REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
The Reformulated Learned Helplessness Theory:
A Review and Investigation
Katrina M. Travers
B.Sc. (Hons)
School of Applied Psychology
Griffith University
Submitted as partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy in Clinical Psychology
February, 2013
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
i
Abstract
The reformulated learned helplessness (RLH) theory and its associated construct of
explanatory style have been extensively tested against variables such as depression, short
term health, and achievement, particularly since a measure of explanatory style, the
Attributional Style Questionnaire (ASQ), was developed in 1982. Despite being extensively
investigated, results can only be best described as mixed and inconclusive. It is argued that
this is because: (a) the internality dimension of explanatory style is poorly defined and the
items within the ASQ written to measure internality are not reliable or valid; (b) the ASQ
itself has not been demonstrated to have structural validity, and (c) the definition of
explanatory style in the literature is not uniform.
For this reason, a series of seven studies was conducted in order to address these
weaknesses. Specifically, three aims were nominated, including (a) to develop a valid and
reliable measure of all dimensions of explanatory style, (b) to establish the construct validity
of the new measure of explanatory style against variables already investigated in this line of
research (depression, short term health, and achievement), and (c) to extend the RLH theory
to novel variables, using the new measure of explanatory style.
Studies 1, 2, and 3 were successful in developing a new measure of explanatory style
for negative events, titled the Explanatory Dimensions Scale (EDS), which met simple
structure in exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, with each subscale achieving
acceptable internal reliability coefficients ranging from α = .68 to α = .78. Further, initial
convergent validity was demonstrated by finding significant correlations with the Expanded
Attributional Style Questionnaire (short form) (EASQ-S). Results of these studies also
established that each dimension of explanatory style needs to be interpreted independently of
the other dimensions.
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
ii
In investigating the construct validity of the EDS against established variables (i.e.,
depression, short term health, and achievement), Study 4 was successful in demonstrating
that the EDS globality subscale was related to depressive symptomatology, that self-esteem,
anxiety, and stress fully mediated the relationship between EDS globality and depressive
symptomatology, and that stress moderated the relationship between EDS globality and
depressive symptomatology. Study 5 was successful in demonstrating that the EDS globality
subscale was related to short term health, that problem solving ability and social support
mediated the relationship between EDS globality and short term health, and that the EDS has
convergent validity with the EASQ-S.
In extending the RLH theory to novel variables (i.e., distress and premenstrual stress,
PMS), Study 6 was successful in demonstrating that the EDS globality and stability subscales
were related to distress, that the EDS globality subscale predicted distress, and that problem
solving ability fully mediated the relationship between EDS globality and distress. Study 6
was also successful in demonstrating that the EDS and EASQ-S accounted for similar
amounts of variance in distress. Finally, Study 7 extended this line of research to PMS, but
found that explanatory style was unrelated to this specific health variable in women.
Overall, the results of the seven studies were interpreted as being successful in
establishing a new valid and reliable measure of the explanatory style dimensions, which has
demonstrated initial construct validity with established variables and a novel variable (i.e.,
psychological distress), has extended this line of research to a novel outcome variable (i.e.,
psychological distress), and has demonstrated convergent validity with the EASQ-S. The
results also challenge the validity of the RLH theory as it was not possible to fit a secondorder factor to the three RLH measures of globality, stability, and internality. Implications for
theory and practice are discussed, and limitations to the study are highlighted.
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
iii
Statement of Originality
This work has not previously been submitted for a degree or diploma in any
university. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously
published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the thesis
itself.
(Signed)_____________________________
Katrina M Travers
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
iv
List of Contents
Chapter One: General Introduction and Overview of Research .............................................. 1
The Reformulated Learned Helplessness Theory........................................................... 1
Explanatory Style ........................................................................................................... 2
Attributional Style Questionnaire ................................................................................... 3
Methodological Issues .................................................................................................... 4
Unreliability of the internality dimension ............................................................. 4
Factorial validity of the ASQ ................................................................................ 5
Variable definition of explanatory style................................................................ 5
Overview of the Current Series of Studies ..................................................................... 7
Study 1 .................................................................................................................. 9
Study 2 ..................................................................................................................9
Study 3 ................................................................................................................10
Study 4 ................................................................................................................11
Study 5 ................................................................................................................12
Study 6 ................................................................................................................13
Study 7 ................................................................................................................13
Summary ...................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter Two: The Reformulated Learned Helplessness Theory: A Review and
Investigation ........................................................................................................................ .. 16
The Origins of the Reformulated Learned Helplessness Theory .............................. ..17
The learned helplessness theory ....................................................................... ..17
Attribution theory............................................................................................. ..18
The reformulated learned helplessness theory ................................................. ..19
Explanatory style.............................................................................................. ..20
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
v
The Attributional Style Questionnaire ............................................................. ..20
Explanatory Style and Depression............................................................................. ..22
Indirect relationship investigations .................................................................. ..25
Explanatory Style and Achievement ......................................................................... ..27
Direct relationship investigations..................................................................... ..27
Indirect relationship investigations .................................................................. ..28
Explanatory Style and Health .................................................................................... ..29
Direct relationship investigations..................................................................... ..29
Indirect relationship investigations .................................................................. ..30
Validity of the Attributional Style Questionnaire ..................................................... ..32
Overall Summary of the Literature............................................................................ ..35
A Critical Analysis of the Literature ......................................................................... ..37
Unreliability of the internality dimension ........................................................ ..38
Lack of structural validity for the ASQ ........................................................... ..40
Variable definition of explanatory style........................................................... ..41
Summary and Overall Research Goals ...................................................................... ..42
Chapter Three: Study 1: The Development of an Alternative Measure of
Explanatory Style ................................................................................................................ ..45
Redefining the Internality Dimension ....................................................................... ..46
Origins of the internality dimension .......................................................................... ..47
Proposed redefinition................................................................................................. ..48
Research Aims ........................................................................................................... ..50
Method: Phase 1 ...........................................................................................................51
Phase 1: Item Generation ................................................................................. ..51
Phase 1: Participants ........................................................................................ ..51
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
vi
Phase 1: Procedure ........................................................................................... ..51
Method: Phase 2 ........................................................................................................ ..53
Phase 2: Item reduction .................................................................................... ..53
Phase 2: Participants ........................................................................................ ..54
Phase 2: Materials ............................................................................................ ..54
Phase 2: Procedure ........................................................................................... ..57
Results: Phase 2 ......................................................................................................... ..57
Phase 2: Item Analysis ..................................................................................... ..57
Phase 2: Exploratory Factor Analysis .............................................................. ..58
Discussion.................................................................................................................. ..59
Chapter Four: Study 2: Redefining the Internality Dimension and reformatting the ASQ ..62
Research Aims ........................................................................................................... ..63
Method: Phase 1 ........................................................................................................ ..63
Phase 1: Item Stem Generation ........................................................................ ..63
Phase 1: Participants ........................................................................................ ..64
Phase 1: Procedure ........................................................................................... ..64
Method: Phase 2 ........................................................................................................ ..65
Phase 2: Item Reduction, Internal Consistency, and Summary Data............... ..65
Phase 2: Participants ........................................................................................ ..65
Phase 2: Materials ............................................................................................ ..65
Phase 2: Procedure ........................................................................................... ..66
Results: Phase 2 ......................................................................................................... ..66
Phase 2: Item Analysis ..................................................................................... ..66
Phase 2: Exploratory Factor Analysis and Internal Consistency Reliability ... ..66
PCA: Internality dimension .................................................................... ..66
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
vii
PCA: Globality dimension ..................................................................... ..67
PCA: Stability dimension ....................................................................... ..67
PCA: Overall exploratory factor analysis ............................................... ..67
Discussion ................................................................................................................ ..70
Chapter Five: Study 3: Confirming the Structure and Content Validity of the
Revised ASQ....................................................................................................................... ..74
Research Aims ........................................................................................................... ..74
Method....................................................................................................................... ..75
Participants ....................................................................................................... ..75
Materials........................................................................................................... ..75
The Revised ASQ ................................................................................... ..75
Expanded Attributional Style Scale – Short Form ................................. ..76
Procedure ......................................................................................................... ..76
Results ....................................................................................................................... ..76
Confirmatory Factor Analysis .......................................................................... ..76
Second Order CFA ........................................................................................... ..81
Internal Consistency......................................................................................... ..82
Construct Validity ............................................................................................ ..83
Discussion.................................................................................................................. ..88
Chapter Six: Study 4: Construct Validity of the Explanatory Dimensions Scale (EDS).. ....93
Individual Explanatory Style Dimensions and Depression ...................................... ..94
Research Aims ..............................................................................................................99
Method....................................................................................................................... 100
Participants ....................................................................................................... 100
Materials........................................................................................................... 100
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
viii
The Explanatory Dimensions Scale........................................................ .101
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale ............................................................ .101
Centre for Epidemiological Studies – Depression Scale ........................ .101
Coping Scale for Adults ......................................................................... .102
The Rosenburg Self Esteem Scale .......................................................... .102
Procedure ......................................................................................................... .103
Results ....................................................................................................................... .103
Factor Structure of the EDS ............................................................................. .103
Factor Structure of the CSA ............................................................................. .104
Statistics for the EDS, DASS, CES-D, and RSES ........................................... .105
Sample 1 Data Set: Predicting depressive symptomatology (CES-D) ............ .106
Examining mediation.............................................................................. .106
Examining moderation ........................................................................... .107
Predicting depressive symptomatology (with CES-D)........................... .109
Examining mediation (with non-productive coping, NC) ...................... .111
Examining mediation (with self-esteem) ................................................ .113
Examining coping ability and self-esteem as moderators between
EDS globality and depressive symptomatology ................................... .114
Examining coping ability and self-esteem as moderators between
EDS stability and depressive symptomatology ...................................... .117
Examining coping ability and self-esteem as moderators between
EDS internality and depressive symptomatology.................................. .119
Sample 2 Data Set: Predicting depressive symptomatology (with DASS) ..... .121
Predicting depressive symptomatology (with DASS) ............................ .122
Examining mediation (with anxiety) ...................................................... .124
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
ix
Examining mediation (with stress) ......................................................... 126
Examining anxiety and stress as moderators between EDS globality
and depressive symptomatology............................................................. 128
Examining anxiety and stress as moderators between EDS stability
and depressive symptomatology............................................................. 131
Examining anxiety and stress as moderators between EDS internality
And depressive symptomatology ........................................................... 132
Discussion ................................................................................................................ 135
Chapter Seven: Study 5: Explanatory Dimensions, Short Term Health,
and Achievement ................................................................................................................ 141
Individual Explanatory Style Dimensions and Academic Achievement .................. 142
Individual Explanatory Style Dimensions and Short Term Health ........................... 143
Research Aims ........................................................................................................... 144
Method....................................................................................................................... 146
Participants ....................................................................................................... 146
Materials........................................................................................................... 147
The Explanatory Dimensions Scale ........................................................ 147
The Expanded Attributional Style Questionnaire................................... 147
The General Health Questionnaire – 12 items........................................ 147
Short Form 12-item Health Survey ........................................................ 148
Problem Solving Inventory..................................................................... 148
Social Support Scale ............................................................................... 148
Grade ...................................................................................................... 149
Procedure ......................................................................................................... 149
Results ....................................................................................................................... 149
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
x
Factor Structure of the EDS ............................................................................. .150
Factor Structure of the EASQ-S....................................................................... .151
Statistics for the GHQ-12, SF-12, PSI, and SSS .............................................. .152
Factor Structure of the SF-12 ........................................................................... .153
Phase 1: Predicting Short Term Health ............................................................ .153
Predicting short term health.................................................................... .154
Examining mediation (with problem solving ability)............................. .156
Examining mediation (with social support)............................................ .158
Examining problem solving ability and social support as moderators
between EDS globality and short term health ........................................ .160
Examining problem solving ability and social support as moderators
between EDS stability and short term health ......................................... 162
Examining problem solving ability and social support as moderators
between EDS internality and short term health ...................................... 164
Phase 2: Predicting Grade ................................................................................ 166
Examining problem solving ability, social support, short term health,
and distress between EDS globality and grade score ............................. 166
Examining problem solving ability, social support, short term health,
and distress between EDS stability and grade score............................... 170
Examining problem solving ability, social support, short term health,
and distress between EDS internality and grade score ........................... 173
Phase 3: The Convergent Validity of the EDS on short term health and
grade . ............................................................................................................... 177
The convergent validity of the EDS on short term health ...................... 177
The convergent validity of the EDS on grade ........................................ 178
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xi
Discussion.................................................................................................................. .179
Chapter Eight: Study 6: Explanatory Dimensions and Psychological Distress .................. .185
Individual Explanatory Style Dimensions and Psychological Distress ..................... .186
Research Aims ........................................................................................................... .187
Method....................................................................................................................... .189
Participants ....................................................................................................... .189
Materials........................................................................................................... .189
Procedure ......................................................................................................... .189
Results ....................................................................................................................... .189
Statistics for the GHQ-12, PSI, and SSS ......................................................... .189
Phase 1: Predicting Distress ............................................................................. .190
Predicting distress .................................................................................. .191
Examining mediation (with problem solving ability)............................. .192
Examining mediation (with social support)............................................ .194
Examining problem solving ability and social support as moderators
between EDS globality and student distress ........................................... .196
Examining problem solving ability and social support as moderators
between EDS stability and student distress ............................................ 198
Examining problem solving ability and social support as moderators
between EDS internality and student distress......................................... 200
Phase 2: The Convergent Validity of the EDS on Distress.............................. 202
Discussion.................................................................................................................. 203
Chapter Nine: Study 7: Explanatory Dimensions and Premenstrual Stress ....................... 208
Individual Explanatory Style Dimensions and Premenstrual Stress ......................... 208
Research Aims ........................................................................................................... 210
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xii
Method....................................................................................................................... .211
Participants ....................................................................................................... .211
Materials........................................................................................................... .211
The Menstrual Distress Questionnaire – Form C ................................... .211
Procedure ......................................................................................................... .212
Results ....................................................................................................................... .212
Factor Structure of the MDQ-C ....................................................................... .212
Statistics for the EDS and DASS ..................................................................... .213
Predicting Premenstrual Stress (PMS) ............................................................. .213
Predicting PMS ....................................................................................... .214
Examining depression and anxiety as moderators between EDS
globality and PMS .................................................................................. .215
Examining depression and anxiety as moderators between EDS
stability and PMS ................................................................................... .217
Examining depression and anxiety as moderators between EDS
internality and PMS ................................................................................ .219
Discussion.................................................................................................................. .221
Chapter Ten: General Discussion ....................................................................................... .224
Study 1 ....................................................................................................................... .225
Study 2 ....................................................................................................................... .225
Study 3 ....................................................................................................................... .226
Study 4 ....................................................................................................................... .226
Study 5 ....................................................................................................................... .227
Study 6 ....................................................................................................................... .229
Study 7 ....................................................................................................................... .230
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xiii
Summary and Conclusion.......................................................................................... .230
Strengths of the studies .................................................................................... .232
Limitations of current studies .......................................................................... .232
Future research directions ................................................................................ .232
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xiv
List of Tables
Table 2.1 A 2 x 2 Schema of the Perceived Causes of Outcomes ......................................19
Table 2.2 A 2 x 3 Schema of the Perceived Causes of Outcomes to Negative Events .......20
Table 3.1 The Proposed Revision of the Internality Dimension .........................................49
Table 3.2 Various Conceptualisations of the Internality Dimension ..................................50
Table 4.1 Principal Components Factor Estimates for the 18 Item Revised ASQ .............69
Table 4.2 Eigenvalues, Percentage of Variance Explained, and the Cronbach’s Alpha
Coefficients for the Three Subscales and the Composite Score of the Revised
ASQ ..................................................................................................................... 70
Table 4.3 Means and Standard Deviations for each Subscale on the Revised ASQ ...........70
Table 5.1 Correlations among Latent Variables ................................................................ 80
Table 5.2 Alpha Coefficients, Means, and Standard Deviations (Revised ASQ) ...............83
Table 5.3 Principal Components Estimates for the 18 item EASQ-S .................................85
Table 5.4 Alpha Coefficients (36-item and 18-item EASQ-S), Means, and Standard
Deviations for each Subscale on the EASQ-S ....................................................86
Table 5.5 Correlations between the Subscales of the Revised ASQ and the Subscales of the
EASQ-S ...............................................................................................................87
Table 6.1 CFA Results of the EDS Model ....................................................................... 104
Table 6.2 Eigenvalues, Percentage of Variance explained, Cronbach Alpha coefficients,
and Descriptives for the CSA (N = 140) .......................................................... 105
Table 6.3 Sample 1 Data Set: Cronbach’s Alpha Internal Reliability, Means, and Standard
Deviation Statistics for the EDS, CES-D, and RSES (N = 140) ...................... 105
Table 6.4 Sample 2 Data Set: Cronbach’s Alpha Internal Reliability, Means, and
Standard Deviation Statistics for the EDS and DASS (N = 125)..................... 106
Table 6.5 Correlation Coefficients among Demographic, Predictor, Mediator, and
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xv
Depressive Symptomatology (CES-D) ............................................................ 109
Table 6.6 Predicting Depressive Symptomatology (CES-D) ........................................... 110
Table 6.7 Predicting Depressive Symptomatology (CES-D: after controlling for coping
ability and self-esteem) .................................................................................... 111
Table 6.8 Examining Mediation (non-productive coping) on the relationship between
EDS globality and Depressive Symptomatology ............................................. 112
Table 6.9 Examining Mediation (self-esteem) on the relationship between EDS globality
and Depressive Symptomatology..................................................................... 113
Table 6.10 Moderation Analysis for Coping Ability on Globality Predicting Depressive
Symptomatology (CES-D) ............................................................................... 116
Table 6.11 Moderation Analysis for Self Esteem on Globality predicting Depressive
Symptomatology .............................................................................................. 117
Table 6.12 Moderation Analysis for Coping Ability on EDS Stability predicting
Depressive Symptomatology (CES-D) ............................................................ 118
Table 6.13 Moderation Analysis for Self-esteem on EDS Stability Predicting Depressive
Symptomatology (CES-D) ............................................................................... 119
Table 6.14 Moderation Analysis for Coping Ability on EDS Internality predicting
Depressive Symptomatology (CES-D) ............................................................ 120
Table 6.15 Moderation Analysis for Self-Esteem on EDS Internality predicting
Depressive Symptomatology (CES-D) ............................................................ 121
Table 6.16 Correlation Coefficients among Age, Predictor variables, Mediator variables, and
Depressive Symptomatology (DASS) ............................................................. 122
Table 6.17 Predicting Depressive Symptomatology (DASS) ............................................ 123
Table 6.18 Predicting Depressive Symptomatology (after controlling for anxiety
and stress) ......................................................................................................... 124
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xvi
Table 6.19 Examining Mediation (anxiety) on the relationship between EDS globality
and Depressive Symptomatology..................................................................... 125
Table 6.20 Examining Mediation (stress) on the relationship between EDS globality
and Depressive Symptomatology ................................................................... 127
Table 6.21 Moderation Analysis for Anxiety on EDS Globality Predicting Depressive
Symptomatology (DASS) ................................................................................ 129
Table 6.22 Moderation Analysis for Stress on EDS Globality Predicting Depressive
Symptomatology (DASS) ................................................................................ 130
Table 6.23 Moderation Analysis for Anxiety on EDS Stability predicting Depressive
Symptomatology (DASS) ................................................................................ 132
Table 6.24 Moderation Analysis for Stress on EDS Stability predicting Depressive
Symptomatology (DASS) ................................................................................ 132
Table 6.25 Moderation Analysis for Anxiety on EDS Internality predicting Depressive
Symptomatology (DASS) ................................................................................ 134
Table 6.26 Moderation Analysis for Stress on EDS Internality predicting Depressive
Symptomatology (DASS) ................................................................................ 134
Table 7.1 CFA Results of the EDS Model ....................................................................... 150
Table 7.2 Internal Reliability, Means and Standard Deviations of the EDS and
Subscales .......................................................................................................... 150
Table 7.3 CFA Results of the EASQ-S Model ................................................................ 151
Table 7.4 Internal Reliability, Means and Standard Deviations of the EASQ-S and
Subscales .......................................................................................................... 152
Table 7.5 Means, Standard Deviations, and the Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficients for each
Variable analysed in Study 5 ........................................................................... 152
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xvii
Table 7.6 Percentage of Variance Explained, Mean, SD, and the Cronbach’s Alpha
Coefficients for the SF-12 (7-items) ................................................................ 153
Table 7.7 Correlation Coefficients among Demographic, Predictor, Mediator, and
Short Term Health ............................................................................................ 154
Table 7.8 Predicting Short Term Health ......................................................................... 155
Table 7.9 Predicting Short Term Health (controlling for problem solving ability and
social support) .................................................................................................. 156
Table 7.10 Examining Mediation (Problem Solving Ability) on the relationship between
EDS globality and short term health ................................................................ 157
Table 7.11 Examining Mediation (Social Support) on the relationship between EDS globality
and short term health ........................................................................................ 159
Table 7.12 Moderation Analysis for Problem Solving Skills on the relationship between
EDS Globality and Short Term Health ............................................................ 161
Table 7.13 Moderation Analysis for Social Support on the relationship between EDS
Globality and Short Term Health ..................................................................... 162
Table 7.14 Moderation Analysis for Problem Solving Skills on the relationship between
EDS Stability and Short Term Health .............................................................. 163
Table 7.15 Moderation Analysis for Social Support on the relationship between EDS
Stability and Short Term Health ...................................................................... 163
Table 7.16 Moderation Analysis for Problem Solving Skills on the relationship between
EDS Internality and Short Term Health ........................................................... 165
Table 7.17 Moderation Analysis for Social Support on the relationship between EDS
Internality and Short Term Health ................................................................... 165
Table 7.18 Correlation Coefficients among Demographic, Predictor, Mediator, and
Grade Score ...................................................................................................... 166
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xviii
Table 7.19 Moderation Analysis for Problem Solving Ability on the Relationship between
EDS Globality and Grade Score ...................................................................... 168
Table 7.20 Moderation Analysis for Social Support on the Relationship between EDS
Globality and Grade Score ............................................................................... 168
Table 7.21 Moderation Analysis for Distress on the Relationship between EDS
Globality and Grade Score ............................................................................... 169
Table 7.22 Moderation Analysis for Short Term Health on the Relationship between
EDS Globality and Grade Score ...................................................................... 169
Table 7.23 Moderation Analysis for Problem Solving Ability on the Relationship between
EDS Stability and Grade Score ........................................................................ 171
Table 7.24 Moderation Analysis for Social Support on the Relationship between EDS
Stability and Grade Score ................................................................................ 172
Table 7.25 Moderation Analysis for Distress on the Relationship between EDS
Stability and Grade Score ................................................................................ 172
Table 7.26 Moderation Analysis for Short Term Health on the Relationship between
EDS Stability and Grade Score ........................................................................ 173
Table 7.27 Moderation Analysis for Problem Solving Ability on the Relationship between
EDS Internality and Grade Score ..................................................................... 175
Table 7.28 Moderation Analysis for Social Support on the Relationship between EDS
Internality and Grade Score ............................................................................. 175
Table 7.29 Moderation Analysis for Distress on the Relationship between EDS
Internality and Grade Score ............................................................................. 176
Table 7.30 Moderation Analysis for Short Term Health on the Relationship between
EDS Internality and Grade Score ..................................................................... 176
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xix
Table 7.31 EDS (Globality, Stability, and Internality) predicting Short Term Health ...... 177
Table 7.32 EASQ-S (Globality, Stability, and Internality) predicting Short Term
Health ............................................................................................................... 178
Table 7.33 EDS (Globality, Stability, and Internality) Predicting Grade .......................... 178
Table 7.34 EASQ-S (Globality, Stability, and Internality) Predicting Grade .................... 179
Table 8.1 Correlation Coefficients among Demographic, Predictor, Mediator, and
Psychological Distress ..................................................................................... 190
Table 8.2 Predicting Distress ........................................................................................... 191
Table 8.3 Predicting Distress (controlling for problem solving ability and social
support) ............................................................................................................ 192
Table 8.4 Examining Problem Solving Ability as mediator effecting the relationship
between EDS subscales on Distress ................................................................. 193
Table 8.5 Examining Social Support as mediator effecting the relationship between EDS
subscales on Distress ........................................................................................ 195
Table 8.6 Moderation Analysis for Problem Solving Ability on the Relationship between
EDS Globality and Distress ............................................................................. 197
Table 8.7 Moderation Analysis for Social Support on the Relationship between EDS
Stability and Distress ....................................................................................... 197
Table 8.8 Moderation Analysis for Problem Solving Ability on the Relationship between
EDS Stability and Distress ............................................................................... 199
Table 8.9 Moderation Analysis for Social Support on the Relationship between EDS
Stability and Distress ....................................................................................... 199
Table 8.10 Moderation Analysis for Problem Solving Ability on the Relationship between
EDS Internality and Distress ............................................................................ 201
Table 8.11 Moderation Analysis for Social Support on the Relationship between EDS
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xx
Internality and Distress .................................................................................... 201
Table 8.12 EDS (Globality, Stability, and Internality) Predicting Student Distress .......... 202
Table 8.13 EASQ-S (Globality, Stability, and Internality) Predicting Student Distress ... 203
Table 9.1 Eigenvalues, Percentage of Variance Explained, Cronbach Alpha Coefficients,
and Descriptives for the MDQ-C ..................................................................... 213
Table 9.2 Cronbach’s Alpha Internal Reliability, Means, and Standard Deviation
Statistics for the EDS and DASS ..................................................................... 213
Table 9.3 Correlation Coefficients among Predictor variables, Mediator variables,
and PMS ........................................................................................................... 214
Table 9.4 Moderation Analysis for Depression on the relationship between EDS
Globality and PMS ........................................................................................... 216
Table 9.5 Moderation Analysis for Anxiety on the relationship between EDS
Globality and PMS ........................................................................................... 216
Table 9.6 Moderation Analysis for Depression on the relationship between EDS
Stability and PMS ............................................................................................ 218
Table 9.7 Moderation Analysis for Anxiety on the relationship between EDS
Stability and PMS ............................................................................................ 218
Table 9.8 Moderation Analysis for Depression on the relationship between EDS
Internality and PMS ......................................................................................... 220
Table 9.9 Moderation Analysis for Anxiety on the relationship between EDS
Internality and PMS ......................................................................................... 220
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xxi
List of Figures
Figure 1
A diagrammatic representation of the dissertation program ................................. .8
Figure 2
Example of the Revised ASQ with Original and New Items .............................. ..55
Figure 3
Hypothesised confirmatory factor analysis model of the Revised ASQ ...............78
Figure 4
Final CFA solution of the Revised ASQ............................................................. ..80
Figure 5
Hypothesised second order CFA solution for the Revised ASQ ........................ ..82
Figure 6
Self Esteem (SE) mediating the relationship between EDS globality and
depressive symptomatology (CES-D) .................................................................114
Figure 7
Anxiety (Anx) mediating the relationship between EDS globality and depressive
symptomatology (DASS) ....................................................................................126
Figure 8
Stress mediating the relationship between EDS globality and depressive
symptomatology (DASS) ....................................................................................128
Figure 9
Stress moderating the relationship between EDS globality and depressive
symptomatology (DASS) ....................................................................................130
Figure 10 Significant mediation of problem solving ability on the relationship between
EDS globality and short term health ...................................................................158
Figure 11 Significant mediation of social support on the relationship between EDS
globality and short term health............................................................................160
Figure 12 Problem Solving Ability (PSI) mediating the relationship between
EDS globality and distress ..................................................................................194
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xxii
List of Appendices
Appendix A Inter Item Correlations for Each Dimension in Study 1.................................251
Appendix B
Item Total Correlations for each Dimension of Study 1 ................................ 253
Appendix C
The 60 Item Stems for Study 2.......................................................................255
Appendix D Redefined ASQ of Study 2 (example questions) ...........................................257
Appendix E
Inter-item Correlations for each subscale of Study 2 .....................................258
Appendix F
Item-total correlations for each subscale of Study 2 ......................................261
Appendix G The Revised ASQ (18 items) .........................................................................266
Appendix H EASQ-S (36 items)......................................................................................... 270
Appendix I
EDS (12 items) ............................................................................................... 274
Appendix J
Depression Anxiety Stress Scale ....................................................................277
Appendix K Centre for Epidemiological Studies - Depression ..........................................279
Appendix L
Coping Scale for Adults .................................................................................281
Appendix M Rosenburg Self Esteem Scale .........................................................................282
Appendix N EASQ-S (18-item) .......................................................................................... 283
Appendix O General Health Questionnaire – 12 item ........................................................ 286
Appendix P
Short Form 12-item Health Survey ............................................................... 287
Appendix Q Problem Solving Inventory ............................................................................289
Appendix R
Social Support Scale....................................................................................... 294
Appendix S
Menstrual Distress Questionnaire – Form C .................................................295
REVIEW OF THE REFORMULATED LEARNED HELPLESSNESS THEORY
xxiii
Statement of Acknowledgement
This PhD dissertation would not have been possible without the support of many
remarkable people. Foremost, I wish to express my gratitude to my primary supervisor
Professor Peter Creed. His patience, expert tuition, and guidance in multivariate statistics,
endless editorial assistance, and timely comments for improvements, proved to be the very
formula needed to guide me to this point. This is followed by Associate Professor Shirley
Morrissey, in providing the necessary unbiased second opinion and guidance in the
interpretation of statistics, and editorial assistance within each chapter, together with an
abundance of patience needed to keep me on the sometimes long and arduous road to
completion.
I also wish to express my love and gratitude to my husband, Keiran, and our three
boys Harrison, Baker, and Riley. Their encouragement and daily reminders of why I was on
this road were needed. My parents, Anne and David, have been invaluable in their belief and
pride in me, as well as their unquestioning assistance in looking after my boys at times when
I needed an unbroken full weekend. Also, my parents-in-law, Darrell and Fran, have been
amazing in their unending encouragement and proof-reading skills. Thank you.
I also appreciate the assistance given to me by my work colleagues and good friends,
Anda and Gill, by providing yet another needed perspective, interpretation of a statistical
result, and final proof-read. What I appreciate most, however, was the endless supply of
cappuccinos at the most appropriate times. Thank you.
Finally, I wish to acknowledge Jesus Christ our Lord, as I believe He has always been
by my side, especially during the most difficult times. Thank you.