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Psalms as Songs: The Psalms of David in Salamone Rossi’s
Songs of Solomon
Don Harrán
The present report will deal with the notion of psalms as songs in the Western musical tradition,
with particular reference to Salamone Rossi’s largely psalmodic colection entitled The Songs
of Solomon. It rests on the general thesis that typology of sacred poetry one must admit two
primordial, though dichotomous forms of expression, hymnody and threnody, the one joyful,
the other plaintive in its content.
Here I shall be concerned mainly with hymnody, which, as a term, is often and
interchangeably with psalmody. A survey of Western sacred music demonstrates the persistence
of hymnody alias psalmody as a mean of continuity and, at the same time, of renewal. The Psalms,
for example, stand at the root of the chant tradition. Along with later hymns they form
the cornerstone of the canonical hours; they are equally fundamental to the Mass, in which separate
verses are often quoted in various items of the Proper, most notably in the Introit, the Gradual and
the Alleluia. The beginnings of polyphony are intimately connected with responsorial chant.
Skipping to the sixteenth century, one finds that some of the most exciting developments in sacred
music took place in the domain of psalms and hymns, in both the Catholic and the Protestant
church. Psalms encouraged new forms of musical expression, indeed, can be considered a precedent
for the stile recitativo and, in their often antiphonal presentation, for the stile concertato. The falso
bordone stimulated new conceptions of compositional order, providing a sturdy foundation for
the emergence of an increasingly chordal practice. And so forth: one could go on at great length
in designating the impact of the psalms on European art music.
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The function of psalms, in later composition, as a link with tradition and, at the same time,
a catalyst for renewal within tradition is no more eloquently illustrated than in Salamone Rossi’s
collection of “Songs.”1 Published in 1622/23, the collection is a landmark in the history of sacred
music as the first and, until the nineteenth century, practically only collection of religious works by
a Jewish composer of art music, they were written for various combinations of three to eight voices
and intended for “use” on all sacred occasions.” 2 We know about the composer, his intentions and
the obstacles to their realization from the prefatory matter, or commentary, which, moreover,
is unusually extensive: it includes two forewords, three poems, a rabbinical responsum to a question
concerning the legitimacy of art music in the synagogue, five statements of the approbation
by Venetian rabbis and a notice of copyright. These together make a collection as much a literary,
historical and socio-cultural document as a musical one.3
Rossi is described in the commentary as the first full-fledged Jewish composer of art music
since the time of King David. As exaggerated as claim may sound, Rossi is nevertheless, the only
known composer of Hebrew sacred music from the time of the Ancient Temple to the midseventeenth century. His collection of Hebrew songs not only “continued” the psalmodic tradition
practised in the synagogue, but also, in its unconventional treatment of musical materials,
“renewed” it. Indeed, the collection was plainly described, on the title page “something new in the
land,” apparently after the words of Jeremiah 31:22 („for the Lord created a new thing in the land”).
Offhand, one might say that here we have another example of a work in the sixteenth-century
tradition of collections entitled „musica nova,” which, to a certain extent, is true. The only
difference, however, is that, from the standpoint of Rossi and his circle, practically everything
before the Songs of Solomon was „musica antiqua.” Or not even musica at all: the traditional chants
of the synagogue were basically readings of Scriptures and prayers according to certain fixed
melodic or modal formulae, whether Biblical accents or prayer modes. Seen against such
a background, the Songs of Solomon, in their polyphony, marked an innovation. Thus the selfconscious use of the word musiqah in the commentary as a neologism for „art music” (neither
1
Modern edition: Hashirim ‘asher lishlomo, ed. Fritz Rikko, 3 vols. (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of
America, 1967-73). A new edition was published as the thirteen last volume of The Complete Works of Salamone Rossi, ed.
Don Harran (Corpus Mensurabilis Musicale 100; Neuhausen: Hänssler-Verlag for the American Institute of Musicology,
vols. l-12, 1994.)
2
From the title to the collection; more specific references to their use (on the Sabbath and various feast days) can be
found in the prefatory matter, on which more below. Translations from a Hebrew are, in all cases, the author’s.
3
See, for example, Don Harrán, „Salamone Rossi, Jewish Musician in Renaissance Italy,” Acta Musicologica 59
(1987), pp. 46-64, esp. 53-64; and idem, “Tradition and Innovation in Jewish Music of the Later Renaissance,” The
Journal of Musicology 7 (1989), pp. 107-30; as well as references, in both, to further bibliography.
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the word nor the concept existed in Hebrew speech): it is emphasized, in each instance, by
a diacritical mark. Various allusions to the introduction of part music in the synagogue from the
early years of the seventeenth century, particularly in Ferrara, can be gleaned from the literature,
but the music seems to have been improvised, perhaps as achordal backdrop to a given melody.4 Nor
does it seem to have had the refinements of Rossi’s ”Songs,” which, by being carefully composed,
measured up to their description as ..something new.”
My intention, in the present report, is to examine the different (psalmodic) meanings of these
“songs” as implied by their texts and confirmed in the section of commentary. There are thirty-three
works in the collection and their texts are drawn chiefly, though not exclusively, from the Book
of Psalms: to be exact, twenty are based on psalms; two on other portions of the Bible, viz., Leviticus,
Isaiah; five on prayer texts; five on post—Biblical religious poetry, or piyyuṭim; and one on the words
of a wedding ode. For present purposes, I propose overlook the prosodic differences between
psalms, prayers and piyyuṭim, discussing the common thematic matter in their texts as indicative
of „psalmody.”
In perusing the texts, one discerns the fundamental role of “song,” in Rossi’s “Songs”,
as the structural and semantic pivot of their composition. It is not as if the composer wrote “song”
as pieces of music. Rather, he wrote pieces of music purposely conceived and contrived as “songs,”
or, better said, as an exemplification of psalmody. After reading over the texts and correlating them
with the ideas in the introductory commentary, one may summarize their psalmodic characteristics
under at least five different headings. First, the ”songs” provide an outlet for truly religious
expression. Second, like the psalms proper, they bear distinct musical superscriptions. Third, they
were meant for rejoicing and thanksgiving. Fourth, in principle, if not in practice, they subsume
dance and the use of instruments in their delivery. Fifth, and last, they stand apart from other forms
of music making, secular and sacred, as they do, moreover, from expressly non-musical modes
of expression; indeed, without music there is no true psalmody, in the sense of psalmody as joyful
praise. Each of the five will be considered in turn.
First, the „Songs” as a vehicle for religious expression. They were directed to God, who, we
read in the first item in the collection, the prayer „Yitgaddal weyitqaddash” („May the Lord be
4
These earlier references to part music, most of them contained in the commentary to the commentary to Rossi’s Songs
are discussed by Israel Adler in „The Rise of Art Music in the Italian Ghetto”, Jewish Medieval and Renaissance
Studies, ed. Alexander Altmann (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University, 1967), pp. 321-64.
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magnified and sanctified”), stands above „all blessings, songs, praises and consolations” 5
consolations meaning prayers in which God is entreated to provide comfort in times of sorrow.
„Songs,” then, constitute one of at least four categories used for addressing the Almighty.
But just as there are different varieties of sacred song, so there are different varieties of song,
with a capital S, at large. They range, at the one end, and here I stay within the commentary
to the collection, from secular tunes for feasts and other diversions to, at the other, the most
sacrosanct songs of all, namely, those intoned by the Levites in the Ancient Temple: they were so
special that they could not be reproduced outside their original geographical and cultural context.
Said otherwise, as long as the Jews remained in exile, yearning for, though not regaining their
homeland, it was unthinkable that they chant the ancient melodies. Thus we read, in Psalm 137, set
by Rossi as no. 9 in the collection, that the Jews were requested by their Babylonian captors to
entertain them with „songs of Zion,” which they were loath to do, for neither the time nor
the circumstances were appropriate to their delivery. The „songs of Zion” refer, of course,
to the Psalms of David, which the Jews retained and recited in their years of exile, though did not
sing, in the sense of song as an expression of mirth or as a fabrication of art music. In captivity,
in dispersion, there was little reason to rejoice and little opportunity, in the synagogue ritual, to be
artful.
Rossi was no closer to Zion than the many generations of Jews banished from their
homeland with the destruction of the Temple. Yet he renewed the „songs of Zion” in
a conspicuously musical, i.e., artistic setting, convinced that the time was ripe for a new approach.
The coming of the Messiah seemed to be at hand - the commentary to the collection is rife with
messianic allusions - and music was a natural vehicle for expressing the yearning for redemption
and return. Rossi chose psalms, and this is the second point I wish to make, with one ore more
musical indications in their superscriptions. Some of them refer to their songful origins, as in those
entitled a “song of degrees” (shir hamma’ alot)6, “a psalm to be sung” (mizmor shir)7, “a psalm
to be sung on Sabbath” (mizmor shir yelom hashabbat)8 and a “psalm for thanksgiving” (mizmor
letodah)9, which last, in its continuation, proves to be a „song” about “rejoicing” (hari’u) and
“gladness” (simhah). There are superscriptions naming the author of the psalm, Asaph in one
5
6
7
8
9
“Songs”, no. 1, line 5.
“Songs,” no. 1, line 5.
No. 9: Psalm 67.
No. 32: Psalm 92.
No. 14: Psalm 100.
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of them (“a psalm of Asaph”: mizmor le’ asaf)10 and, as might be expected, David in four others
(a “psalm of David”: mizmor ledawid), or a song of degrees to David shir hama’alot ledawid).11
(David, by the way, is attributed with the authorship of at least seventy-two poems in the Book
of Psalms). It may be assumed that the authors of the psalms, as other ancient bards, composed the
words and melodies. In some cases, the „chief musician” is addressed, for it is clear that the music
was too elaborate to be performed without the direction of a conductor (or menaẓẓeaḥ).12 Mention is
made of instruments to be added to the voices, either in general (“with instruments,” binginot) or,
specifically, as a psalm to be performed „on the octochord” ('al hasheminit) or “on the gittit”
(‘al haggitit).13 Elsewhere instruments are specified in the body of the text, among them the lyre,
the decachord and the harp.14 (For the reading of these and other often ambiguous terms in the Book
of Psalms as instruments, see the explanations of Abraham Portaleone, from 1612) 15 This was truly
festive music.
It follows that Rossi conceived his “songs” principally as a form of exultation. Thus,
as a third point, the psalmodic dimension of the works appears in their usage. When, in Psalm 137,
the writer, in the same verse we quoted, explains that the captors asked the Hebrews to entertain
them with songs, yet “removed their happiness,” he underlines the irony of the situation by
implying that there can be no singing, or psalmody, without happiness. 16 The Hebrew word for
psalms is tehillim or “praises,” for song item is employed to praise the True, there are psalms of
lamentation, and no. 137 is one of them, but they are few, and while steeped in despair, they are no
less praiseworthy of God, entreated to offer consolation (nehamata as in the text of the prayer
mentioned above) in times of adversity. Psalm 137 is rather unique among Rossi’s ”Songs” as well,
and I shall return to it below as an example of a situation where music is the longer possible.
Let us follow through the laudatory purposes of the psalms, as indicated in the texts of
the “Songs of Solomon.” Songs are delivered to acknowledge God’s power, for, to quote Psalm 67,
verse 5, „the nations will be happy and will sing, for He will judge peoples justly and will comfort
10
No. 4: Psalm 82.
Nos. 5, 13, 24 (for „a psalm of David”), respectively Psalms 12, 8, 29, and no. 21 (for „a song of degrees to David”),
Psalm 124.
12
Cf. nos. 5, 9 and 13, respectively psalms 12, 67, 8.
13
In order, nos. 5, 9 and 13; respectively Psalms 12, 67, 8.
14
Cf. nos 10 (Psalm 137:2) for the lyre and 12 (Psalm 92)4) for the lyre, decachord and harp.
15
Portaleone, Shiltei haggiborim (Mantua: n.p., 1611/12); and for an annotated edition, Hebrew Writings Concerning
Music in Manuscripts and Printed Books from Geonic Times up to 1800, ed. Israel Adler (Munich: G. Henle, 1975), pp.
246-83.
16
„For there our captors asked us for songs and removed our happiness” (Psalm 137: 3).
11
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nations on earth, sela!”17 Here, again a connection is drawn between happiness and the urge to sing.
In Psalm 146, verse 2, it is drawn between song and praise (“I will praise God in my life and will
sing to the Lord while I live”); 18 in Psalm 92, verses 2 and 4, between song and thanksgiving (“it is
good to thank God and sing to Your eminent name”), which is followed, two verses later, with
a mention of the instruments to be used for rendering thanks (the Hebrew verb „to thank,”
or lehodot, has, by the way a second meaning to praise”); and, in Psalm 100, verse 2, between song,
happiness and prayer (“Worship God with happiness, come before Him with song”), which follows
upon a verse reading “A song of thanks: cheer God, all people.” Thus, again, song, thanks and mirth
are the components of divine worship.
Songs will be offered, we are told in the texts, when God restores His dispersed people to
Zion, to inaugurate a new period of peace and prosperity. At such a time, we read in Psalm 126,
verse 1, „our mouth will fill with laughter and our tongue with happiness.” 19 Sorrow will then be
transformed into joyous song, for, to quote verse 5 from the same psalm, „those who sow in tears
will reap in song.” The poet goes on to tell us, in the next verse, that though the exiled went away
weeping, they will now return singing. The same ideas are reinforced in still another of the „Songs,”
set, in this case, to a portion from Isaiah, chapter 35. 20 Upon the return of the exiles, we read
in verse 2, the wilderness “will bloom and blossom and will rejoice with increased mirth and song.”
The mouths of the dumb will open in song (verse 6). Indeed, songs will be uttered by those saved
from banishment, or to quote Isaiah: “Those ransomed by the Lord will return and they will come to
Zion singing, with happiness everlasting over their heads; joy and happiness will be theirs, to put an
end to sorrow and sighing” (verse 10). Thus where in exile one groans and weeps, upon the return
one sings and exults.
It is in the procession with the Holy Ark that the faithful break into joyous song. In a work
set to a poem, or piyyụt, by Isaac, son of Matthew of Bologna, from the thirteenth century,
the opening verses read: „I will open my lips and answer in joy; to the living God will I sing
in proceeding with the ark.”21 Returning to ideas already expressed by Isaiah, the author tells us,
in the following stanzas, that „Israel will be saved and the tongue of the dumb will rejoice in song”;
and that, with the dispersion of God’s enemies, the faithful will return to Zion, chanting joyfully
17
18
19
20
21
No. 9 in the collection.
Respectively nos. 11, 32 and 14 in the collection.
No. 17 in the collection, as in the next two references.
No. 19 in the collection.
‘Eftah ne sefatai, first stanza; no. 15 in the collection. Further quotations an from stanzas 2, 4 and 16.
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(„May Your enemies, God, be dispersed and Your faithful sing joyfully; on the day You plead Your
own cause they will return to the stronghold”); and that, finally, with the retreat of sorrows there
will be songs, as is fitting „during the procession with the ark.”
In another poem, now by the cabbalist Mordekhai Dato, contemporary with Rossi, song
is associated with the opening of the ark. Thus in a spirit of elation the poet declares: „I will break
into song on my lips and the tongue of my heart will rejoice; I will sing to God Almighty when they
open His ark.”22 There are a number of poems, in Italian manuscripts from the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries, intended for delivery before the ark, which, along with various psalms, made
their way into the liturgy as practiced by the Italiani, that is, Jews in Italy of specifically Italian
provenance.23 As in the previous poems, so in that by Dato the notion of song is connected with
redemption: God is entreated to „set free the people who will sing to please [Him].” God delights
in song, then, as a fitting expression of devotion, which, of course, takes us back to the first point
we made, namely, the „Songs” as an outlet for praising the Lord.
The fourth point to be made is that the psalms are not only to be sung, but also, as was
the practice in the Ancient Temple, to be accompanied by instruments. Thus we read in Psalm 92,
verse 4, that voices were supplemented by lyres and harps. 24 This was only possible in the times of
joy, and as long as the Ancient Temple stood on its site, its ceremonies remained intact. Dance was
also allowed, for the sweet psalmist David is reported to have danced for joy before the ark. 25 In the
poems about moving with the ark in procession it assumed that the joy of holding the ark led to
dance, at we know from the fervest dancing that marks the celebration of Simḥat (“Rejoicing in
the Law”), on the eighth day after Sukkot, or the Feast of Tabernacles. Thus religious joy subsumed
dance and instruments as expressive media. We read in the commentary to the “Songs,” first, that
“the pious men or olden times used to dance before the bride with various degrees of levity”;
second, that „all those who handle the lyre, drum and harp should sing the ‘Songs of Solomon’ and
strive to play a load fanfare”; third, that they were composed „for the glory of the Lord
of the Universe, as if to he performed by angels opening their mouths to the sound of pipes and to
stringed instruments”; and, last, that „on the day of Simhat Torah there are cantors dancing and they
22
No. 27 in the collection, first stanza.
See Massimo Acanfora Torrefranca, ,,'Quando si apre l'arca al Signore': Su di un manoscritto ebraico ilaliano del
XVIII secolo, e sul ‘Cantar di forte all'arca,” Italia: studi e richerche sulla storia, la cultura e la letteratura degli ebrei d’Italia 10
(1993), pp. 59-72.
24
No. 32 in the collection.
25
2 Samuel 6:15. The passage comes shortly after David’s having been described as playing “on all manner of
instruments made of fir wood, even on harps, and on psalteries, and on timbrels, and on cornets, and on cymbals” (6:5).
23
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clasp the book of the Torah to their bosom in the synagogue and they make all kinds of mirth and
nobody would think of questioning their actions, for it is good to praise God in every honorable
splendid way.”26
Quite different is the situation that followed the destruction of the Temple, when we learn,
as in Psalm 137, that, in the pain of expulsion, the Jews hung their lyres on willows. 27 With this
we come to the fifth and final point; the difference between psalms as „songs of praise” and “other”
kinds of music. How is it possible, the psalm continues, to sing the holy songs on foreign soil?
The implication is that the Jews might perform „other” songs, semi-sacred or so to entertain their
captors, but not the music that belonged to the ancient Temple ritual. Thus art music and its mixed
vocal and instrumental ensembles, as they are thought by Rossi, Portaleone and others to have been
utilized in the liturgy of the Temple, disappeared from the prayer services of the synagogue. What
remained was their bare skeleton, in the modal or melodic formulas for intoning prayers or portions
of Scripture monophonically, in a sing-song rendition. Psalmody continued, but it was not sung,
only recited according to set formulas of tonal inflection. We read, in the commentary, that because
of “foreign dwellings, hasty wanderings... and the vicissitudes of life” the Hebrews “forgot all
knowledge” of music, as artfully practiced in the Temple. The knowledge was that of „the science
of music” (hokhmat hammusiqah), according to which “art music” was practiced.28
The opposite of psalmody is threnody, and that is what Psalm 137 is about songs
of mourning. With the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 A. D. and the expulsion and
dispersion of the Jews a new period in Jewish history began marked by grief and sorrow. Music
ceased to exist in its ancient forms, for lamentation eliminated the incentive for invention and
display. For the Jews threnody meant non-music, or the cessation of artistic song. From
the commentary one learns that the psalms and other texts were still sung, but with a heavy heart;
that music was divested of its adornments, for without the Temple there were no more professional
musicians to cultivate it; and that music was reduced to a form of heightened recitation.
Rossi’s collection of “Songs of Solomon” is special because it signals the beginning of
a new era in Jewish music. Art music was foreign to the synagogue ritual; Rossi sought to introduce
it into the services. His works were written for varying ensembles of voices according
to the conventions of sixteenth- and seventeenth-century counterpoint. Nothing like them had ever
26
27
28
Quotations respectively from the responsum. the first poem, the third poem, the responsum.
No. 10 in the collection (verse 2 and, for next reference, 4).
From the foreword by Leon Modena to the collection.
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been assembled and printed. The composer was described, in the prefatory material, as a worthy
descendent of King David. He purposely named his collection „The Songs of Solomon” to indicate
his kinship with David's son Solomon, under whom the temple ritual reached its moment of greatest
glory. Rossi invested Jewish music with a new expression of joy, after the example of ancient
psalmody. He is said, in fact, to have ,.restored the crown [of music] to its original condition,
in the days of the Levites.”29 His „Songs” or, if you wish, „psalms”, are saturated with musical
connotations, as has already been demonstrated by referring to their texts. Music, for Rossi, meant
one thing only: joyful worship. Thus we read, in the composer's dedication, that from the very
beginning he delighted in „taking every oblation of the voice to please the Heavenly Rider with
sweetness and a voice of rejoicing and thankfulness.” 30 He tells us that his „songs” were meant for,
joyous occasions and feast days.” Elsewhere he is described as having „set to music... David’s
praises [i.e., his psalms] as joyful songs to be presented, in joy and songfulness, before the ark on
the Sabbath, on all feast days and on the festivals.” 31 He, himself, rehearsed the singers „with much
joy.”32 Once his music becomes more widely known, the Hebrews, it is said, „will sing for joy, for
they will see, each with his own eyes, the return of the Lord to Zion, in all haste, amen!” 33 Joy,
redemption, the return to Zion, music as praise, to be written and performed after the example
of ancient psalmody: these are the themes of the „Songs of Solomon,” as they appear in the texts
and are given musical expression in their composition.
The collection signals not only a historic moment, but a joyous one in the annals of Jewish
music and, for that matter, of sacred music at large. Music is underlined in its original function
as a vehicle for praise, after the construction of the Book of Psalms as an extended doxology. 34
Psalm 150, its culmination, begins: ,.Praise the Lord, praise God in His sanctuary: praise Him in the
firmament of His power. Praise Him for His mighty acts: praise Him according to His excellent
greatness.” It then goes on to tell us how we are to do this, namely, by singing to
the accompaniment of instruments and dance: „Praise Him with the sound of the trumpet: praise
Him with the psaltery and harp. Praise Him with the timbrel and dance: praise Him with stringed
instruments andorgans. Praise Him upon the loud cymbals: praise Him upon the high-sounding
29
From the third dedicatory poem .
See opening of the dedication (i.e., first foreword) for both quotations.
31
From the third dedicatory poem to the collection.
32
From the second dedicatory poem.
33
Toward the end of Leon Modena’s foreword.
34
Cf. Eric Werner, “The Doxology in Synagogue and Church: a Liturgico-Musical Study,” Hebrew Union College Annual
19 (1945-46), pp. 275-351.
30
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cymbals.” It is expected, the psalm concludes, that “everything that has breath will praise Lord.
Praise the Lord.”
Rossi’s “Songs” begin with the prayer Yitgaddal, where we read: “Blessed and praised and
glorified and elevated and exalted and extolled an honored and celebrated be the name of the Holy
One, blessed be He.” But after blessing God, it is only right that we, too, be blessed, for that is
the ultimate purpose of worship. As it so happens, the last song in the collection ends with an appeal
to God, already copiously blessed in all previous numbers, to bestow His blessings on mankind:
“May You, God Almighty, bless my friends for ever, without cease, without end and for eternity.”
One final question: how does all this rejoicing work out in the music itself? Rossi’s pieces
are fairly straightforward in their rhythm and melody; they are presented in a largely homophonic
texture. But, here and there, the composer lingers on a word, and it so happens that the words
he chooses for emphasis are the very words that underline the notion of “song” as a willful assertion
of gladness. Thus he writes melismas, sometimes longer, sometimes shorter, on shir “song”:
on mizmor, “psalm”; on yismeḥu wirranenu, “they will be happy and rejoice”, on birnanah,
“in gladness”; on berinnah, “in joyful song”; and on nagilah, “let us rejoice.” This is truly joyful
music, meant for joyful music making. It marks the end of the Hebrew musica antiqua and
the beginning of a musica nova.
Yet history proved otherwise: in the war of succession that followed the death of Duke
Vincenzo II in 1627, the Imperial Annies invaded Mantua, destroying the ghetto, its inhabitants,
their homes, their synagogues. There was no reason for joy, only lamentation. Rossi’s „Songs” thus
remain a cry of joy in wilderness of sorrow. His predictions of a new era of Hebrew song proved too
hasty. The time of the Hebrew musica nova had not arrived, though for one brief and exciting
moment Rossi and his commentators almost led us to believe that it had.
Originally published in: Musica Antiqua Europae Orientalis (10, vol. 1). 10th International
Musicological Congress, Scientific direction Irena Poniatowska, Sławomira Żerańska-Kominek,
Elżbieta Witkowska-Zaremba. Congress Book, Ignacy Jan Paderewski Pomorian Philharmonic,
Bydgoszcz 1994, pp. 47-55. By permission of the Author.
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