2 MUSIC IN THE NATlONAl
CURRICULUM
The arts depend on experiment and discovery. There may well be less
successful moments or even 'failures' but, given time, these always lead to
invigorating successes. Through experimentation, all children learn, create
and share for the benefit of all.
2 Music in thenationalcurriculum
In September 1992, the music Order for key stages 1, 2 and 3 was
introduced. Two attainment targets were agreed upon - Performing and
Composing, and Listening and Appraising (Wales retains three attainment
targets by separating performing and composing).
The revised music subject Orders (DFE, 1995) left the subject content
essentially unaffected. The two attainment targets were retained, as was
the 2:l weighting in favour of Performing and Composing; and this is
reflected in the structure of the Order. The importance of integrating the
two attainment targets also continues to be emphasised: 'Pupils'
understanding and enjoyment of music should be developed through
activities that bring together requirements from both Performing and
Composing and Listening and Appraising.' (DFE, 1995, p. 106)
There is an implicit acknowledgement in the structure of the music Order
that much of music education is concerned with revisiting similar
concepts with a greater degree of understanding, skill and sophistication
(spiral curriculum). Thus there are common programme of study
statements across each key stage. Furthermore, progression across the
stages is clearly indicated by means of the direct relationship between
those statements bearing the same name in each key stage. (See DFE,
1995, pp. lO6-1II.)
3 Performing and composing (AT1)
We aim to encourage children to listen, concentrate and to explore sound.
Games are a good springboard in all areas of the curriculum. They dispel
any fear of exposure or of making a fool of yourself and they are fun - an
all-important ingredient of music.
3.1 Circle games
,
Sitting in a circle either on the floor or on chairs creates a sharing
atmosphere and allows eye contact and equality.
Most games are based on listening, copying, guessing and creating. Some
are variations on other well tried games like 'Simon says'.
A seftling-downgame
1 Start a regular pulse with a tambour (a small hand drum), or use a
metronome.
2 Ask the circle to breathe in for eight beats; hold the breath for four;
expel for six; hold for four, and then start again.
7
3
After a while, stop the drum beat and continue the activity using an
internal beat.
This simple exercise (Ellis, P. 1993) calms and concentrates. It also
introduces silence, which is a fundamental part of music.
Extend the exercise by varying the instrument used for the beat. Children
may take turns to provide the beat and select the instrument, which may
be a sound-maker brought from home, e.g. a piece of wood or metal or a
made instrument.
Games can be mod.ified and evolved into new games. For example, the
beat can be vocalised with a word or a name: John, John, Mary, Mary, etc.
The pulse can be expressed with body sounds:
1
:z
3
4
thigh
lap
clap
thigh
hand
hand
tap
clap
floor
rap
floor
rap
shhh!
shhh!
Most published music schemes, text books and course books include
games, e.g. Dr: Knickerbocker, Thompson and Winfield, 1984 (see
Figure 1).
3.2 Music collage
A collage is a work of art in which various materials are arranged and
glued to a backing - a collection of loosely related objects. In musical
terms, it is an opportunity to collect together and arrange a variety of
sounds.
It will be possible to describe these basic materials in the terms used for
the musical elements on pages 106 and 108 in the national curriculum
document:
(a) pitch
(b) duration
(c) dynamics
(dl tempo
(e) timbre
(f) texture, and the use of these within (g) structure.
The collage can be started as a whole-class activity. For example:
1 In a circle, ask the class to think of a sound they can make with their
bodies or voices.
2
3
Devise a system of signals. For example, the hand is raised from the
side to start the sound very quietly. As the hand rises higher the
volume increases, as it lowers the volume decreases. Drop the hand to
the side to stop the improvisation.
Record the sounds created so that the class can hear the fascinating
music they are making.
So far our composition has been totally free: a choice of sounds moulded
into a structure. Now let's look at using scales - a collection of pitched
notes - to create tunes or motifs. This can be approached by simply giving
the child an instrument and letting them have a go. However, there are
certain scales which will give a more encouraging quick result and will
also be easier to provide with an accompaniment.
The pentatonic scde
This is the traditional pentatonic (five-note) scale starting on the note C:
C D E G A C D E C;A ... etc.
Tuned percussion instruments in schools are all marked clearly with letter
names. You do not need to be able to read traditional notation.
A C T I V I T Y
3
Take a tuned percussion instrument like a xylophone, a metallophone, a
glockenspiel or a set of chime bars and remove the bars which do not form
part of the scale, i.e. all the Bs and Fs (see Figure 3).
Then invent tunes using the notes of the scale. It is a good policy to begin and
end on the first note of the scale, C.
FIGURE 3
A xylophone: for the pentatonic scale remove F and B
The fascinating property of this scale is that all the notes sound well
together, so a tapestry of sound can be built up repeating short motifs.
This effect can then be used as an accompaniment for the tune. Use the
circle idea to get this going because space is an important medium in
music and allows the performers to hear more clearly. The following
example is an illustration using word rhythms from colours to start the
process.
3 PERFORMINGAND COMPOSING
/AT 1 I
Sitting in a circle, start a pulse with tambour or metronome and devise
some word rhythms, e.g.
Red, green
Yellow, purple
Blue.
Get the whole class to whisper the words to establish that 'Red, green'
is a walking rhythm, 'Yellow, purple' is a running rhythm and 'Blue' is
a long note.
Divide the class into three groups: each has one line each and answers
one another.
Replace some of the whisperers with untuned percussion: drums,
claves, guiro, vibra-slap etc.
Finally, get a few to select some notes from the pentatonic scale to go
with the rhythm, e.g.
Red, green
Yellow, purple
Blue
AD
EGAG
C
(see Figure 4).
When this pattern is established, make it as quiet as possible so that the
added tune can be heard. A useful tip is to use the piano. Arrange for the
notes to be labelled as they are on the tuned percussion. It is an
enormous thrill for a child to be playing the 'big' piano!
Your classroom should have a music table or comer on which can be
found interesting sound-makers. Develop the pentatonic session by
leaving one prepared, tuned instrument on the music table for children in
pairs or individually to invent their tunes during a mixed-activity session
or at another suitable time. Not only will this give every child a chance to
compose, but it opens up possibilities for them to share their new found
expertise. An example of children's first attempt at this activity is given in
the section on cross-curricular projects (see Figures 12 and 13). (In this
case, some of the year 2 children felt they were ready for notation and
surprised me by expressing their tunes in a simple notation.)
FIGURE 4
Word rhythms in traditional notation
13
The wholetone scale
All the notes of this scale work well together and create a more 'magical'
sound than the pentatonic scale. There is not so much variety but, as a
change, it is fascinating. You will need to use some of the 'black' notes for
this scale:
C D E F sharp (#) G sharp (#) B flat (b) C (see Figure 5).
The raga
Indian music uses many hundreds of scales or ragas, all of which have
special meanings and expression. For our purposes, they are a stimulating
way to explore another type of musical language. This is one example:
c c sharp (#)
E G G sharp (#) C (see Figure 5).
For the raga add a drone accompaniment, just Cs and Gs with some small
cymbals or triangles and a drum beat or two.
A C T IV I T Y
4
Use your percussion instrument to compose a tune with the notes of the whole
tone scale and/or the raga. Add untuned percussion and words.
3.4 Singing
All our lives are saturated with singing: in the bath, at church, at the
football stadium, in the pub, at the local choral society. Singing permeates
all styles of music: from popular to classical, through jazz, musicals, opera,
folk music etc. It is, like all music, therapeutic, sociable, and challenging.
Singing is cheap. It must form a major part of school music-making. (We
have already considered vocal music earlier in this section.)
Everyone can sing. Never tell anyone they cannot sing. How many sad
people have you met who were told by a thoughtless teacher that they
were unable to sing, and for evermore considered themselves unmusical!
FIGURE 5
Xylophone:for the wholetone scale remove C#, D#
F#, A, A# and B
F, G, A and B; for the raga remove D, D#, F,
3 PERFORMING AND COMPOSING
PI]
The fact is that most people are capable singers and everyone can get an
enormous amount of pleasure from singing. In her excellent chapter on
singing, Janet Mills quotes from Arnold Bentley (1968) who '...in a
substantial questionnaire survey of British schools, found that roughly 25%
of 7 year old boys and 11% of 7 year old girls were reported by their
teachers to lack "co-incidence at the unison" (that is, could not sing the
same note in tune at the same time as others). By the age of 12, the figures
for boys and girls had reduced to about 7% and 1% respectively' (Mills,
1991, p. 63). This reinforces the importance of encouragement, regular
practice and experience and also reminds us of the spiral nature of
musical development.
It has already been suggested that we use our voices as part of composing
in the collage, but the scales can be used as the basis for early singing
exercises.
In the pentatonic scale, take the notes G and E and sing them as a question
and answer. Use your hand to indicate the shape of the two notes, higher for
G and lower for E. This can be the start for a whole series of signs for the
scale.
The Curwen system of hand signs uses this technique. (I use a series of larger
arm signs which are enjoyed by year 1 and 2 children especially (see Figure
6).)Do not worry about the intricacies of the Curwen system at this stage.
Enjoy singing the scale with the signs or simply use the signs for the notes G
and E (Soh and Me).
1
doh c
2
ray
D
3
me E
5
soh
6
lah A
7
te
G
FIGURE 6
Hand signs for the pentatonic scale
B
4
8.
fah
F
doh c
A C T I V I T Y
5
15
,
MUSIC
I start sessions on singing with students, who maybe consider themselves
in the 'generalist' music group, by asking them if they know a song. Very
quickly we find one: that everybody knows. I then simply say, 'let's sing it'.
And the extraordinaq thing is that, within a second, everybody is singing
along at the same pitch and speed. There is no need for any 'specialist'
intervention.
The same approach can be taken with children. This should start to take
the fear out of the activity, a fear that many teachers confess to feeling.
The reception class will know songs as well as later years. Sing at all times
with the early years. Try singing the register. Sing when there are a few
spare moments instead of playing a game or telling a story. Use finger
rhymes to develop rhythmic and language skills.
The first song
Let us suppose that the first song they all want to sing is 'London's
burning'. How should you go about it?
1 Ensure the pitch of the song is comfortable for everyone. Generally,
this means not pitching it too high. If you start as suggested
previously, a comfortable pitch should automatically be set.
2
Improve the diction by whispering the words in time. Encourage the
children to enjoy exaggerating their vowels and consonants by using
their mouths more dramatically.
3
Remind them to smile before they start singing; to take full breaths
without hunching the shoulders; to sit up straight. If sitting on a chair,
they should feel their backs coming closer to the chair when they
breath in.
How can we add more to this performance?
4 Start by clapping the pulse while they sing.
5 Transfer this to a drum.
6 Add a rhythm taken from the words of the song. For example, add
'Fetch the engines', and repeat it as an ostinato on the wood block
and the claves (some of the class could whisper the words with the
wood block).
7 Add another rhythm, 'Fire, fire', on the triangle or the tambourine. The
whole piece becomes a full scale composition and all the class are
involved.
Figure 7 shows the process so far. Note that it also includes some capital
letters, which indicate the chords that the guitarist uses to accompany the
song.
Use the capital 1ett.ersto provide a simple bass line. Play and repeat G or
D when indicated on any pitched instrument. (If some of the children are
learning to play an instrument, maybe the recorder or the violin, ask them
if they can play those notes and let them join in. It is important to include
such skills to avoid these children seeing classroom music as something
different from their weekly tuition on an instrument. Also, encourage them
to contribute to the composing sessions on their instruments.)
3 PERFORMINGAND COMPOSJNG
/AT 1 l
FIGURE 7
London's burning
So far, so good. We have a full accompaniment without any need for the
ability to read traditional notation.
'London's burning' demonstrates that songs can lead to and develop from
other curriculum areas. For example, subjects such as the Fire of London,
the danger of fire, how fire is used, the fireman, myths about how fire
touches on history (Tudors and Stuarts), science, PSE, the environment,
and religious education. Always consider the words and subject of a song
as carefully as the tune.
'London's burning' is a round, so it can be used as a beginning for part
singing.
A popular and creative way to use known songs is to adapt them by
writing your own words. Examples of this can be found in an excellent
series of books for children with special needs by Jan Holdstock
(Earwiggo, 1986), and in Mills (1991, p. 66). Try inventing words to
'London's burning'. Instantly you have the song to fit the topic you are
working on. The children can write their own words, or it can be a class
activity similar to the class story. For example:
Sunny weather, sunny weather.
Let's go swimming, let's go swimming.
Oh dear! Oh dear!
Water's freezing, water's freezing.
17
Extending the accompaniment
So far there has been little to confuse or frighten the newcomer. This next
section should be eilsy to grasp but, if it causes any confusion, move on to
the next heading.
The capital letters aver the music in songs indicate the chords that the
guitarist will play to provide the harmony for an accompaniment. We have
already usedthe letter on its own to provide a simple bass line for
'London's burning'. It is possible to work out the other two notes required
to convert it into a triad - namely, a three-note chord.
A C T I V I T Y
6
As an example, use 'London's burning' and a tuned percussion instrument.
Find the note written above the tune, in this case G. Call that number one and
count to the right for five notes:
Then delete the second and fourth note, leaving:
Play them together, cind you have the chord of G maior.
It is essential to look at the key signature to be certain you have selected the
correct notes. In Figure 8, the key signature has one sharp (#).This is placed
on the note F and indicates that all the Fs are F sharp in this piece. So for our
next chord, using D as the first note, count to the right:
D
E
F sharp (#)
G
A
Delete the second and fourth notes, leaving
D
F sharp (#)
A
Play the three notes together, and you have the chord of D maior.
Three children can group round the tuned instrument to play the chords,
when indicated in the song, or use the chime bars to make up the chord,
giving one each to the children. For the two chords in 'London's burning',
you use six chi1dre:n.Again, ask the children with special instrumental
skills if they are able to contribute by playing the notes for the
accompaniment on. their instrument.
It is good practice t.o space the performers out so that they can hear better
and be directed more clearly (see the example in Figure 8).
3 PERFORMING AND COMPOSING
(AT I J
rhythm A
'fetch the en ines'
wood block~claves
xylophone plays
glockenspiel plays
G
G+D
+D
rhythm B
'fire fire'
triangle/tambourine
12 instrument players leaving c. 23 singers
FIGURE 8
Performancespacing
Electric keyboards
Information technology offers music many useful and creative
opportunities (more about this later). At this stage, it is worth looking at
the accompanying facility provided by most keyboards.
Select the chord function and use the capital letters referred to previously
to automatically create the chord. You will be able to vary the speed and
the type of sound and also make a rhythmic beat, if you think it will fit the
song.
It is unwise to depend on this at the expense of the children playing their
own instrumental parts. Think of the analogy of frozen or cook-chill food
to good, old fashioned and creative home cooking! Try combining the two
techniques.
There are a great many keyboards of all shapes, sizes and cost from as
many manufacturers. It is difficult to select or to recommend one
keyboard, but to further illustrate the preceding paragraphs, the following
procedure is based on a Yamaha PSR 150 (see Figure 9a).
Turn the switch to STYLE (see Figure 9b).
Select one of the forty-nine styles (listed above the keys) via the
number pad to the right of the switch (see Figure 9b).
Select the chord letter you require (on the left hand side of the
keyboard) by depressing the appropriate key, i.e, for 'London's
burning', G (see Figure 9c). The machine will automatically give you
an accompaniment with full drum kit backing.
As the chord symbols change, select the capital letters you need, i.e.
for 'London's burning', G and D. If you need a minor chord, select the
capital letter key and also depress the black key to the left of it.
If desired, the tune can be played with the keys on the right hand side of
the keyboard. The voice for this can be varied by selecting VOICE with
the switch (see Figure 9b).
Tempo (speed) and volume (loudness) can be adjusted using the labelled
switch pads beneath the number pad (see Figure 9b).
19
3 PERFORMING AND COMPOSING
/AT 1 l
Song books and the BBC
You may now be slightly worried by some of the things you've been
reading. For example, you may be thinking that without the ability to read
or hear music notation, there is no hope for you to learn new songs. The
quick answer is to get a friend, colleague or the school music co-ordinator
to teach them to you, or to record them on cassette. Many publishers
include a tape with their song or course books. The BBC broadcast regular
school music programmes which comprehensively cover the needs of the
music curriculum. The song material can be used in other contexts from the
programme itself and acts as a useful taped resource.
Remember: nothing can replace the impact and enjoyment generated by
live music, listened to or created. Therefore, vary the techniques to avoid
music becoming just another part of the media that bombards young ears
for most of their lives.
Song repertoire
Section 3 in the national curriculum programme of study states that:
The repertoire chosen for Performing and Listening should extend pupils'
musical experience and knowledge, and develop their appreciation of the
richness of our diverse cultural heritage. It should include music in a variety
of styles:
(a) from different times and cultures, e.g. from the European 'classical'
tradition; folk and popular music; the countries and regions of the British
Isles; cultures across the world;
(b) by well known composers and performers, past and present.
A large number of song and course books covering these requirements is
available (see 'Reading and resource books' and Appendix 4). The
following categories, some of which overlap, will help to stimulate
choices:
songs from around the world and that celebrate festivals from different
cultures;
English, Irish, Welsh and Scottish folk songs;
popular songs from 1900 to the present day, including music hall
songs and musicals;
work songs, including canal and railway songs and sea shanties;
songs about everyday life and school, e.g. counting songs, songs
about yourself and the family;
religious songs and hymns.
3.5 Music and information technology
The possibilities for musical creativity offered by the computer and its
related hardware and software are difficult to exaggerate, but it would be
true to say also that it is a field in which the quick fix is all too easy. It
should not be used only to mimic the conventional sound-makers, but to
sharpen and invigorate our whole conception of sound.
21
1 Start with a microphone plugged in to the school hi-fi system. Simple
2
3
sounds are transformed; vocal sounds have much more variety; and
the problem of audibility is overcome.
Record the sounds.
Play back, but add live sounds to the recorded material. This is the
beginning of multi-track recording.
Four-track recorders are much cheaper now and worth their weight in
gold for music and drama sessions. But it is worth looking in the
cupboard for an old reel-to-reel recorder with variable speeds. You can
then record a s0un.d at one speed and play it back at a faster or slower
speed to create astonishing results, or make a tape loop which will repeat
a pattern over and over again.
Sound processors, sequencers and keyboards do the same sort of thing
using digital technology. Software is readily available to enable the
computer to become a processor and sequencer, and it can be linked to a
keyboard or synthesiser. Indeed all of this equipment can be linked
together using MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface).
If you tell a story using a microphone through a sound processor and
amplifier, it is easy to achieve all sorts of special effects: echo, delay,
repeat, pitch variation, crescendo, diminuendo. Characterisation,
atmosphere and drama can be heightened. Vocal and instrumental sounds
can be given infinite variation. By using the same controls as described in
the sub-section on music collage, structure can be added to create real
musical composition.
Keyboards like the PSR 150 can be used for composing traditional and
electro-acoustic music. Some have specially prepared effects already
programmed into them. For example, the PSR 150 has train, sea, animal
and bird effects.
There is a good variety of computer programmes designed to help
children read music notation. But, more creative than these, are
programmes that allow the pupils to explore the new sounds of electroacoustic music. Try the programme Designing Sound (Ellis, 1993) and its
accompanying book. With a school computer and a keyboard, a whole
world of new music technology can be explored without the need for
traditional music training skills. The handbook is simple to understand
and includes very useful suggestions for curriculum development.
Listening and appraising (AT4
The programmes of study link the two attainment targets closely at all
stages.
4 . 7 Linking AT 7
to AT2
It is important to let the listening/appraising grow out of the practical
work, as well as stand on its own. For example, following a session on
pentatonic improvisation (as described earlier), play a piece which uses a