ISSN 1392-3110
Socialiniai tyrimai / Social Research. 2013. Nr. 1 (30), 5–15
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University of Pécs, Faculty of Hummanities, Department of Political Studies
E-mail: [email protected]
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expected the emergence of the application of the
so-called ‘entrepreneurial model of government’
or network governance2 since they thought that
it is not possible to evade the application of the
requirement of performance. This way might permit
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other specialists committed themselves to the neoliberal paradigm of good governanceRUNew Public
Management (public management) advocating the
dominance of the market over the state. The common
point of these two paradigms is their intention to
implement management approaches adopted in the
business (mainly private) sector in practice. The
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on the one hand and the crises of the welfare state
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administration and public services but also a radical
rethinking of the relationship between the state and
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The good government paradigm has appeared
in contrast with the neo-liberal trend. The good
government paradigm is based on the principles of
the central state (development focused stateOLDELOLW\
and accountability. The good government is therefore
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maintain an impartial and transparent management of
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policy space based on the symbiotic relationship
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sub-national governmental levels. Several theories
The main objective of this study is to analyze
and point out the most important institutional and
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the Hungarian self-government system as the element of
the system of government. The study makes an attempt to
present the direction of the development of the Hungarian
local government system in terms of centralisation
vs. decentralisation and also of the paradigm of good
governance after the regime change. This analysis is
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regulations concerning the local governments.
The aim of this study is to present the above
mentioned topic through changes in the Hungarian selfJRYHUQPHQWV\VWHP)RUWKLV¿UVWO\WKHVWXG\LQWURGXFHV
a theoretical framework and its adaptation to Hungary.
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government system. The study also gives a summary of the
main elements of the changes implemented after 2010. In
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provides the assessment of the direction and the content of
the changes based on the political science criterion.
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Public administration and local government
reforms in Europe over the last decades are basically
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of public services.
There is a discussion in the international
specialist circles what the most suitable model of
governance is to respond to often changing challenges
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cultural and development issues. A lot of specialists
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governments are combined with complementary social systems.
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administration reform took a new direction in the
early 2000s. The cause for this was the succession
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reason for the change of view consisted in the fact
that the smaller and cheaper states were not able to
provide effective solutions to the above mentioned
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paradigm’ accordingly emphasizes strengthening of
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and administrative consultations and also spreading
of the result oriented approach.
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state organization has cyclically but continuously
increased. The real de-nationalization did not
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of the government decreased. This phenomenon
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people were squeezed out of the commercial sector. In
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not characterised by massive unemployment. That is
because a large proportion of the former employees
of the competitive sector were transferred to the so
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for that reason governance and the government
(almost in Hungary) may not be clearly opposed to
each other: these notions should be compared to the
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modern market economy. It means that the aim does
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accordance with the position of Professor Tamás
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The study focuses on the following question:
How could the paradigms of good-governance and
good government appear in the last 20 years in the
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above-mentioned paradigms in relation to the Local
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analysis is to introduce some characteristics of this
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shall attempt to provide essentially the institution
based interpretation of local governance.
have been elaborated in the last thirty years for the
interpretation and analysis of the functioning of
this special integration. One of these approaches
is the “multi-level governance paradigm” which
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other theories in the analysis and the placement of
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is understandable since this governance does not call
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perceptible: mutual dependence on the other actors
of a globalized world and also on sub-national and
non-governmental organizations.
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concept of governance indicates a substantive shift
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requirement appears: the rule of law is expected to be
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management of public administration and public
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the above mentioned theories. 7KHSURJUDP0DJ\DU\3
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concerning the recent period and the future. In the
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two decades two timely clearly distinct tendencies
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to reform linked to the neo-liberal paradigm and to the
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mentioned paradigm. The most important realization
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public sector has strengthened. The main objectives
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integration of regulation solutions of the market in
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adoption of the requirement for performance and
result orientation.
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the role of the state in order to strengthen the state.
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legal conditions set forth in the Constitution and the
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(municipalities as well as counties) have broad
responsibilities for providing services (mandatory
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and entrepreneurial activities) with a high degree
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activities).
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JRYHUQPHQW ZKLFK DGGV XS WR PRUH WKDQ municipalities. Therefore the Hungarian system
of local governance should be considered as an
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population size per municipality is 3100 inhabitants.
Decentralized local governance has not had
strong traditions in Hungary. Not only there was the
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previous periods of state development.
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facilitate the so-called devolutionary processes which
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the legislature awarded the constitutional rank and
Table 1
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Sub-national governmental levels5
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but have also county-level rights. It means that
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municipalities with the exclusion of the cities of the
county rank.
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governance in the above sense. Sub-regions are the
units positioned between local governments and the
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of local governments to provide particular tasks.
The other important level is regions. Hungary is
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a number of counties. Regions are assigned to deal
with problems that cannot be managed at the county
level. Since 2000 the governments have been active to
delegate more and more competencies the to regions;
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(see Annex 1) Hungary is extensively structured
horizontally as well as vertically. The vertical structure
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horizontal structure follows from separation of four
Local governments are the basic units of the
territorial political system. Self-governance is the
basic constitutional right of every local community
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right to control their life.
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local level of the self-governance system. These local
governments are legally equal.
The second or middle level consists of the
counties. 19 Hungarian counties have their own
independent local government. The metropolitan
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a juxtaposed relationship between the municipalities
and the county governments and the same applies
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entitled to rule or control the settlements or districts
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The cities of the county rank are uniquely
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Including the districts of the capital.
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possess almost as comprehensive tasks as the local
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cities with hundred thousands of inhabitants have
the same comprehensive tasks as small villages of
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local governments are predominantly bodies with
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comprehensive tasks of services. The mid-level
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a comprehensive task system of public services
of the Northern European character is built on the
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is characterized by a settlement structure of the high
proportion of settlements with a small number of
inhabitants.
The Hungarian system of governments belongs
to the so-called group of governments with wide
responsibilities which possess general authorization.
The examination carried out in connection with
the comprehensive scopes of duties and competencies
by the 6WDWH $XGLW 2I¿FH EHWZHHQ DQG stated that most of the governments had not surveyed
or assessed available sources of power regarding what
tasks they could undertake among their obligatory
and voluntarily ones. This was a general occurrence
that the governments only refer to their structure and
work regulations of all rules which prescribe their
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connection with undertaking district or regional tasks
with the following difference: the local governments
were given the opportunity of choice and examination
in respect to carrying out or handling their tasks.
The county governments have experienced a lack of
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by the handover of institutions originally maintained
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that in the frittered settlement system with hardly
fewer than 3 200 the local authorities supported 12
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data of the Hungarian State Treasury of 1st-XO\
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The governments of Hungary are traditionally
characterized by supply of institution-centred public
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began to increase again after 2002 LQ VSLWH RI
important multiplication of associations. This number
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The scope of duties of the governments has
been increasing in the last 20 years. The primary
reason for that is that sectoral laws have got the right
to load the governments with obligatory tasks and to
expand the essence of tasks enumerated in the Act
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scopes of duties and competences on the governments
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of the 6WDWH$XGLW2I¿FH.9 This also means that it is
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of the governments. This particularly manifests itself
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proceedings or the procedure of paying debts.
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obligatory exercises through the regulation of
competences. The conditions of supply are defective
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society is lost thus the legitimacy of the system is
reduced. At the same time tasks could be transferred
from the governments to the state sector because
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failed to come about in concrete debates of task
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mid-level tasks that the state de-concentrated bodies
and institutions got authorization instead of the local
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of the sphere of the governments and they turned into
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Human public services have become supplied by
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development councils has become formal and their
competence for decisions has mostly been handed
over to the regional councils.
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The number of intermediate units reaches a hundred (approx.
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given year) is represented by the local taxes (this
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It means that the predominant majority of the local
tax burden is borne by enterprises. The local business
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dispersion regarding the forthcoming proportion of
the incomes of the governments from business taxes
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shows a big concentrationLH±RIWKHWRWDO
local business tax is concentrated at about one tenth
of the governments.
The share of expenses of the governments
VKRZVDFRQWLQXRXVGHFUHDVHWR*'311 in the way that
meanwhile no special decrease in tasks has happened.
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ascertain further obligatory tasks. These laws partly
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is not included in the normative state allocations.
The number of obligatory tasks of the governments
has not decreased but grown. At the same time the
governments are not provided with central resources
proportionally to growing tasks. This has resulted
in the following: the real value of expenses of the
governments has decreased by 10% in the last 13
years12 9tJYiUL S 7KH GHWHULRUDWLRQ RI
conditions of the governments is well indicated by
the fact that the resources of the governments in real
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current budget mostly from credits. The debt of the
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in the early decade of 2001. This number became
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it grew further in 2009 and has already exceeded
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growth of the total debt must be sought in the practice
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but important group with regard to budgetary and
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FRXQW\ULJKWVRQHSDUWRIFLWLHVFRXQW\JRYHUQPHQWV
The value of the bonds of the governments reached
KDUGO\+8)ELOOLRQ\HDUVDJRLQRSSRVLWH
WRWKLVWKHUHDO³ERRP´ZDVLQZKHQWKe value
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One of the consequences of the fragmented
settlement pattern is a lack of effectiveness. The
small settlements completely or partially miss
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strengthening of well-established decision making.
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not supported at all or are only partially supported
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which would be the preconditions for a high-quality
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are undersized compared to their tasks since the
bodies of representatives have no intention to spend
money on the development of human resources (Pfeil
,WPXVWKRZHYHUEHUHFRJQLVHGWKDWLQ
Hungary more than 20% of the annual budget of
WKH ORFDO JRYHUQPHQWV XQGHU LQKDELWDQWV DQG
more than 30% of the annual budget of the local
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E\ DGPLQLVWUDWLYH FRVWV 7RUPD S $W
SUHVHQWWKHORFDOJRYHUQPHQWVDUHRQHRIWKHELJJHVW
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we consider employees in different local government
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suffer from a lack of expertise required to supervise
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than 20% of the local governments operating schools
employ a public servant exclusively responsible for
education related questions.
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we shall observe an interesting occurrence as well.
Perhaps it is the most important to make it clear that
the Hungarian sponsoring system in the last 20 years
has moved from the direction of normativity towards
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have shown that the measure of normative funding
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The proportion of the income of the goverQPHQWVDPRXQWHGWRRIWKHFRPSOHWHLQFRPHRI
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,WZDVDSSUR[LPDWHO\DIWHUWKHFKDQJHRIWKHSROLWLFDOV\Vtem. Today it has decreased to 13%.
12
Ending in 2003.
9
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but they do it at the expense of their future obligations
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the local government sector should be taken under
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national economy was clearly demonstrated by the
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local government sector which destroyed the general
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the last year. In the same period the local government
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more than one twentieth of the total public debt.
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The current public sector balance continued to
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of territorial self-governance deteriorated because
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cities of the county rank and the local government of
the cities meant also diminution in real terms.
Financing problems of the local government
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JRYHUQPHQWVPHDQZKLOHFLW\JRYHUQPHQWVIURP
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100% with regard to the cities of the county rank and
by 92% with regard to the cities.
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credit at the end of 2010 will become effective from
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in a disadvantaged position through no fault of their own. The
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13
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and risk on the local governments because of the
variation of the exchange and interest rates.
At the end of 2012 the Hungarian government
worked out a programme aimed at replacing selfJRYHUQPHQWGHEWV$FFRUGLQJWRWKLVSURJUDPPHWKH
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is based on the local tax revenue of the respective
settlement compared to the national average and
founded on a separate agreement with a single selfJRYHUQPHQW +RZHYHU WKH VWDWH DVVXPHV JOREDOO\
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of the fact whether the loan had been taken by the
given self-government for operation or development
purposes.
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with regard to the functioning of the Hungarian
ORFDO JRYHUQPHQWV )RU WKDW UHDVRQ PRUH WKDQ county government institutions providing public
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state on 1st-DQXDU\LQRUGHUWREHDGPLQLVWHUHG
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institutions has not yet been taken by the government.
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under the central government administration through
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government majority through the adoption of the law
concerning the Election of Local Representatives
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changes adopted during the government term from
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report of the law amended in 2010 emphasizes that
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which has elapsed since the entry in force of the law
No. LXIV of 1990 Concerning the Election of Local
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the regulation of the local government electoral
system which would allow the fundamental recast of
WKHODZ´7KHnew law not only amended the preceding
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called ‘small list’) of the electoral system remained
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the so-called ‘small list’ of the electoral system
applicable in each settlement with 10000 inhabitants
or less is inaccurate since the system in question
is essentially based on votes which may be cast on
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‘individual list electoral system’ may be regarded as
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The other important amendment consisted of
a drastic reduction of the number of representatives
elected. The number of representatives elected in
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major changes also occurred in the local government
structure. The term of the local government increased
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regulations were elaborated concerning local elected
UHSUHVHQWDWLYHV7KLVDSSURDFKZKLFKLVRSSRVHGWR
WKHIRUPHUUHJXODWLRQLPplicitly characterized by the
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ZRXOG´ PD\ reinforce professionalism and moral
integrity of representatives. This new regulation
UHTXLUHVWKDWWKHHOHFWHGUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVSDUWLFLSDWHG
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council of the municipality may terminate the
mandate of those local elected representatives who:
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of imprisonment for intentional offence; or were
placed in a psychiatric institution. The same rules are
applied to those who had an unpaid debt to a public
authority. (These rules are also applied to mayors.)
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effectively reinforced in the organisational and
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well determined in the Rules of Organisation and
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the county governments and also in the local governments with
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11
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is also entitled to make a decision in urgent affairs
emerging between two sessions of the council of the
municipality; he is also entitled to make a decision
concerning the use of the municipality resources under
the threshold laid down in the Rules of Organisation
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the mandates of the mayor and of the member of the
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the topic of the local governments.
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addition to the evident subjection of the public notaries
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to emphasize the rules concerning the creation of
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settlements with under 1000 inhabitants were obliged
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the legislation provided an exception from this rule
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every settlement under 2000 inhabitants is bound to
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settlements with 300 inhabitants to set up a common
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government does not come to a decision on this
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to take a decision on behalf of the self-government.
The legislation lays down in more details the rules
concerning the procedure and responsibilities of the
self-governments.
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the organisational structure of the local governments
outside the self-government system but in close
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bodies. The self-governments are supervised by the
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county institution funding centres are responsible for
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was previously subject to the supervision of the county
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creation of these centres on the ground that jointly
and in a larger quantity conducted acquisitions may
decrease the operating costs of the self-governments.
It is of interest and probably not independent of the
huge volume of acquisitions that these bodies operate
under a dual management.6RRQWKHRQHKDQGWKH\
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responsible for its control. This organizational
solution seems to be incomprehensible and absurd
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Important changes occurred in terms of tasks
and responsibilities. The former responsibilities of
the county government will disappear completely.
The operation of secondary institutions and other
institutions that the local governments are not able to
maintain will be transferred to the county institution
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of the county governments concerning the mid-level
management and the management and delivery of
territorial public services will end. Instead of these
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spatial planning and also other coordination tasks) of
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indicated by the fact that the annual budgets of the
county governments were substantially reduced and
therefore correspond to the tenth or twentieth of their
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budget is still very important in relation to the extent
of their tasks.
Although the priority order was also evident
previously with regard to the mandatory and voluntary
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self-government may undertake any voluntary task
only if its obligations have been fully supplied
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to a special duty in question may be used for these
voluntary tasks.
It seems that the self-governments shall resign
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governments were responsible for smaller tasks which
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on time and in the way corresponding to the needs of
the local population. Education is the most important
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inhabitants. Half or third of the total annual budget
of the small and medium-sized settlements was used
It is important to note the so called ’dual management’ is not
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this system was employed by the specialized administrative bodies of the councils and executive committees. The key point of
this system consists in the separation of the organizational and
professional managements. The former is controlled by the head
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central body.
12
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responsible oQO\IRUWKH³UHPDLQLQJ´OHVVLPSRUWDQW
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The re-nationalisation will probably also
affect the composition of the service providers. In
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the institutions operated by the state and selfJRYHUQPHQW WKH UROH RI HFFOHVLDVWLFDO LQVWLWXWLRQV
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The main principle of the self-government
system established after the regime change consisted
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which also prevailed for the duties and competences.
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biggest settlements obviously have more powers.
A new category of settlements appears: the chief
town of an administrative district which is basically
responsible for sub-regional duties on the territory
of the district. The role of the cities of the county
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the county rank were required to provide services
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to the new system the principle turns and some
public services provided by these local governments
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legislation also explicitly declares that the capital
must provide services at the county and also the
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responsibilities between the capital and 23 districts
of the capital hardly changes.
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the introduction of the system of the administrative
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administrative districts will be established in Hungary.
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will be established from 2013 in all 23 districts of
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government has already made a decision with regard
to the chief towns of the administrative districts and
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authority.
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developed an unusual degree of administrative
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great autonomy in decision making. The control of
the central government over the local governments is
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are protected by the constitutional safeguards and
laws which cannot be amended by simple majority.
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of Hungary is not devolution or delegation of the
executive functions of the central government to the
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exercising the power autonomously as established
by the Constitution. The intermediate level of the
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regional development councils) has developed and
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The indebtedness of the government sector
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picture of the collapse of the governments system.
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it has become a puffer which includes all work that
other participants do not want to carry out.
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it is possible to state that the transformation of the
Hungarian self-government system might not be
postponed. The former system had to face increasing
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sustainable for a longer term and most of them may
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government has given a kind of response to urgent
problems inherent in the self-government system.
The main characteristics of these responses are
unequivocal diminution of self-government autonomy
and strengthening of the state hierarchy. Although
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autonomy considered as dysfunctional by politicians
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not yet clearly visible whether it is nationalization
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perhaps be called into question.
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Campus-Studia Regionum.
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Costly Failures. An Evaluation of Subnational DePRFUDF\LQ+XQJDU\¶LQ-RKQ/RXJKOLQ-+HQGULFNV
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Summary
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establishments based on the level of decentralisation or
the pattern they follow in the geographical distribution of
power. The administrative division of a territory greatly
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national characteristics of a given country occupy a key
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common law) are used to control the mutual relationship
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administration.
Decentralized local governance has not had strong
traditions in Hungary. Not only was the era of state socialism
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but also most of the previous periods of state development.
On this basis Hungary can be reckoned among the unitary
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traditions in developing its public administration system.
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implemented in the sub-system of local-governments.
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regularly fell short due to political resistance. This process
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governments tries to apply the techniques of welfare
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restrictive especially during the government periods of
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all. This is of macro-economic and national economic
importance as Hungarian local governments belong to
the so-called Scandinavian model regarding their weight
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of the state has been implemented (see comments for
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against the central power has been further weakened. The
self-government system has been weakened and emptied
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The secret of this consisted in a brilliant solution: the
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which is particularly sensitive point not only for the
public opinion but also for a huge part of the politicians.
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transferred from the self-governments to the state. The
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for autonomous self-governments with wide power.
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the role of the self-management has decreased. The central
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would reduce the self-governments to a merely executive
role.
Keywords: ORFDO JRYHUQPHQW JRRG JRYHUQDQFH
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regulations.
The article has been reviewed.
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Annex 1
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9LOODJH
yes: municipality
depoliticised
low
changing
for local
governments
under 10 thousand
inhabitants
6XEUHJLRQ
none
administrative
Low
low
-
&LW\
yes: municipality
mixed (partly
depoliticised)
medium
changinghigh
&LW\RIFRXQW\
UDQN
23
yes: municipality
Political
high
high
'LVWULFWRI
FDSLWDO
23
yes: district
government/
municipality
Political
medium
high
&RXQW\
19
Political
high
low to
medium
&DSLWDO
1
Political
high
high
5HJLRQ
administrative
and political
medium
medium
yes: county
government
yes: metropolitan
self-government
none
Source: Körösényi, Tóth and Török 2007: 235
depending on
size: for local
governments
under 10 thousand
inhabitants or
over 10 thousand
inhabitants
for local
governments
over 10 thousand
inhabitants
for local
government over
10 thousand
inhabitants
for county
assemblies
for metropolitan
assembly
-