Daudt, C. E. and C. S. OUgh. Action of dimethy1dicarbonate on
various yeasts. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture
31(1):21-23.
145. 1980
Amerine, M. A., H. W. Berg, R. E. Kunkee, C. S. OUgh, V. L.
Singleton, and A. D. Webb. The technology of wine making. Fourth
edition. Avi Publishing Company, Inc., Westport, Connecticut. xi,
794 p. Also published in Japanese, 1982.
146. 1980
Amerine, M. A. and C. S. OUgh. Methods for analysis of musts and
wines. John Wiley & Sons, New York, Chichester, Brisbane,
Toronto, A. Wi1ey-Interscience Publication, x, 341 p.
*147. 1980
Ramey, D. D. and C. S. OUgh. Volatile ester hydrolysis or
formation during storage of model solutions and wines. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry 28(5):928-934.
76
*150. 1980 Daudt, C. E. and C. S. Ough. A method for detecting volatile
amines in grapes and wines. American Journal of Enology and
Viticulture 31(4):356-359.
*151. 1981 Ough, C. S. and T. H. Lee. Effect of vineyard nitrogen
fertilization level on the formation of some fermentation esters.
American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 32(2):125-127.
*152. 1981 Lowenberg, D. W., C. S. Ough, S. Lepkovsky, and F. F. Furuta. The
effect of ethanol and wine on the plasma histamine level of
chickens and man. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture
32(2):128-131.
*153. 1981 Ough, C. S., C. E. Daudt, and E. A. Crowell. Identification of
new volatile amines in grapes and wines. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry 29(5):938-941.
*154. 1981 Ough, C. S. and C. E. Daudt. Quantitative determination of
volatile amines in grapes and wines. I. Effect of fermentation
and storage temperature on amine concentrations. American Journal
of Enology and Viticulture 32(3):185-188.
*155. 1981 Brown, M. R. and C. S. Ough. A comparison of activity and effects
of two commercial pectic enzyme preparations on white grape musts
and wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture
32(4):272-276.
*156. 1981 Watts, D. A., C. S. Ough, and W. D. Brown. Residual amounts of
proteinaceous additives in table wine. Journal of Food Science
46(3):681-683, 687.
*157. 1982 Brown, M. R. and C. S. Ough. Effects of two different pectic
enzyme preparations, at several activity levels, on three pectin
fractions of a white must. American Journal of Enology and
Viticulture 33(1):41-43.
*158. 1982 Famuyiwa, O. and C. S. Ough. Grape pomace: Possibilities as
animal feed. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture
33(1):44-46.
*159. 1982 Soles, R. M., C. S. Ough, and R. E. Kunkee. Ester concentration
differences in wine fermented by various species and strains of
yeast. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 33(2):94-98.
*160. 1982 Ough, C. S., E. A. Crowell, and J. Benz. Metal content of
California Wines. Journal of Food Science 47(3):825-828.
161. 1982
Ough, C. S. Volatile esters in wines--source and fate, p.
336-341. In: University of California. Davis Grape and Wine
Centennial Symposium Proceedings.
*162. 1982 Daudt, C. E. and C. S. Ough. Volatile amines in Vitis vinifera
varieties and changes during maturation. Vitis 21:105-110.
77
*163. 1982 Porter, L. J. and C. S. OUgh. The effects of ethanol,
temperature, and dimethyl dicarbonate on viability of
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Montrachet No. 522 in wine. American
Journal of Enology and Viticulture 33(4):222-25.
*164. 1982 OUgh, C. S. and C. L. Winger. Changes in non-volatile compounds
and extracts of wines due to yeast species and fermentation
temperature. South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture
3(1):17-21.
*165. 1983 A1my, J., C. S. OUgh, and E. A. Crowell. Identification of two
new volatile amines in wine. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry 31:911-913.
*166. 1983 OUgh, C. S. Sulfur dioxide and su1fites, Chapter 7, p. 177-203.
In, Alfred L. Branen and P. Michael Davidson (Eds.),
Antimicrobials in Foods, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
*167. 1983 OUgh, C. S. Dimethyl dicarbonate and diethy1 dicarbonate, Chapter
10, p. 299-325. In, Alfred L. Branen and P. Michael Davidson
(Eds.), Antimicrobials in Foods, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York.
*168. 1983 Masyczek, R. and C. S. OUgh. The "Red wine reaction" syndrome.
American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 34(2):260-264.
*169. 1984 OUgh, C. S. and R. Nagaoka. Effect of cluster thinning and
vineyard yields on grape and wine quality of Cabernet Sauvignon.
American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 35(1):30-34.
*170. 1984 OUgh, C. S. Volatile nitrogen compounds in fermented beverages.
In, L. Nykanen and P. Lehtonen (Eds.), Flavour Research of
Alcoholic Beverages, Proceedings of the A1ko Symposium, Helsinki,
Finland, June 14, 1984.
*171. 1985 OUgh, C. S. Some effects of temperature and S02 on wine during
simulated transport or storage. American Journal of Enology and
Viticulture 36(1):18-22.
*172. 1985 Sanders, E. M. and C. S. OUgh. Determination of free amino acids
in wine by HPLC. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture
36(1):43-46.
*173. 1985 Gershwin, M. E., C. S. OUgh, A. Bock, M. P. Fletcher, S. M. Nagy,
and D. S. Tuft. Grand rounds: Adverse reactions to wine. The
Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, March 1985, p.
411-420.
*174. 1985 Crowell, E. A., C. S. Ough, and A. Baka1insky. Research Note:
Determination of alpha amino nitrogen in musts and wines by TNBS
method. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture
36(2) :175-177.
78
*175. 1985 Ough, C. S. and Abraham Kriel. Ammonia concentrations of musts of
different grape cultivars and vineyards in the Stellenbosch area.
South African Journal for Enology and Viticulture 6(1):7-11.
*176. 1985 Mesias, J. L. and C. S. Ough. Comparacion de sistemas de
extraccion de pomponentes volatiles de uvas en soluciones modelos.
Semana Vitivinicola 40(2010):519-523.
*177. 1985 Halpern, G. M., M. E. Gershwin, C. S. Ough, M. P. Fletcher, and S.
M. Nagy, Jr. The effect of white wine upon pulmonary function of
asthmatic subjects. Annals of Allergy 55(5):686-690.
*178. 1985
Jones, R. S. and C. S. Ough. Variations in the percent ethanol
(vjv) per Brix conversions of wines from different climatic
regions. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture
36(4):268~270.
*179. 1985 Ough, C. S. Determination of sulfur dioxide in grapes and wines.
Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists
69(1):5-7.
*180. 1986 Ramey, D., A. Bertrand, C. S. Ough, V. L. Singleton, and E.
Sanders. 1986. Effects of skin contact temperature on Chardonnay
must and wine composition. American Journal of Enology and
Viticulture 37(2):99-106.
*181. 1987 Ough, C. S. Chemicals used in making wine.
Engineering News 65:19-28.
Chemical and
*182. 1987 Ough, C. S., E. A. Crowell, R. E. Kunkee, M. R. Vilas, and S.
Lagier. A study of histamine production by various wine bacteria
in model solutions and in wine. Journal of Food Processing and
Preservation 12:63-70.
*183. 1987 Ough, C. S. and E. A. Crowell. Use of sulfur dioxide in
winemaking. Journal of Food Science 52(2):386-388, 393.
*184. 1987 Ough, C. S. Use of PET bottles for wine.
Enology and Viticulture 38(2):100-104.
American Journal of
*185. 1987 Ohkubo, T. and C. S. Ough. An analytical survey of four
California varietal white table wines. American Journal of
Enology and Viticulture 38(3):171-175.
*186. 1987 Ohkubo, T., A. C. Noble, C. S. Ough. Evaluation of California
wines by sensory and chemical analyses. Science Aliments
7(4):573-587.
79
187. 1988
Ough, C. S. and M. A. Amerine. Methods for analysis of musts and
wines. Second Edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 377 p.
*188. 1988 Ough, C. S., E. A. Crowell, and B. R. Gut1ove. Carbamyl compound
reactions with ethanol. American Journal of Enology and
Viticulture 39(3):239-242.
*189. 1988 Ough, C. S., E. A. Crowell, and L. A. Mooney. Formation of ethyl
carbamate precursors during grape juice (Chardonnay) fermentation.
I. Addition of amino acids, urea, and ammonia: Effects of
fortification on intracellular and extracellular precursors.
American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 39(3):243-249.
*190. 1988 Nakamura, S., E. A. Crowell, C. S. Ough, and A. Totsuka.
Quantitative analysis of -nona1actone in wines and its threshold
determination. Journal of Food Science 53(4):1243-1244.
*191. 1988 Ough, C. S. and G. Trio1i. Urea removal from wine by an acid
urease. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 39(4):319­
323.
*192. 1988 Ough, C. S., R. E. Kunkee, M. R. Vilas, E. Bordeu and M.-C. Huang.
The interaction of sulfur dioxide, pH and dimethyl dicarbonate on
the growth of Saccharomyces cerevisiae Montrachet and Leuconostoc
~ MCW.
American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 39(4):279­
282.
*193. 1988 Ough, C. S. Acids and amino in Grapes and Wines. In, H. F.
Linskens and J. F. Jackson (Eds.), Modern Methods of Plant
Analysis 6:92-146.
*194. 1988 Ough, C. S. Determination of sulfur dioxide in grapes and wine.
In, H. F. Linskens and J. F. Jackson (Eds.), Modern Methods of
Plant Analysis 6:339-358.
*195. 1989 Ough, C. S. The Changing California Wine Industry.
Science for Food and Agriculture, 7:257-268.
*196. 1989 A1my, J. and C. S. Ough. Urea Analysis for Wines.
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 37:968-970
Journal of
Journal of
*197. 1989 Foott, J. H., C. S. OUgh, and J. A. Wolpert. Rootstock effects on
wine grapes. California Agriculture, July-August 1989, p. 27-29.
*198. 1989 Huang, Z. and C. S. Ough. Effect of vineyard locations, varieties
and rootstocks on the juice ~ino acid composition of several
cu1tivars. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 40:135­
139.
*199. 1989 Ough, C. S., M. Davenport, and K. Joseph. Effects of certain
vitamins on growth and fermentation rate of several commercial
active dry wine yeasts. American Journal of Enology and
Viticulture, 40:208-213.
80
*200. 1989 OUgh, C. S., D. Stevens and J. A1my. Preliminary comments on
effects of grape vineyard nitrogen fertilization on the subsequent
ethyl carbamate formation in wines. Research Note. American
Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 40:219-220.
*201. 1989 Trio1i, G. and C. S. OUgh. Causes for inhibition of an acid
urease from lactobacillus fermentus. American Journal of Enology
and Viticulture, 40:245-252.
*202. 1990 OUgh, C. S., D. Stevens, T. Sendovski, Z. Huang and D. An.
Factors contributing to urea formation in commercially fermented
wines. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 41:68-73.
*203. 1990 Famuyiwa, O. O. and C. S. OUgh. Effect of structural constituents
of cell wall on the digestibility of grape pomace. Journal of
Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 38:966-968.
81
INDEX -- Cornelius Ough
American Society for Viticulture and
Enology, 55, 56
Amerine, Maynard A., 3-6, 8, 9, 12,
34, 54
ammonia electrode, 20
Australia, 63
Beaulieu Vineyard, 16, 32, 33
Berg, Harold W., 20, 23, 32, 54
Bisson, Linda, 10, 40, 47
bottles, silicon coating on, 7
bottling, 20
Boulton, Roger, 10
Brazil, 51
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and
Firearms, 23, 47
Cal A~~ie, 25
California A~riculture, 60
Carmel winery (Israel), 50
Carneros Creek vineyard, 39
chromatography, 11
Clarke Oxygen Electrode, 13
clonal trials, 39, 40
Coffelt, Jack, 18
Cook, James, 36
Cruess, William V., 3, 10
Daudt, Carlos, 20, 23, 51
Davies, Jack, 32
diethyl dicarbonate, 21
diethyl pyrocarbonate [DEPC],
21
equipment, 11, 44, 45
ethyl carbamate, 14, 42, 52
see also urethane
fermentation,
8, 9, 11, 16, 17
Food and Drug Administration, 14,
21, 26, 27, 47, 48, 57
Foott, Jack, 17, 60
Fresno State University, 55
Gallo, Ernest and Julio, 12
Gallo Winery, 12, 17
genetic engineering, 40-42
grape juice, watering of, 28-30
harvesting, mechanical, 18, 22, 23,
49
headaches, from red wine, 24-26
Henschke, Paul, 48
Hil~ardia,
29
histamine study, 19, 24-26
Ingraham, John,
Israel, 49-51
13, 14
Journal of A~riculture and Food
Chemistry, 22
Kliewer, Walter M.,
36, 39
Krug, Charles, winery, 5, 16
Kunkee, Ralph, 10
14,
label warnings, 57, 58
Lider, Lloyd A. , 36
Martini, Louis P., 31
Methods for Analysis of Musts and
Wines, 63
mold and rot, 22, 23
82
Mondavi, Robert,
Mrak, Emil, 15
Tche1istcheff, Andre, 16, 17, 32,
33
Technology of Winemaking, 10
5, 6
Nelson, K1ayton E., 36
Nightingale, Myron, 12
01mo, Harold P., 8, 9, 40
Orfer, Chris, 52
Ough, Cornelius
as lab technician 1950, 3, 4
as UC Davis winemaker, 5-31
becomes eno1ogist, 9
childhood and education, 1, 2
in military service, 4, 5
work abroad, 49-53, 63
oxygen, dissolved, 13
pesticides, 14, 15
phy11oxera, 41, 60, 61
Pichia, 20
Posson, Philip, 12
Proposition 65 [California],
Rankine, Bryce, 53
Rapp, Dr. [German scientist],
rootstocks, 17, 18, 60-62
57
53
Sacchromyces cerev~s~ae, 20, 40
Science journal, 22
Scripps Research Institute Clinic,
26, 27
Sendvoski, Tally, 50
Sierra Wine company, 12
Simon, Ronald,
26, 27
Singleton, Vernon W., 10, 53
sodium in wines, 23
Sommers, Chris, 53
South Africa,
51-53
Stern, Peter, 50
sulfur dioxide trials, 26-28
United Nations, 49
University of California, Davis, 3­ 6, 12, 15, 31-37, 47
Environmental Toxicology
Department, 14
University of Ste11enbosch, 52
urethane, 14, 21,22, 42, 43, 46-48
see also ethyl carbamate
Van Wyk, Joel, 52
Viticulture and Enology Research
Institute (South Africa), 52
Webb, A. Dinsmoor, 36
Wine Advisory Board, 54, 55
Wine Institute, 23
Technical Advisory Committee, 5,
54, 55
winemaking, teaching of, 31-35
Winemaking Basics, 10
wines
color of, 15
esters in, 19, 20
headaches from,
24-26
histamine in, 19, 24, 25
metals in, 23, 24
oxygen in, 13, 20
red, 7
sensory evaluation of, 59
sorbic acid in, 13, 14
table, 9
Winkler, Albert J.,
5
yeast,
43, 44
83
Grape Varieties Mentioned in the Interview
Calzin, 9
Chardonnay, 40
Pinot noir, 39
Ruby Cabernet, 9
Zinfandel, 40
Wines Mentioned in the Interview
Cabernet Sauvignon,
sherry, flor, 11-13
33, 39
Ruth Teiser
Born in Portland, Oregon; came to the Bay
Area in 1932 and has lived here ever since.
Stanford University, B.A., M.A. in English;
further graduate work in Western history.
Newspaper and magazine writer in San Francisco
since 1943, writing on local history and
business and social life of the Bay Area.
Book reviewer for the San Francisco Chronicle,
1943-1974.
Co-author of Winemaking in California, a
history, 1982.
An interviewer-editor in the Regional Oral
History Office since 1965.