International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 2013, 8, 52-56
© 2013 Human Kinetics, Inc.
www.IJSPP-Journal.com
ORIGINAL INVESTIGATION
Evaluation of Change-of-Direction Movements
in Young Rugby Players
Giancarlo Condello, Carlo Minganti, Corrado Lupo, Cinzia Benvenuti,
Daniele Pacini, and Antonio Tessitore
The evaluation of change-of-direction (COD) performance is strongly focused on the time spent to perform the
test trials, while much less is known about the technical execution adopted during the COD movements. Thus,
the purposes of this study were to evaluate (1) the relationship between straight- and COD-sprint tests and
(2) the technical execution of COD movements in relation to different age categories of young rugby players.
Young rugby players (N = 157, age range 8–19 y) completed a test battery composed of a 15-m straight-sprint
test (15SS) and a 15-m sprint test performed with 2 changes of direction (15COD). Significant differences
were detected between age categories for both tests. Significant correlations were found between 15SS and
15COD. The analysis of the technical execution of the 15COD test showed differences between age categories,
with a prevalence of rounded turns up to the U15 category. These findings confirmed the relationship between
straight and COD abilities in young male rugby players. Moreover, the new approach introduced by this study,
based on the analysis of COD technical execution, revealed that this performance could be conditioned by the
age and mastery level of the players.
Keywords: team sports, field tests, technical execution, youth performance
In many field and court sports, agility represents a
critical component of athletic performance. Based on the
deterministic model of agility developed by Young et al,1
which includes both cognitive (perceptual and decisionmaking) and change-of-direction (COD) speed factors,
a more comprehensive definition considers agility “a
rapid whole-body movement with change of velocity
or direction in response to a stimulus.”2(p922) Running
technique, anthropometrical features, leg-muscle qualities, and straight-sprinting speeds1 are further aspects
influencing COD ability.
In team sports such as rugby players need great ability to accelerate, decelerate,3 and change direction in a
short distance and in a variety of directions more than
to attain maximal speed.4 Consequently, higher agility
skills allow a player to perform a play in a fast, efficient,
and repeatable manner.5 To obtain these advantages, the
running technique plays a key role. Accordingly, rugby
players are used to running with a lower center of gravity, a more forward-leaning upper body, less knee flexion
during leg recovery, less knee lift, and a shorter stride
length.6 These running adjustments allow greater body
control, as well as the ability to perform rapid changes
Condello, Lupo, Benvenuti, and Tessitore are with the Dept
of Human Movement and Sport Sciences, University of Rome
“Foro Italico,” Rome, Italy. Minganti is with the Dept of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Magna Graecia,
Catanzaro, Italy. Pacini is with the Italian Rugby Federation.
52
of direction. Thus, in training, coaches should address
increasing acceleration and deceleration in short distances, foot speed, dynamic balance, and pelvic-stability
exercises.6
In a multiyear youth training plan designed to
develop agility, Vescovi7 proposed a drills progression
that evolves from general to specific tasks, from slower
to faster, and from rounded to sharp COD executions,
advancing from the first (5–8 y) to the last (>17 y) period
of age-group play. In particular, Vescovi7 introduced 2
different technical executions to perform a change of
direction: rounded and sharp. The former should be
prevalent up to the age of around 13 years, for reasons of
safety and injury prevention, as well as because a certain
level of movement mastery has not yet been achieved. On
the other hand, the latter should be emphasized after age
14, when movement mastery, body control, and physical
capacities have significantly improved.
The relationship between COD speed and straightsprinting speed has been widely investigated to understand how much these abilities have in common. Contrasting results have been found in relation to different
team sports. Young et al,8 in Australian football players,
found low correlations between 20-m straight sprint and
COD sprint performed with 90° (r = .27) and 120° (r =
.19) angles of directional change. Buttifant et al9 reported
a low correlation (r = .33) between 20-m straight-sprint
and 20-m zigzag tests in male soccer players. Similar
low correlations in male soccer players were also found
by Little et al10 when comparing 10-m straight-sprint,
Agility Evaluation in Young Rugby Players 53
flying 20-m, and 100° zigzag tests (r = .35 and r = .46,
respectively). In addition, poor correlations were evident
in male basketball players between T-test and 5-m (r =
–.22), 10-m (r = .07), and 30-m (r = .23) straight sprints.11
Conversely, Gabbett et al12 found significant correlations
(range r = .52–.73) between straight-sprint (5-m, 10-m,
20-m) and COD-sprint tests (L-run test, 505 test, modified 505 test) in male rugby players. In young basketball
players (12–14 y), Jakovljevic et al13 reported statistically
significant correlations, from low to moderate (range r
= .37–.62), between straight-sprint (20-m, 30-m, 50-m)
and COD-sprint tests (T-test, zigzag agility, agility run
4 × 15-m).
In the literature, the COD performance of rugby players (both adult and young) has frequently been assessed
by means of field tests such as the L run, 505, modified
505, and Illinois Agility run,12,14–16 all of which consist
of COD with a 90° or 180° angle. Nevertheless, none
of these studies considered the analysis of the technical
execution during a change of direction task, since they
investigated only the time required to perform the tests.
Thus, this study had a double purpose: to evaluate
the relationship between straight- and COD-sprint tests
and the technical execution of the COD task in relation
to the different age categories of rugby players.
Methods
Experimental Design
The current study used a cross-sectional experimental
design to evaluate straight- and COD-sprint performances
of young team-sport athletes. We asked whether the
relationship between them could be confirmed in young
rugby players as previously demonstrated in adult rugby12
and young basketball13 players.
In the current study, a COD test with two 60° changes
of direction was run along a path of 15 m. The reason
we chose an angle of 60° reflects the characteristics of
rugby performance, since this team sport has the aim to
carry the ball forward, with players being able to avoid
an opponent and go ahead toward the in-goal area. Moreover, this angle has been used in previous investigation
in team-sport players.1
In addition, based on the description of developmental agility strategy,7 all COD performances were classified in 1 of 2 types of technical execution: “rounded” or
“sharp.”
Subjects
Young male rugby players (N = 157, age 8–19 y) belonging to one of the most prestigious youth Italian rugby
clubs (Unione Rugby Capitolina, Rome) were recruited
for this study. The entire sample was split into 6 youth
age categories (U9, U11, U13, U15, U17, U19) based on
those used by the Italian Rugby Federation.
Before data collection, the university ethical committee approved the study, and written informed consent
was obtained from parents and individual subjects.
Methodology
The testing sessions took place on artificial turf, with
the participants wearing rugby shoes, at the same time
of the day (4 PM) with temperature between 20°C and
24°C, humidity between 55% and 60%, and light winds
and no rain.
All subjects performed a first session to practice the
tests and become familiar with the procedures, followed
by the experimental session during which a 15-m straight
sprint (15SS) and a 15-m sprint with two 60° changes of
direction (15COD) were executed.
Before each session, the subjects received a verbal
explanation of the experimental procedures and performed a 15-minute standardized warm-up involving
general running, shuffling, and multidirectional movements and a submaximal trial of the test.
For the 15SS, the subjects began in a standing position with their preferred foot forward and the front toe
on a start line. Once ready, they sprinted as fast as possible to the stop line. The same starting procedure was
used for the 15COD. Once ready, the subjects sprinted
throughout a 15-m zigzag path performing two 60°
changes of direction, one to right and one to left, each
around a 1.25-m-high pole.
The sprinting time was measured to the nearest 0.01
second by means of a dual infrared reflex photoelectriccell system (Polifemo, Microgate, Bolzano, Italy).
Subjects performed 2 trials for each test with 3-minute
rests between trials, and the best score was used for the
statistical analysis.
Moreover, the 15COD trial was recorded by an HD
video camera (Sony HDR-FX7E, Tokyo, Japan, 50 Hz)
placed in front of the players’ direction 500 cm after the
finish line at a height of 90 cm. Once recorded, the footage was analyzed to examine the technical execution of
the 2 changes of direction by means of video-analysis
software (Dartfish TeamPro, Switzerland). Following
the idea of Vescovi,7 the 2 technical-execution patterns
were identified as rounded (when a subject performed a
COD task adopting a slalom running not too close the
pole) and sharp (when a subject performed a COD task
adopting quick coupling of braking and accelerating,
changing direction very close the pole).
Statistical Analysis
Data were first presented as mean ± SD. The distribution
of each variable was examined for the assumption of
normality with the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test.
A univariate ANOVA was conducted to investigate
differences between the 6 age categories for the 15SS
and 15COD tests. Tukey honestly significant difference
(HSD) was used for post hoc analysis. A Levene test for
equality of variances was applied. Moreover, the differences in performance between the previous and following
age categories were calculated to verify the difference in
percentage of sprinting time (Δ%), with a negative Δ%
value meaning a decrease in the sprinting time and a
positive one meaning an increase.
54 Condello et al
Correlations between 15SS and 15COD tests were
calculated using Pearson correlation coefficients (r). A
chi-square test was applied to verify differences between
groups for the technical executions of the directional
change.
category that the performances were characterized by a
prevalence of rounded executions, while those in the U17
and U19 categories performed mainly sharp executions
(Table 4).
Discussion
Results
Descriptive statistics with number of subjects for each
age category and CVs of the COD test (%) are presented
in Table 1. The ANOVA for 15SS and 15COD tests
showed significant differences between age categories
(P < .0001). Post hoc analysis confirmed differences
between age categories, with a continuous increase in
15SS performance with age, while a nonlinear progression of the 15COD performance was evident. This trend
was confirmed when difference in performance between
the previous and following age categories (Δ%) was
considered (Table 2).
Analysis of correlations (Table 3) between the 15SS
and 15COD tests revealed significant correlations (P <
.01) for every age category (range: r = .55– .90), as well
as for the pooled sample (r = .75).
The chi-square test indicated a significant difference for categories (P < .0001), showing up to the U15
Table 1 Results of Sprinting Tests (Mean ±
SD) for Each Age Category
Category
n
15SS (s)
15COD (s)
CV(%)
U9
25
3.37 ± 0.21*
4.23 ± 0.37*
8.8
U11
24
3.34 ± 0.27*
4.44 ± 0.39*
8.9
U13
55
3.10 ± 0.22*
3.96 ± 0.29*
7.4
U15
26
2.78 ± 0.21*
3.76 ± 0.23*
6.0
U17
13
2.76 ± 0.15*
3.96 ± 0.23*
5.7
U19
14
2.69 ± 0.11*
3.96 ± 0.14*
3.6
Abbreviations: 15SS, 15-m straight sprint; 15COD, 15-m sprint test
with 2 changes of direction; CV(%), coefficient of variation for the
15COD.
Accelerations, decelerations, and COD on short distances
are critical motor skills for team-sport players. Moreover,
agility is a complex task that requires a combination
of technical features, coordination skills, and physical
qualities.
The main findings of this study were that the 15SS
and 15COD performances showed a different progression
in relation to age categories, the 15SS and 15COD tests
were significantly correlated, and the COD executions
were strongly influenced by age, with the younger players
performing rounded executions compared with the sharp
ones of the older players.
Generally speaking, the improvement of sprinting
time could be expected to be linearly related with the age
categories. The time should become gradually shorter
with increasing age. However, in our study this was the
case only for the 15SS. In fact, the straight-sprint test
showed a clear trend with a continuous increase in performance (the older the age, the shorter the time), with
a higher negative value of Δ% between U13 and U15
Table 3 Correlation Coefficients Between
Sprinting Tests
Category
r (P)
U9
.55 (.004)*
U11
.90 (.001)*
U13
.77 (.001)*
U15
.63 (.001)*
U17
.90 (.001)*
U19
.72 (.003)*
Pooled sample
.75 (.001)*
*P < .01.
*P < .01.
Table 2 Differences in Performance Between
the Previous and Following Age Category
Categories
15SS (Δ%)
15COD (Δ%)
U9 and U11
–0.6
+4.9
U11 and U13
–7.9
–12.0
U13 and U15
–11.6
–5.3
U15 and U17
–0.7
+5.0
U17 and U19
–2.7
0
Abbreviations: 15SS, 15-m straight sprint; 15COD, 15-m sprint test
with 2 changes of direction. –Δ% means a decrease in the sprinting
time; +∆% means an increase in sprinting time.
Table 4 Chi-Square Test Between the
Rounded and Sharp Executions
Category
Rounded
Sharp
U9
24
1
U11
18
6
U13
42
13
U15
16
10
U17
3
10
U19
3
11
Total
106
51
Note: Significant differences between age categories, P < .0001.
Agility Evaluation in Young Rugby Players 55
(–11.6%). On the other hand, the test involving COD
revealed a different picture, characterized by up and
down Δ% values, with negative values between U11 to
U13 and U13 to U15 (–12% and –5.3%, respectively). It
can be speculated that this trend of performance improvement, although it cannot be sustained in this study by
specific data, could be influenced by aspects of growth
and maturation. In fact, the improvements registered for
both the straight and the COD performances are consistent with those found in young soccer players,17–20 for
whom studies reported an approximately age period from
13.5 to 14.5 years during which an increase in physical
performances (ie, speed, agility, explosive power, aerobic
endurance, anaerobic capacity) is reasonable.
Conversely, the COD performance did not show
any improvement between U15 to U17 and U17 to U19
(Δ%: +5% and 0%, respectively). These findings are
supported by the results of Spencer et al,21 who showed
how the performance of 14- to 16-year-old players could
be negatively influenced by disproportional growth and
disruption of motor coordination in complex motorcoordination tasks (agility and jumping) compared with
simpler tasks (straight sprint). After the age of 18, performance can become better again.21
This study analyzed the relationship between
straight- and COD-sprint abilities. All the age categories
reported significant correlations (P < .01), with the lowest
correlation showed by U9 (r = .55) and the highest by
U11 and U17 (r = .90). In addition, when the sample
was pooled the analysis of correlation confirmed a high
significant value (r = .75, P = .01). These results are consistent with those of Gabbett et al12 in adult male rugby
players and by Jakovljevic et al13 in youth basketball
players between straight-sprint and COD-sprint tests.
Furthermore, these relationships could be explained by
the choice to fix the angle of COD of this study at 60°,
which confirms the idea of Young et al,8 who argued
that the greater the change in direction angle the less the
skills have in common. In fact, the use of field tests to
explore COD ability in team sports presents some limitations due to the number of changes of direction and time
duration required to perform the single trial of the test.22
Moreover, the choice of a COD test with a 90° or 180°
angle does not reflect the real performance of team-sport
players, since it has been shown that most directional
changes performed during Australian football, soccer,
basketball, netball, and field hockey games are between
0° and 90°.23–26 Similarly, the aim of the rugby game is to
avoid an opponent and go ahead toward the in-goal area.
For these reasons in this study a COD test with two 60°
changes of direction was used.
The current study introduced an overall investigation of a test of COD performance, considering not only
time but also the analysis of technical execution of COD
movements. Based on the approach to developing agility,7
2 types of technical execution were identified: rounded
and sharp. When the entire sample of this study was
evaluated, rounded executions were more prevalent than
sharp ones (67.5% and 32.5%, respectively). However,
considering the age categories, there was a prevalence of
rounded executions from U9 to U15 (rounded 77%, sharp
23%), while the U17 and U19 performed more sharp ones
(rounded 23%, sharp 77%). The results of this study are
in line with those of Vescovi,7 who suggested that up to
13 years of age, agility training should focus primarily
on rounded CODs.
Although a sharp movement in adult athletes can be
considered advantageous in real play (ie, a quick COD
can enhance overall performance in both proactive offensive and reactive defensive actions), for younger athletes
in the early periods of a multiyear youth training plan,
rounded COD movements should be emphasized for
reasons of safety, injury prevention, and lack of a high
level of physical qualities.7
Consequently, it could be speculated that evaluation
of the results of a test with CODs requires interpretation with reference to the overall age of the player. In
particular, with young athletes, analysis of COD technical execution could yield more information than just
performance time.
Practical Applications
Coaches and physical trainers should keep in mind, in
their efforts to improve both straight- and COD-sprint
abilities, the stages of youth athletic development, to
provide appropriate exercise directions that will help
young athletes enhance their mastery in agility performance. The differences in COD execution highlighted
in this study, with more frequent occurrence of rounded
movements in the early age categories and more sharp
movements in the late age categories, suggest a different training approach. Performing rounded COD should
include basic arm and leg movements and timing and
rhythmic drills, executed mainly in a planned condition
(ie, weaving between a set of linear cones, learning how
to stop and restart). Sharp COD execution should be
achieved by increasing the running speed and difficulty
of the exercises, implementing unplanned drills to provide reactive abilities, and finally instructing in proper
acceleration and deceleration mechanics.
Conclusions
In conclusion, this study demonstrated the relationship
between straight- and COD-sprint abilities. These findings are in accordance with those obtained by Gabbett et
al12 in rugby players, and they disagree with those found
in other team-sport players,8–11 confirming the need for
further investigation to clarify a sport-specific influence.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the young
rugby athletes who participated in the study and to the Unione
Rugby Capitolina Club for its assistance in the organization of
the experimental sessions.
56 Condello et al
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