PLYMOUTH CITY COUNCIL, MUSEUMS AND ARCHIVES
Plymouth City Museum
and Art Gallery Canadian
Northwest Coast Collection
Research Report
Argillite, Horn spoons and Model Totem Poles
Emma Knight
7/27/2012
HAIDA PANEL PIPE (1899.42.1710X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
Copyright of Plymouth City Council (Museums and Archives) July 27th, 2012
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Aim ................................................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Objectives ...................................................................................................................................................... 1
2.0 Summary of Collections ...................................................................................................................................... 1
3.0 Survey of Haida Collections in the UK .................................................................................................................. 2
4.0 The Northwest Coast .......................................................................................................................................... 7
4.1 Haida Gwaii and the Haida Nation .................................................................................................................. 7
4.2 Social Organization and Potlatches ................................................................................................................. 7
4.3 Trade systems ................................................................................................................................................ 9
5.0 Collecting Practices; Northwest Coast Objects in Museums .............................................................................. 10
6.0 The Plymouth City Museum and Art Gallery Northwest Coast Collection Research and Catalogue Records ...... 11
6.1 Argillite: The Material ................................................................................................................................... 11
6.2 Argillite: The Methods .................................................................................................................................. 12
7.0 Argillite Carving ................................................................................................................................................. 12
8.0 Historical Research on Argillite Pipes ................................................................................................................ 14
8.1 Historical Research on Argillite Haida-motif Panel Pipes 1830s-1860s .......................................................... 15
8.1.1 Detailed Description of Panel Pipe 1903.90.4407X ................................................................................ 15
8.1.2 Detailed Description of Panel Pipe 1899.42.1710x ................................................................................ 16
8.2 Historical Research on Argillite Ship Pipes 1840-1870s ................................................................................. 17
8.2.1 Detailed Description of Ship Panel Pipe 1899.42.1711x ........................................................................ 18
8.2.2 Detailed Description of Ship Panel Pipe 1903.90.4405x ........................................................................ 20
8.2.3 Detailed Description of Ship Panel Pipe 1903.90.4406x ........................................................................ 21
9.0 Historical Research on Argillite Western Tableware 1839-1880 ........................................................................ 22
9.1 Detailed Description of Plate 1903.90.4417x ................................................................................................ 22
9.1.1 Lanceolate Leaves and Berries Design ................................................................................................... 23
9.2 Detailed Description of Plate 1916.99 .......................................................................................................... 24
10.0 Historical Research on Argillite Recorders, at least 1852-1880s....................................................................... 25
10.1 Detailed Description of Recorder 1924.145 ................................................................................................ 26
10.1.1 George Gunya ..................................................................................................................................... 27
11.0 Haida Totem Poles .......................................................................................................................................... 27
11.1 Historical Research on Argillite Model Totem Poles .................................................................................... 28
11.1.2 Detailed Description of Model Argillite Totem Pole 1918.43.1 ............................................................ 28
11.1.3 Detailed Description of Argillite Model Totem Pole 1918.43.2 ............................................................ 29
11.1.4 Detailed Description of Wooden Model Totem Pole 1920.286 ............................................................ 30
12.0 Historical Research on Horn Spoons ................................................................................................................ 31
12.1 Detailed Description of Horn Spoon 1930.19.1 ........................................................................................... 31
12.2 Detailed Description of Horn Spoon 1930.19.2 ........................................................................................... 32
12.2.1 Thunderbirds ...................................................................................................................................... 33
12.3 Comparison to Pitt Rivers Museum’s Horn Spoons ..................................................................................... 33
13.0 Contemporary Argillite Carving and the Significance of the Plymouth City Museum and Art Gallery Canadian
Northwest Coast Collection .................................................................................................................................... 34
14.0 Works Cited .................................................................................................................................................... 36
15.0 Additional Reading .......................................................................................................................................... 38
Appendices ............................................................................................................................................................. 41
TABLE OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1 FIRST NATIONS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA MAP. REPRODUCED COURTESY OF THE MUSEUM OF
ANTHROPOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA............................................................................... 8
FIGURE 2 HAIDA ARGILLITE PANEL PIPE (1903.90.4407X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY
MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY. ................................................................................................................... 15
FIGURE 3 HAIDA PANEL PIPE (1899.42.1710X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART
GALLERY. ................................................................................................................................................... 16
FIGURE 4 HAIDA ARGILLITE SHIP PANEL PIPE (1899.42.1711X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY
MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY. ................................................................................................................... 18
FIGURE 5 DETAIL OF 1899.42.1711X. PHOTO COURTESY OF EMMA KNIGHT. .......................................... 19
FIGURE 6 HAIDA ARGILLITE SHIP PANEL PIPE (1903.90.4405X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY
MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY. ................................................................................................................... 20
FIGURE 7 HAIDA ARGILLITE SHIP PANEL PIPE (1903.90.4406X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY
MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY. ................................................................................................................... 21
FIGURE 8 HAIDA ARGILLITE PLATE (1903.90.4417X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM
AND ART GALLERY. ................................................................................................................................... 22
FIGURE 9 HAIDA ARGILLITE PLATE (1916.99) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART
GALLERY. ................................................................................................................................................... 24
FIGURE 10 HAIDA ARGILLITE RECORDER (1924.145) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM
AND ART GALLERY. ................................................................................................................................... 26
FIGURE 11 HAIDA ARGILLITE MODEL TOTEM POLE (1918.43.1) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY
MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY. ................................................................................................................... 28
FIGURE 12 HAIDA ARGILLITE MODEL TOTEM POLE (1918.43.2) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY
MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY. ................................................................................................................... 29
FIGURE 13 HAIDA WOODEN MODEL TOTEM POLE (1920.286) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY
MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY. ................................................................................................................... 30
FIGURE 14. HORN SPOON (1930.19.1) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART
GALLERY. ................................................................................................................................................... 31
FIGURE 15. HORN SPOON (1930.19.2) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART
GALLERY. ................................................................................................................................................... 32
1.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1.1 AIM
This research was conducted at the Plymouth City Museum and Art Gallery (hereafter PCMAG) on the
Canadian Northwest Coast collection in the World Cultures department between May 3, 2012 and July
27th, 2012.
The aim of this project was to create a comprehensive research report relating to the PCMAG Canadian
Northwest Coast collection. The Canadian Northwest Coast collection had been researched in part
before. The purpose of this project was to build on this prior research by incorporating published
research material, comments from experts in the field, and comments from Northwest Coast carvers
Henry Green (Tsimshian) and Ralf Stocker (Haida) recorded during a handling session held at the PCMAG
in 2006. This report is not intended to be an extensive exploration of Canadian Northwest Coast First
Nations material culture, but rather a basis for understanding the significance of the PCMAG collection.
In addition to this research report, a selection of the collection was also put on temporary display in the
PCMAG World Cultures gallery in July of 2012.
1.2 OBJECTIVES

provide a geographical, historical, and cultural background for the Northwest Coast collection

provide a detailed history and discussion of the development of argillite carving

engage in detailed research on each object, applying theories and information from both
scholarly and community sources to contribute to the collections records

assess the collections importance in relation to other Northwest Coast and Haida collections in
the UK

gather comments, opinions, and assessments of the collection from experts in the field of Haida
and Northwest Coast art

create an argillite conservation report detailing the nature of the material, environmental and
conservation concerns, and methods of treatment

obtain books and articles about Haida collections specifically and about indigenous
community/museum relationships generally

create a research bibliography for future use at the PCMAG

collate a list of museum and community contacts both in the UK and internationally for future
reference (available to PCMAG Staff only)
2.0 SUMMARY OF COLLECTIONS
The Canadian Northwest Coast collection consists of thirteen pieces: five argillite panel pipes, two
argillite plates, two argillite model totem poles, one argillite recorder, two mountain goat horn feast
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spoons, and one wooden model totem pole. The objects in the collection were accessioned into the
museum’s collection between the years of 1899 and 1930 through five donations and one purchase.
Unfortunately, after reviewing the accession records and donor cards, little is known about the people
who donated the objects in the collection, or the provenance of the objects at this time. Please see the
Haida collection spreadsheet in Appendix 1. for more details on the collection.
3.0 SURVEY OF HAIDA COLLECTIONS IN THE UK
The Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford
The Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford contains ethnology and archaeology collections and was opened in
1884 by its founder General Augustus Henry Lane Fox Pitt Rivers. His collection, established through his
travels as a military man and from auction houses and dealers, formed the founding collection. The Pitt
Rivers Museum holds some very important Northwest Coast pieces collected by Captain Cook as well as
former museum collectors. The museum holds 619 Northwest Coast Objects, 296 of which are Haida
objects ranging from small tools to totem poles. The Pitt Rivers museum has 40 argillite objects in its
collections. Similar to the British Museum the Pitt Rivers argillite collection represents lots of different
types of argillite carvings, including three argillite recorders (or flutes) which are relatively rare in
museum collections, and one argillite box. In collaboration with the British Museum, the Pitt Rivers
Museum held a conference in 2009 (hereafter referred to as the Haida Conference) in which a group of
Haida delegates visited both museums to view, handle and comment on their collections. Other
museums in the UK, including PCMAG attended the conference and presented their Haida collections to
the delegates. More information on this project can be found at http://www.prm.ox.ac.uk/haida.html or
in Krmpotich and Peers, 2013)
The British Museum, London
The British Museum holds 2279 objects from the Northwest Coast, 563 of these objects were made by
the Haida or collected on Haida Gwaii. The British museum is one of the largest and oldest museums in
the world and they were involved in what is known as the ‘scramble for the Northwest Coast’ (Cole
1995) in which American and European museums engaged in salvage collecting on the Northwest Coast
under the belief that those cultures were becoming extinct. The British Museum’s Haida collection is
vast and comprehensive ranging from utilitarian objects such as tools, fish hooks, clothing, and body
adornment to ceremonial objects such as masks, robes, rattles and totem poles. The British Museum
holds approximately 160 argillite objects including pieces of un-worked argillite, early trade pipes, oval
pipes, panel pipes, figurines, dishes, model totem poles, and recorders. The majority of this argillite
collection is variations of smoking pipes. A small amount of these argillite pieces, approximately five, are
on display in the North American Gallery, Room 26. The British Museum also holds 24 large spoons or
ladles, 10 of which are carved from alder and the remaining are made from the horns of mountain goats
or big horn sheep. The collection is searchable at http://www.britishmuseum.org/
research/search_the_collection_database.aspx. The British Museum was a partner in the Haida
Conference in 2009.
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The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery, Bristol
The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery has 40 pieces in its Northwest Coast collection with objects
representing cultural groups from the Coast Salish in southern British Columbia to the Tlingit in Alaska.
Fourteen of these pieces are made by the Haida or collected on Haida Gwaii. Sue Giles, Senior
Collections Officer of World Cultures was able to supply a collections list and photographs of the 4
argillite pieces in the collection. Two of their argillite pieces, a pipe and a plate, include ivory inlay as
part of the decoration. Two horn spoons also exist in this collection. More information on the Bristol
Museum and Art Gallery can be found on their website http://www.bristol.gov.uk/page/museums-andgalleries. The Bristol Museum and Art Gallery participated in the Haida Conference in 2009.
National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh
The National Museum of Scotland World Cultures collection includes objects from Cook’s exploration of
the Pacific as well as objects from Egypt, the Near East, China, Japan, and Tibet. It holds important early
collections of North Athapaskan material collected by Scottish traders in the Canadian Sub-Arctic. The
National Museums Scotland has over 90 objects from the Northwest coast area in their collections, with
29 argillite pieces. The collection also holds several collections of Canadian Plains First Nations objects.
The National Museums Scotland collection is searchable online; however their entire collection is not
currently on the database. For example, there are only 3 argillite pieces on the online database, but
Henrietta Lidchi, Keeper of World Cultures provided a list of 29 argillite pieces. The three argillite pieces
mentioned online are currently on display. One of these pieces, an argillite adze, is especially interesting
because argillite was conventionally used to create trade objects to sell to Europeans. These trade
objects were usually decorative and non-functional. Argillite is so brittle, this adze would not have been
functional, and yet it is not decorative. The majority of the collection consists of tobacco pipes in various
forms. More information about The National Museum of Scotland’s collections can be found here
http://www.nms.ac.uk. The National Museum of Scotland participated in the Haida Conference in 2009.
National Museums Liverpool, Liverpool
The World Museum, part of the National Museum Liverpool, has an ethnology collection of about 40,
000 objects with collections from West Africa, East Asia, Tibet, the Northwest Coast of the Americas, the
Amazon, New Zealand and New Guinea. The Americas collection consists of nearly 9000 artefacts. The
museum has a Northwest Coast collection with a strong focus on the Haida, Kwakwaka’wakw and Nuuchah-nulth. Some of these materials were collected by Charles F. Newcombe, an infamous collector
hired by museums worldwide to create material culture collections representing what was believe to be
a ‘disappearing race.’ During WWII, the Liverpool museum was bombed and much of their collection
destroyed. As a result, the museum began to rebuild their collection from smaller museums in the UK;
much of the Northwest Coast collection came from these institutions such as the Somerset
Archaeological and Natural History Society of Taunton, the Wellcome Historical Medical Museum, the
H.G. Beasley collection and the Norwich Castle Museum. More information on the National Museums
Liverpool North American Collection can be found here
http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/wml/collections/ethnology/americas-collections.pdf. Curator of
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the Americas Collections, Joanna Ostapkowicz provided a list of their Haida collection which consists of
61 objects, 16 of which are argillite and 6 of which are horn spoons. One extraordinary object in the
Liverpool collection is a large argillite compote with an ivory figure on the lid carved by Charles
Edenshaw, one of the most well-known Haida carvers active at the turn of the 20th century. National
Museums Liverpool participated in the Haida Conference in 2009.
Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery
Adam Jaffer, Curator of World Cultures, provided a list of their Haida collection which consists of 29
pieces in total. Out of the 29 pieces in the collection 17 are argillite objects, the majority of which are
pipes and totem pole. The Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery also holds 7 horn spoons, and one
argillite bowl attributed to Charles Edenshaw. More information on the Birmingham Museum and Art
Gallery can be found on their website http://www.bmag.org.uk/. The Birmingham Museum and Art
Gallery participated in the Haida Conference in 2009.
Kew Gardens, Economic Botany Collection
The Museum of Economic Botany at Kew Gardens was opened in 1848 and contained Sir William
Hooker’s personal collection, as well as objects donated from his contacts and bought from world fairs
such as the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London. The collection, consisting of objects made from plant
materials, was moved to four different buildings before the collection was taken off display and moved
to compact storage. The major contributing collectors of Canadian Aboriginal material were Eugene
Bourgeau (Alberta and Saskatchewan), Professor William Saunders who collected objects from the
Colonial and Indian Exhibition of 1886 in London, and finally Charles Newcombe, infamous Northwest
Coast collector who collected for multiple museums internationally. Between 1959 and 1961 Kew
gardens transferred large amounts of material to the British Museum, Pitt Rivers Museum and the
Horniman museum. More information on Kew’s collection, consisting of 85,000 objects, can be found on
their website http://www.kew.org/collections/ecbot/history/index.html. Kew Gardens holds nine
objects of Haida origin, one of which is an argillite trade type pipe which has been conserved. The
Economic Botany Collection at Kew Gardens participated in the Haida Conference in 2009. Mark Nesbitt,
Curator of the Economic Botany collection, provided copies of his presentation, one of which is found in
the PCMAG archives.
Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Cambridge
The Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology’s collection represents a large focus on the Pacific and
includes major collections from Borneo, Malaysia, India, Uganda, West Africa, the Amazon, Mexico,
North American Plains, Northwest Coast and the Canadian Arctic. According to their online catalogue,
they have 784 objects from the Northwest coast. As a member of the Reciprocal Research Network,
they have uploaded object records and digital photographs of their collections from British Columbia to
4
make them available to researchers and community members1. The Museum of Anthropology and
Archaeology holds 80 Haida objects including a full sized totem pole. Of these Haida objects, 25 of them
are argillite ranging from pipes to flutes. The majority of the argillite collection consists of pipe forms,
some with inlaid ivory, as well as a few plates, totem poles and a recorder. They have two argillite elbow
pipes which are relatively rare. More information on the collection can be found on the Reciprocal
Research Network www.rrnpilot.org or their website
http://maa.cam.ac.uk/home/index.php?a=32&b=collections&c=3. The Museum of Anthropology and
Archaeology participated in the Haida Conference in 2009.
Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter
There are over 1400 objects listed as North American in the Royal Albert Memorial museum’s (RAMM)
collections, with the majority of them from Canada. In 1999, the RAMM published a book detailing their
Northwest Coast collections called Klaya-ho-alth written by Jane Burkinshaw. The most significant parts
of the collection are those objects collected on Captain Cook and Captain Vancouver’s explorations of
the Northwest Coast. There are 87 objects from the Northwest Coast, and about 12 of them attributed
to the Haida, although there are a lot of objects whose origin or cultural group is unknown. There are
only two argillite pieces in the collection; one piece of a panel pipe and a model totem pole as well as
several mountain goat horn spoons, their origin unknown. The Royal Albert Memorial Museum
participated in the Haida Conference in 2009.
Maidstone Museum, Kent
The Maidstone Museum has 131 objects in its collection from North America. The Maidstone Museum
has six identified Haida pieces, four of which are argillite panel pipes; however there are six other
argillite pieces which have not been identified as Haida because they were collected in areas other than
Haida Gwaii. One of these panel pipes is interesting because it depicts a woman in European dress. I
have been unable to contact the Maidstone Museum for more details on their collection.
Horniman Museum, London
The Horniman Museum, established in 1860 by Frederick John Horniman aimed to display objects,
specimens, and artefacts illustrating natural history, the arts and handicrafts of the various peoples of
the world. Horniman collected in Egypt, Ceylon, Burma, China, Japan, Canada and the United States.
1
The Reciprocal Research Network (RRN) is an online database of Northwest Coast material culture initiated by the
University of British Columbia’s Museum of Anthropology in partnership with U’mista Cultural Society, Musqueam
Indian Nation and the Sto:lo Nation/Tribal Council. The RRN is an online tool developed to facilitate reciprocal and
collaborative research between communities, cultural institutions, and researchers. The RRN currently has 22
collaborating institutions which have made their Northwest Coast collections available online. The aim of the RRN
is to create a space where researchers can communicate and engage with Northwest Coast cultural heritage from
institutions across the world and work together with other researchers online ( www.rrnpilot.org).
5
The anthropology collection consists of 80,000 objects from around the world. The museum has a
substantial Americas collection, the core of which are Inuit and Northwest coast collected by A.C.
Haddon and donated by Emslie Horniman. The museum also has a substantial Plains collection. The
collection also contains objects transferred from other institutions such as Kew gardens and the
Museum of the American Indian in New York. The online database search retrieved two Haida objects; a
set of figures and a wooden model totem pole. More information about the collection can be found on
their website http://www.horniman.ac.uk/collections. I have been unable to contact the Horniman
Museum for further information at this time.
Saffron Walden Museum, Cuming Museum, and Tide and Time Museum
The Saffron Walden Museum, the Cuming Museum and the Tide and Time Museum participated in the
Haida Conference in 2009 at the Pitt Rivers Museum. At this time, however, I have been unable to
procure any information about the nature of their Haida collections.
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4.0 THE NORTHWEST COAST
The Northwest Coast refers to a strip of coastal land and the adjacent islands on the west coast of
Canada and northern United States. The Northwest Coast stretches from southern Alaska all the way
down the coast of British Columbia to northern Washington State. It is an anthropological term which is
used to refer to a geo-cultural area; however, the Northwest Coast contains a large number of distinct
indigenous groups. One of the ways the Northwest Coast can be defined is by language divisions. There
are five main language groups on the coast: Salishan, Wakashan, Haida, Tsimshian and Tlingit making it
one of the most linguistically diverse regions in North America (Jonaitis 2006, 2). Each of these language
areas can then be further broken down into cultural groups which have distinct dialects, and then still
further into lineages which derive from associations with traditional villages.
4.1 HAIDA GWAII AND THE HAIDA NATION
The Haida Nation inhabits the traditional lands of Haida Gwaii, an archipelago consisting of two main
islands: Graham Island and Moresby Island, as well as hundreds of other small islands and part of
southern Alaska. Haida Gwaii is located 60 miles west of mainland British Columbia with a population of
approximately 5000 people mostly situated around the two villages of Old Masset and Skidegate
(www.haidanation.ca).
The islands have always been known by the Haida as Haida Gwaii (The Islands of the People)
however they were also named the Queen Charlotte Islands by Captain George Dixon under the British
crown in 1787. The continuing reference to Haida Gwaii as the Queen Charlotte Islands was protested
by the Haida as it perpetuated colonial attitudes over traditional indigenous lands. As a result the
government of British Columbia officially renamed the islands Haida Gwaii in 2009
(www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia).
4.2 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND POTLATCHES
Traditionally, Haida society is divided into two social groups, or moieties, called Ravens and Eagles. The
Raven moiety is further subdivided into twenty-two lineages or families, and the Eagle moiety into
twenty-three. Haida society is matrilineal; marriages occur between Ravens and Eagles and children
belong to their mother’s moiety (MacDonald 1998). Therefore, a man’s heir was not his son, but his
sister’s son (Harris, 1992). The Haida lived in cedar plank long houses located on beaches. These houses
were very large and could accommodate between 40 and 100 people depending on how powerful the
chief was. The inhabitants included the chief’s family, relatives, distant family, and slaves. Each family or
lineage owned the rights to specific hunting and gathering areas, house sites, myths, legends, crests,
names, stories, songs and dances inherited from their ancestors. These rights would be passed down
through a potlatch, an important ceremonial gathering that varied in design up and down the Northwest
Coast (MacDonald 1998).
The potlatch, which in Chinook jargon means ‘to give,’ has many functions but essentially acts to
confirm the social order, record important events in the community, and conduct family business. Held
7
FIGURE 1 FIRST NATIONS OF BRITISH COLUMBIA MAP. REPRODUCED COURTESY OF THE MUSEUM OF ANTHROPOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF
BRITISH COLUMBIA
8
.in the winter, these events could be things such as the inheritance of a name, crest, song, or story. They
could celebrate a marriage, a person coming of age, the raising of a totem pole or painted house front.
They could also provide punishment for law breakers or honour the recently deceased. A potlatch can
only be held by chiefs of high-ranking families and they often require years of preparations. Potlatches
often last for several days and nights and members of other villages come from far away. Speeches and
stories are performed at potlatches, as well as spectacular theatrical and dance performances
accompanied by elaborately carved and painted masks, rattles, robes, and other forms of adornment.
The hosting family was expected to feed and house the hundreds of spectators and also to give away
large amounts of wealth in the form of material goods to thank them for witnessing the important
events at the potlatch (Jonaitis 2006).
In 1884, under a policy of assimilation, the Canadian government banned the potlatch and all
potlatch-related activities. To missionaries, teachers, and government workers the potlatch represented
aspects of native life that they were trying to remove; namely the practice of First Nations religion and
language as well as gathering large amounts of wealth in order to give it away, a concept that seemed
backwards to a European capitalist sentiment (Jonaitis 2006, 174). In addition, potlatches meant that
First Nations people would be unavailable in the winter months, removing large amounts of the work
force from the fish canneries. The potlatch ban made hosting, participating, attending, or encouraging
involvement in a potlatch illegal and punishable by two to six months in jail. People were charged with
crimes such as singing and dancing until eventually potlatches reduced in frequency. In some
communities, namely Kwakwaka’wakw communities, the potlatch went underground, disguised as
Christmas or birthday celebrations. The potlatch ban was not removed from the Indian Act until 1951,
however it was not acknowledged as an unjust law by the government and no apology was offered (see
Cole and Chaikin, An Iron Hand upon the People (1990) for more information on the potlatch ban).
Potlatches have been revived and are now practiced today by First Nations groups up and down the
Northwest Coast; they maintain their importance as a central social gathering in the community.
4.3 TRADE SYSTEMS
The social system of the Haida and other Northwest Coast groups was extremely sophisticated before
contact with Europeans. The Haida travelled to the mainland in their huge, ocean-faring canoes to trade
and sometimes to raid other, smaller groups and steal slaves back across to Haida Gwaii. Other groups
did not have equivalent canoes to make the journey across to Haida Gwaii so they did not have to worry
about retaliation (Harris 1992). When European traders arrived, the Haida, like many other First Nations
groups, participated in an active trading relationship with European and American ships visiting the
Northwest Coast in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The Haida, and others on the Northwest Coast,
hunted sea otters and traded their pelts for metal, shells, beads, clothing, guns, tools, tobacco and
alcohol (Harris 1992; Jonaitis 2006). The demand for sea otter was so great that they had been hunted
to near extinction by 1835 (Wright 2001, 225). As a result, arts for sale began to flourish and First
Nations groups up and down the coast began to sell their artworks, weavings, baskets, wood carvings,
and for the Haida, argillite carvings.
This strong trade economy resulted in an economic boom on the Northwest Coast; new houses
and poles were raised and potlatches became more grandiose (Wright 2001; 225). This new trading
9
relationship meant that lower-ranking men could begin to amass wealth like never before, and began to
hold potlatches of their own, battling for power and rank. This disturbed the social hierarchy system
that had been in place for thousands of years (Harris, 1992). With trade also came disease. A series of
smallpox epidemics ravaged the Northwest Coast in the 1780s, 1790s, 1836, and 1862. By 1840 the
Haida population was reduced by half and by 1862 the population was reduced by 90 percent (Wright
2001, 225). What was once a population of close to 10, 000 was said by some to have been as low as
600 people by the turn of the 20th century (Duff and Kew, 1958; Duff, 1964, 38-39).
5.0 COLLECTING PRACTICES; NORTHWEST COAST OBJECTS IN MUSEUMS
In his book Captured Heritage: The Scramble for the Northwest Coast (1995), Douglas Cole details
museum collecting of material culture from First Nations groups along the Northwest Coast during the
19th century. A rise in interest in the field of anthropology, the creation of several large ethnographic
museums, as well as the belief that the “Indian race” was disappearing, all led to a frenzy of museum
collecting on the Northwest Coast. There were several major collectors active in the area including C. F.
Newcombe, James Swan, Spencer Baird, Franz Boas, Alphonse Pinart, Aural and Arthur Krause, Major
Powell, George Dawson, Dr. Sheldon Jackson, Adrian Jacobsen, and Carl Hagenback. They worked for
museums such as the Smithsonian, the American Museum of Natural History in New York, Museum fur
Volkerkunde, The Field Museum, Princeton, the Trocadero Museum in Paris, and many others (Cole
1995).
Collectors engaged in “salvage” collecting, which was aimed at collecting as much material
culture as possible in an effort to document the existence of these cultures before they supposedly
disappeared. Collectors focused on developing large, comprehensive collections which demonstrated
every aspect of “traditional” life. They valued older “pure” objects, meaning objects which displayed no
evidence of interaction with Europeans. Any objects which incorporated materials acquired through
trade, depicted European subject matter, or were made specifically for sale to tourists, were not
collected as a matter of course. Argillite, being a made-for-sale commodity, was not systematically
collected by museums until after 1880; however this late date has resulted in no single museum holding
a comprehensive, representative argillite collection (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 9).
Canada did not establish any major museums or participate in “salvage” collecting until the late
19 century, meaning some of the older and more representative historical collections exist outside of
Canada’s borders, in Europe and the eastern USA. The geographical location of these collections makes
them generally inaccessible to the First Nations communities they originated from. In some instances,
the Canadian government’s policies of assimilation successfully erased some First Nations languages and
cultural practices, meaning that some communities have an incomplete knowledge of their history and
culture. Museums have the potential to play an important role in helping to reconnect these
communities with their material culture and assist in the process of cultural revitalization. As Cole
states, the majority of objects collected on the Northwest Coast, were in fact purchased, often in times
of duress, while a smaller amount were stolen or robbed from graves (Cole 1995). The notion of
ownership is being called into question; does legal possession outweigh ethical or moral ownership?
Some First Nations have started to ask museums for their objects to be repatriated to their communities
and many have been successful. Unlike the United States, Canada does not have federal repatriation
th
10
legislation, instead museums work on a case-by-case basis under the guidelines of the Task Force Report
on Museums and First Peoples (1992) which emphasizes processes of collaboration and consultation. In
situations where repatriation is not appropriate or possible, museums are beginning to negotiate spaces
and relationships with First Nations communities in which they can provide better access to their
collections while still retaining the objects. These relationships can take the form of research visits,
intensive handling sessions, or long-term and permanent loans.
6.0 THE PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY NORTHWEST COAST
COLLECTION RESEARCH AND CATALOGUE RECORDS
The following section is organized into three main areas of research: the first focuses on the physical
properties of argillite and the methods of quarrying, storing, caving and treating argillite. The second
area provides a brief introduction to the development of argillite carving as a form of tourist art
production and the varied types of objects made by carvers. The third section looks at the types of
argillite reflected in the PCMAG’s collection in more depth and provides detailed descriptions of each
piece as well as additional research on the unique features of each piece. Detailed descriptions and
additional research on the horn spoons and carved wooden model pole are also found in this section.
6.1 ARGILLITE: THE MATERIAL
Argillite (In Haida, kwawhlahl) is a dense, black, carbonaceous shale which is found in one specific site,
Tllgaduu (Slatechuck) Creek near Hlragilda ‘llnagaay (Skidegate) on Graham Island, Haida Gwaii. There is
evidence of Haida use of the quarry since the 1820s, but it wasn’t until 1941 that the quarry site became
designated as part of Haida Reserve No. 11, therefore guaranteeing exclusive access to the Haida (Drew
and Wilson 1980, 47-48). The site is currently controlled by the Hlragilda ‘llnagaay (Skidegate) Band,
however access is also granted to the raci7waas (Masset) Band. Argillite is composed of silt sized
fragments of kaolinate (fine clay) in a fine carbonaceous clay matrix. It was developed through a process
of folding and heating from a volcanic eruption which changed its structure. The major mineralogical
components are:

Silica

Alumina

Ferrous Oxide

Carbon
Argillite generally ranges from grey to black in tone, in rare occasions can have red or green hues, and
has a hardness value of 2.5 on a geologists scale of 10, 1 being talc and 10 being diamonds (Macnair and
Hoover 2002, 11). Argillite can be carved with woodworking tools to block out the main shape and then
detailed work is done with specially designed knives and gravers. Pre 1890 carvers preferred to leave
evidence of their tool marks on the surface of their carving, however post 1890 carvings were polished
with fine abrasives to create a smooth surface which was sometimes further polished with mixtures of
Vaseline, graphite, shoe polish and other materials to enhance the lustre and shine of the argillite
(Macnair and Hoover 2002, 12).
11
6.2 ARGILLITE: THE M ETHODS
Argillite is quarried when wet and tends to split into slabs if it dries too quickly (Holm 1972, 82). Many
sources have referred to ways in which carvers would prevent this happening. Argillite was buried in the
ground, wrapped in burlap and buried, or sealed with shellac (Holm 1972, 82) polyurethane (Wainright
and Down 1985, 9) or fish glue from halibut or salmon skin (Kaufmann 1969, 39; Fenn Pers. Comm.
2012).
Some argillite objects are carved from one piece of argillite however larger argillite pieces often
have protruding design elements which are attached with adhesives. Wainwright and Down (1985) state
that today, some carvers use Cyanoacrylate or epoxy resin to attach separate pieces, however in the
19th century carvers commonly used the skin of dog salmon (chum) to produce a suitable glue (Drew and
Wilson 1980, 55). Julia Fenn, Conservator at the Royal Ontario Museum, states that a fish glue (although
does not state a specific type) was also used to strengthen argillite for carving (Fenn Pers. Comm. 2012).
Argillite carvings vary in size and depth of modelling. Argillite can be carved with woodworking
tools to block out the main shape and then detailed work is done with specially designed knives and
gravers. Pre 1890 carvers preferred to leave evidence of their tool marks on the surface of their carving
(Macnair and Hoover 2002, 12). After 1890 carvings were polished with fine abrasives to create a
smooth surface, originally these abrasives would have been dried fish skin and sea sponge (Fenn Pers.
Comm.) later replaced by emery paper, fine steel wool and finally sandpapers (Wainright and Down
1985, 10). These later pieces were often polished with mixtures of Vaseline, graphite, shoe polish
(Macnair and Hoover 2002, 12), lamp black, loggers chalk or just the sweat and natural oils from the
carvers hands (Wainright and Down 1985, 10) to enhance the lustre and shine of the argillite.
Argillite carvings are sometimes inlaid with decorative materials such as abalone shell, opercula,
mussels, ivory, bone, iron oxide red, and various metals, glued into the argillite with halibut-tail glue or
synthetic adhesives (Ellis and Wilson 1981, 26; Danner 1976, 163, quoted in Wainright and Down
1985,10).
7.0 ARGILLITE CARVING
The establishment of argillite carving, along with several other trade genres, is considered in part to be a
creative, artistic response to the decline in the fur trade (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 18; Wright 2001)
Argillite carving was an art made exclusively for sale, sold for cash or traded for goods in a market with
high demand (Sheehan 2008, 18). Carving and selling argillite allowed the Haida to continue to exchange
tourist art with Europeans and Americans well after fur supplies had dwindled. The discovery of this new
carving material points to Haida artistic creativity and an openness to explore artistic expression with
different materials and forms. At first, carvers used images and crests similar to those found on poles
and house fronts but often combined them in a non-sensical way, unwilling to share the true
foundational images of their cultural identity (Sheehan 2008, 18). Later, Haida carvers began to depict
European traders, sailors, and settlers in argillite, along with exotic animals, ship architecture and
European floral designs. After the smallpox epidemics, populations were drastically reduced and argillite
carvers reverted to Haida imagery and designs as a way to preserve their cultural identity during this
time. Unable to celebrate their culture through the potlatch, Haida carvers used argillite production as
12
an alternate avenue of expression, which was encouraged by government and church officials as an
acceptable economic venture (Sheehan 2008, 18).
A chronology has been written to trace the development of argillite carving by many authors (Kaufmann
1969; Wright 1977; Drew and Wilson 1980; Sheehan 1981); however Macnair and Hoover provide the
most comprehensive version below:
TABLE 1 ARGILLITE CARVING TYPES AND THEIR EARLIEST RECORDED DATES IN MUSEUM COLLECTIONS, MACNAIR AND HOOVER 2002.
Type of Carving
Earliest Documented Dates of Museum Collection
Ceremonial Pipe form
1829
Small Ship Panel pipe
1830
***Haida-motif panel pipe
1832
***Ship Panel Pipe
1841 (to at least 1872)
Animal Form Bowl
1841
Carved Rectangular Bowl
1839
***Western Tableware
1839
Euro-American figures
1841
Early Trade Pipes

Plain clay trade type pipe
Pre – 1853

Plain portrait clay trade type pipe
Unknown

Elaborate portrait clay trade type pipe
Pre 1866
***Recorders
1852
***Early Totem Poles
1867
Chests
1883
Haida-motif Elaborate plates and platters
Unknown
Haida Figures
Before 1899
Haida Figural Groups
1883
Late Trade Pipes
Unknown
Late Totem Poles
Unknown
Late Platters and Chests
Unknown
*** Denotes categories represented in the PCMAG collection.
Not included in this chronology are the few argillite objects that may point to pre-contact use of
argillite. It has been suggested that the Haida used argillite for self-adornment purposes. Argillite
13
material such as lip labrets, pendants, and amulets have been found in archaeological sites, however
none have been found in areas that can be proven to be older than the early 19 th century (Macnair and
Hoover 2002, 150).
Argillite carving demonstrates Haida carvers’ artistic creativity and sense of experimentation.
From beautifully carved Haida motif panel pipes and model totem poles to panel pipes decorated with
maritime imagery to elaborate dinnerware, platters, Victorian compotes and storage chests, argillite
carving is evidence of a highly developed artistic skill which evolved and adapted to a changing sociocultural and economic environment. This report will focus on the argillite categories represented by the
PCMAG collection: Haida motif panel pipes, ship panel pipes, western tableware, recorders and early
model totem poles.
8.0 HISTORICAL RESEARCH ON ARGILLITE PIPES
Tobacco smoking was introduced to the Haida by Euro-American sailors sometime in the late 18th
century (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 18). Prior to contact, the Haida grew their own form of tobacco and
ground it up with burned clam shells (lime) and bark and then rolled the mixture into small pellets which
were then put inside the cheek and sucked (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 18). This form of tobacco is
known as Nicotiana quadrivalis which grows wild on the Pacific coast of America and Canada as far
north as southern Alaska and as far south as California (Winter 2000, 6). The smoking of tobacco was
incorporated into Haida ceremonies, specifically at funerals as it was believed that fire and smoke was a
medium of transformation (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 18). Ceremonial pipes, or oval pipes, are thought
to be the earliest kind of pipe carved in argillite with the earliest recorded collection date of 1829
(Kaufmann 1968, 115). Robin Wright, however, dates the earliest argillite tobacco pipes as collected in
1820 by the American Antiquarian Society in Worcester, Massachusetts (Wright 2001, 226).
Knut Fladmark has suggested that early trade type pipes were in fact the first kind of argillite
carving made, however there are no confirmed early museum collection dates available for this kind of
pipe. Two argillite trade-type pipes (commonly referred to as elbow pipes) were excavated from a house
on the Richardson Ranch site on the east coast of Graham Island, north of Hlragilda ‘llnagaay (Skidegate)
by Fladmark in 1969 and 1970. He dates this house and its pipes to 1810 to 1830-40, and claims that
argillite was used pre-contact for ceremonial smoking. Macnair and Hoover question the validity of this
claim as it is based on the presence of tobacco flakes in only one of the excavated pipes (2002, 150).
Robin Wright also posits that early trade-type pipes were the first type of argillite carving
produced. Wright argues that the practice of smoking tobacco was introduced with clay trade pipes by
Euro-American sailors and that the Haida started to use argillite as a substitute for the fragile clay
originals (Wright 1977, 93).
By the 1830s and 1840s the tobacco pipe had evolved into an elaborate, non-functional
sculpture referred to as a panel pipe which was produced solely for sale to tourists (Wright 2001, 226).
Even though panel pipes could not be smoked, early pipes still retained a passage drilled horizontally
along the base, forming what would be the stem, intersecting with a vertically drilled passage, forming
what would have been the bowl of the pipe. This passage was eventually abandoned and replaced with
just a small drilled hole indicating the stem and bowl. This shift into non-functional pieces made for sale
coincides with the near extinction of sea otters, the main trade item until 1835, due to over-hunting.
14
Pipes, and indeed all argillite carving, can be considered a cultural document of what the Haida
were seeing and experiencing (Wright 2001). This is especially evident in ship panel pipes where artists
were recording the exotic activities of their European visitors. The later reversion to traditional Haida
imagery (approximately 1870s) can also be seen as evidence of the cultural identity crisis the Haida were
experiencing due to population decimation from a string of smallpox epidemics, as well as government
and missionary forces of assimilation (Wright 2001, 229).
8.1 HISTORICAL RESEARCH ON ARGILLITE HAIDA-MOTIF PANEL PIPES 1830S-1860S
Haida motif panel pipes are characteristically long, horizontal and not overly high in profile. They are
usually trapezoidal in shape, although some are more rounded. These pipes are generally very thin,
hence their non-functionality. Carving styles can range from very flat and shallow to more rounded and
sculptural but Macnair and Hoover attribute these differences to the carvers’ preference rather than any
kind of stylistic trend (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 26).
Haida motif panel pipes are decorated exclusively with Haida animal and human figures or
crests which are intertwined throughout the composition emphasizing a sense of movement and
interconnectedness. These connections refer to all parts of a system; animals, insects, humans, spirits,
and the production materials. This kind of design can be seen in other Haida material culture such as
totem poles, mountain goat horn feast spoons, carved wooden bowls or painted woven hats. A
common tool used for linking figures is the extended tongue. Deriving originally from raven rattles, a
figure’s extended tongue touches another figure or in some cases the tongue is grasped in another
figures mouth or beak. Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker suggest that the use of
this device is thought to symbolize the transfer of power from one figure to another, however because
this device is also present on the handles of mountain goat horn spoons where power transfer is not
deemed important, some suggest that this is simply an aesthetic linking device (Wright 1977, 67).
Figures also often share appendages such as legs, arms and wings.
8.1.1 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PANEL PIPE 1903.90.4407X
FIGURE 2 HAIDA ARGILLITE PANEL PIPE (1903.90.4407X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
15
This panel pipe is constructed from a single piece of argillite and displays no visible repairs or damage. It
is a complicated composition and an excellent example of Haida design in which everything is connected
and interlinked. In this orientation the pipe stem extends out the bottom right side of the pipe and the
bowl extends up in almost the centre of the pipe. The images are identical on either side of the pipe.
From left to right: a large head of either a raven or a killer whale holds a smaller figure of a
raven in its mouth. The larger figure has an appendage behind its head which could be a fin or wing. On
top of this figures head is a smaller unknown figure with ears, arms and legs; its arms are visible in the
larger figures ears. This figure could be an image of a spirit transforming. Behind this transforming figure
is an insect, probably a dragonfly, identified by its proboscis and double wings wrapped around its body.
Behind the dragonfly is a vertical crouching figure with flat ears and an extended tongue. This could be a
human or an animal. Directly right of this creature’s head is the bowl of the pipe which a raven grasps
with its wings. Below the wings of the raven is another head on the bottom of the pipe facing down with
either arms or legs extending beside its head. If they are legs however they could belong to the raven
above this human face. Behind the raven is yet another crouched figure which could be a stylized bear,
its paws resting on the ravens shoulder. Directly to the bears right is a raven figure lying on its back
along the base of the pipe. Protruding from this ravens mouth is another small unidentified crouching
figure which is resting on the bears head with its hands visible in the bears ears.
8.1.1.1 H AIDA D ESIGN AND H AIDA S TORIES
Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker state that some designs are so complex it is
impossible to know exactly what they depict. In some cases the figures are clearly defined and
identifiable allowing a viewer familiar with Haida history, cosmology, and design to make an informed
assertion as to what Haida story it may relate to. In some cases, such as the panel pipe 1903.90.4407X, it
is difficult to clearly identify each and every figure. This could be an aesthetic design decision made by
the carver, or this pipe could represent a transformation story in which animals are actually
transforming into other presences. Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker identify the
dragonfly and at least four ravens, although they comment on the strange stunted beak which may be a
sign of transformation. This pipe could possibly relate to the Haida story Raven Transforming.
8.1.2 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PANEL PIPE 1899.42.1710X
FIGURE 3 HAIDA PANEL PIPE (1899.42.1710X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
16
This panel pipe is constructed from a single piece of argillite; however, currently it exists in three pieces:
the beak of the raven holding the frog on the far left side has become detached as well as the head of
the sea serpent.
From left to right: Perhaps the most distinctive feature of this pipe is the coiling sea serpent which
forms the base of this panel pipe. Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker suggest this
animal could be a sea wolf or Wasco in Haida cosmology. Its facial features are described with Haida
formline design but the body of the serpent could suggest some European influence. A large arrow is
protruding from the serpent’s mouth. Standing on top of the sea serpent on the far left is a raven with a
frog in its beak. The raven’s wing feathers are described with formline ovoids and u-shapes. On the
ravens back is a killer whale, its dorsal fin pierced with a small hole and joining with a hawks head
(Identified as a hawk by Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker). The hawk faces the
opposite direction and similar to the raven, a large ovoid is used to describe the wing joint with detailed
u-shapes used for the feathers. Another killer whale (?) seems to be protruding from the hawk’s chest
area which rests on the wings of another reclining raven.
8.1.2.1 S EA S ERPENTS
The coiling sea serpent found on this pipe is derived from a double coiled serpent or dragon found on
the brass side plate of ‘Northwest’ musket guns traded by Europeans to Northwest Coast indigenous
groups (see Macnair and Hoover 2002, 41, fig.41). Trading companies always specified the addition of
this plate to muskets as they knew conservative indigenous people judged the gun’s quality by the
presence of the side plate. (Vaughn and Holm 1982, 144). Examples of coiling sea serpents can be found
on several panel pipes, one of which exists in the Reif collection at the Royal British Columbia Museum
(RBCM) in Victoria, British Columbia, however its body is larger and more cumbersome than the pipe in
the PCMAG collection (see Macnair and Hoover 2002, 42, fig.44). Another pipe featuring a double coil
sea serpent is found in the Gerber collection at the Burke Museum at the University of Washington. The
sea serpent in this image is located on the top of the pipe rather than the base but is stylistically much
more similar to the PCMAG pipe than the RBCM pipe (see Holm 1972, 88-89 fig. 112).
8.2 HISTORICAL RESEARCH ON ARGILLITE SHIP PIPES 1840-1870S
Ship pipes are flat, long, thin, panel pipes with interlocking figures, a large amount of negative space and
impossibly small pipe stem and bowl holes making them non-functional. They can derive some or all of
their imagery from European trading ships, European sailors, animals and architecture. The use of ship
imagery became common in argillite pipes around 1840 (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 39). The Haida were
fascinated with European life, including the structure of their ships, their clothing, and their activities.
Scenery on ship pipes can be nautical or land-based but is usually defined by the presence of a bow, hull,
or keel element or a scrolled billet-headed prow. There is often a central cabin with windows, rigging,
paddles wheels or a steam chimney-which often doubles as the bowl of the pipe (Macnair and Hoover
2002, 40; Wright 2001, 225). Both Macnair and Hoover, and Wright suggest that the Haida were
attracted to the ship figureheads as they were similar to the Haida practice of decorating the front part
of their canoes and also because they considered them a type of crest for the Europeans (Macnair and
Hoover 2002, 41; Wright 2001, 226). Western or European imagery, including ship scenes, decreased
after the smallpox epidemic of 1867, and completely died out by the 1870s (Wright 2001, 228).
17
8.2.1 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SHIP PANEL P IPE 1899.42.1711X
Figure 4 Haida Argillite Ship Panel Pipe (1899.42.1711x) Photo Courtesy of Plymouth City Museum and Art Gallery.
This ship panel pipe is carved from one piece of argillite. The pipe was previously broken in half and
existed in two parts. There is evidence of an additional previous repair on the far left of the pipe. The
seated female figure is attached to the pipe with a dowel and the attachment was not secure. In
June/July of 2012, the pipe was treated in conservation and is now one piece. From left to right, keel to
bow; there is a woman on the far left side in European clothes facing another man, also in European
clothes with his jacket open. On the left end of the pipe, the woman’s skirts are drawn apart exposing
her bare bottom. It is not clear, due to damage, whether the man sitting opposite her is striking her or in
the act of touching her face and her subsequent grasping of his arms is purely a formal technique used
to link figures throughout the composition which is common to Haida design.
His back leans up against a square cabin with a set of double doors with square windows. On the
other side of the pipe, a European style face is present in the window of the central cabin compartment.
This cabin rests on the back of a deer which Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker state
was not a native species to Haida Gwaii. On the other side of the cabin there are three male
European/Euro-American figures, likely sailors. One faces the cabin with his ear pressed up against the
wall as if he is listening to someone inside. On the other side of the pipe this man is holding a scabbard
by his hip. The middle figure is wearing a toque, (knitted bobble hat) and is pulling the hair of the last
figure who is grasping the prow of the ship. The last figure wears a longer, mid-length jacket which could
signify a higher rank to the man pulling his hair, who is wearing a shorter hip length jacket.
8.2.1.1 W OMEN ON S HIP P IPES
The depiction of women on ship pipes is relatively rare. In Wright’s examination of 208 ship pipes, she
observed 374 depictions of men and only 23 of women (1986, 38). It could be assumed that because the
women are in European clothes they are European women, however Wright argues that they are in fact
Haida women wearing European clothes because there were no European or Euro-Canadian women on
Haida Gwaii until 1876, which as mentioned earlier, is past the date when European imagery was no
longer used (late 1860s) (Wright 1986, 40-41). Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker
also refer to the likelihood of the woman being Haida in their commentary.
18
In Wright’s review of images of women on argillite pipes, he notes that the Haida identity of the
women is, in some cases, confirmed with the presence of a labret or nose piercing. These body
modifications were signifiers of high ranking women that would marry high ranking Hudson’s Bay
Company personnel (Wright 1986, 41). In some cases
however, such as 1899.42.1711x, the women depicted do not
have labrets or nose piercings, signifying their low social
status. In these cases, Wright suggests that these women
could have been slaves offered to fur traders for sexual
services; this practice is well documented in mariners journals
(Wright 1986, 41). After Fort Victoria was established in 1849
the Haida visited the fort in great numbers until the smallpox
epidemic of 1862. During this period some low ranking Haida
women became prostitutes. The fact that this woman’s skirts
are drawn apart revealing her bare bottom is strong evidence
pointing towards her identity as a slave or prostitute. Robin
Wright has viewed images of this pipe and has commented
that “there are some other argillite pipes that are somewhat
suggestive, but none I know are this explicit” (Wright, Pers.
Comm. 2012). This practice is not referred to by Northwest
FIGURE 5 DETAIL OF 1899.42.1711X. PHOTO
COURTESY OF EMMA KNIGHT.
Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker. In fact, they
discuss the important position women held in matriarchal
Haida society.
8.2.1.2 V IOLENT S CENES ON S HIP P IPES
Scenes of violence are relatively rare on ship panel pipes. In Wright’s review of argillite pipes, the author
tries to determine the difference between actual scenes of violence and aesthetic linking devices. Taking
into consideration the Haida style of intricately interlocking animals, spirits and humans in their carving,
the sometimes strangely contorted representations of Europeans can be seen as an aesthetic device
rather than a violent or ridiculous scene (2001, 228). Wright’s example of the most violent scene depicts
a man in a top hat pointing a gun at a native woman whom he grabs by the hair. Shee suggests that this
may have been a scene the carver saw himself, perhaps when he was camped outside of Fort Victoria,
and decided to replicate (2001, 228). Throughout my research I have been able to find other hair-pulling
scenes depicted in argillite panel pipes. The Gerber collection at the Burke Museum at the University of
Washington has a pipe which depicts a similar scene, where one sailor pulls another’s hair whilst
standing behind him (see Holm 1972, 88-89 fig.113). While Holm discusses the imagery, he makes no
effort to explain its meaning. Another pipe depicting hair pulling also exists in the Birmingham City
Museum, however on this pipe it seems a dog is pulling a sailors hair. The Brooklyn Museum also has a
pipe that depicts a human sitting behind another larger human and pulling his/her hair. Henry Green
and Ralf Stocker refer to the hair pulling in their commentary:
Early European captains and traders, when the two sides were just beginning to understand
each other, only wanted to deal with men, saying to the women ‘we don’t want to talk to you,
we’re men out here.’ But women had all the power there, [it was a] matriarchy, and normally
19
did all the business. So if the men made a bum deal with the Europeans, the women beat them
with sticks and pulled their hair.
Both the Brooklyn Museum catalogue record and Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker
state that long hair or hair in a top-knot refers to shamanism. However, only the Brooklyn Museum
example depicts Haida men; both the PCMAG and the Burke Museum pipes depict European sailors. The
Birmingham Museum example, from what I can deduce from a written description, also depicts
European sailors. Thus the meaning of the hair pulling is still unknown.
8.2.2 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SHIP PANEL P IPE 1903.90.4405X
FIGURE 6 HAIDA ARGILLITE SHIP PANEL PIPE (1903.90.4405X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
This pipe is carved from one piece of argillite. It is incomplete; one piece, the upper torso of a figure is
completely missing. The upper torso of the lion figure is also detached from the body of the pipe. There
is evidence of a previous failed repair, small holes have been drilled through the pipe and the lion’s body
and then assumedly tied to the pipe.
From left to right, bow to keel: The bow of the ship is a figure with a large mane and claws.
Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker state this figure is a lion. The body of the animal
extends down and continues into the baseline body of the pipe. Reclining on the lion’s back is a humanlike figure, although Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker refer to this as a bear
mother. This figure’s facial characteristics are depicted using Haida style and his long-fingered hands
grasp the bottom of the pipe/body of the lion. Facing this unknown figure is another smaller kneeling
character who also grasps the bottom of the pipe/body of the lion. The cabin has two windows, one
open and one closed and there is a cross-hatched panel beneath the windows. Above the cabin is a
canopy with scroll and leaf designs. Grasping the wall of the cabin, facing left is a European style figure
whose head is missing. We can tell this is a European figure because of the European style tailored
jacket, shoes and trousers. Directly behind this headless figure are the hindquarters of the lion whose
forequarters are on the bow. Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker comment that the
lion figure was probably copied from a figurehead on the prow of a ship. It is also possible that the
carver saw a lion in a book.
This pipe is unusual because it combines both European imagery and Haida styles of design. The
lion figurehead is carved in both a western and Haida style. Haida form is used to describe the facial
characteristics while a western style design is used to describe its mane. It is quite possible the mane
20
was copied directly from a ship’s figurehead. The reclining figure on the lions back is almost completely
described in Haida design, but it is combined with an image of a European ship and European-dressed
figure. Kaufmann (1969), Sheehan (1981) would consider this piece representative of a transition
between two style periods, the first of which Haida imagery and cosmology dominated (1820-1835), the
second of which the authors suggest only European style imagery is consistently used (1830-1865).
However, as I have demonstrated above (see page 13), Macnair and Hoover’s chronology suggests that
both Haida motifs and European motifs were being produced at approximately the same time up until
the 1870s.
8.2.3 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF SHIP PANEL P IPE 1903.90.4406X
FIGURE 7 HAIDA ARGILLITE SHIP PANEL PIPE (1903.90.4406X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
This ship panel pipe is carved from one piece of argillite. The pipe is taller at the left end and shorter at
the right end. It is complete but has been damaged in the past and repaired. At one point the pipe broke
into two pieces and was joined back together by attaching a long piece of metal to the bottom of the
pipe with metal pins. The pipe is very weak along the join and is unsafe to handle.
From left to right, bow to keel: The bow of this pipe is defined by a ship’s scrolled billet head
decorated with incised cross-hatching which runs the length of the base of the pipe. The first figure of
the pipe is unidentifiable: it has a rounded head with ears but a scaled or perhaps feathered back, four
appendages and a tail. The hand areas of the appendages are bent backwards suggesting flippers. This
animal could be a seal, but Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker suggest maybe a cat
or a dog. On the back of this unidentifiable creature is a reclining human figure with one elbow leaning
on the figure and one hand behind his back. Next to this figure is a bird figure with pronounced feathers
and a pointed beak which signifies it is not a raven, eagle or hawk. The bird is pecking the human’s head.
Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker do not know the identity of this creature but
determine it is not a cormorant because that is a Tsimshian crest. In the centre of the pipe is a floral
rosette shape surrounded by angular leaf-like decorations. The next figure is a rooster; it has feathered
wings and tail, legs with talons and tuft on its head. The tuft on its head leads Northwest Coast carvers
Henry Green and Ralf Stocker to suggest it may be a rooster, which was a European animal often found
on ships. Protruding from the rooster’s back is the pipe bowl decorated with geometric lines. The next
figure is clearly identified as a dragonfly by its thin, scrolled nose, large eyes and double wings.
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Dragonflies are seen most often on argillite pipes of the early decades of the 19 th century than anywhere
else in Haida art (Holm 1972, 92). The dragonfly leans against a European man’s back who holds an
unknown object in his hands; possibly an upside down tree pointing at his stomach.
9.0 HISTORICAL RESEARCH ON ARGILLITE WESTERN TABLEWARE 1839-1880
Western tableware is a category of argillite carving that can be safely classified as completely influenced
by European tastes. There is no relationship to Haida serving dishes (traditionally made from wood and
painted) meaning they were made exclusively for sale to tourists and traders (Macnair and Hoover 2002,
62). Western tableware is either circular or oval in shape with shallow sides. Decoration on classic
western tableware includes circular geometric designs combined with floral components. Bone or ivory
is often used as an inlay material (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 62). Decoration is almost always found on
the inside of the dish, and usually found on the outside or bottom side of the dish as well. The origin of
the circular geometric design commonly found on western tableware has been discussed by several
authors. Kaufmann (1969, 129-30) suggests the shape was derived from a jagging wheel or pie crimper,
while Wright (1977,80) argues the shape is derived from the paddle wheels on paddle steamer ships,
such as the Hudson’s Bay Company ship the Beaver which arrived on the Northwest Coast in 1837. John
Veillette has posited that the circular design is derived from sunburst patterns found in Georgian
tableware and glassware in the 1840s (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 62).
The earliest example of argillite western tableware was collected by William Fraser Tolmie and
sent to Dr Scouler who then placed it in the Jardin des Plantes, Paris in 1839. Western tableware was
produced until about 1880 (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 63).
9.1 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 1903.90.4417X
FIGURE 8 HAIDA ARGILLITE PLATE (1903.90.4417X) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
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This plate is constructed from a single piece of argillite. Before entering the collection the plate was
broken into at least three pieces and repaired. The rim is chipped and small parts are missing. The inside
of the bowl is carved with classic circular geometric and floral designs inherent to this type of argillite
carving and discussed above. In the centre of the bowl is a flower motif with eight petals. Surrounding
this flower is another ring of petal-like shapes. Surrounding this central design are four semi-circular
sunburst designs, their centre points around the rim of the plate. The negative space between the
central floral motif and four semi-circular sunburst designs is also carved with a leaf and berry design
which is said to represent the native tobacco plant. This tobacco design is referred to as lanceolate
leaves and berries (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 40). The bottom of the plate has a circular flat base, there
is a small hole in the centre of the plate which a dowel was probably placed into which allowed the plate
to rotate whilst carving. Four circular sunburst designs are found on the bottom sides of the plates with
scrolling leaf-shape designs occupying the negative space.
9.1.1 LANCEOLATE LEAVES AND BERRIES D ESIGN
The origin of the lanceolate leaves and berries design, like the sunburst design has been a topic of
speculation. Many ships had floral and scroll work designs on their billet heads however it is thought
that the lanceolate design derives from native tobacco, or Nicotiana quadrivalis as mentioned earlier.
Nicotiana quadrivalis grows to a height of two feet with narrow leaves up to 15 cm long; it has large
white flowers that are pale and open only in the evening (Winter 2000, 6). Turner and Taylor (1972)
claim that the lanceolate design is derived from native tobacco based on a drawing a Captain Klue made
from memory of native tobacco (see Macnair and Hoover page 41). The drawing depicts long leaves
with large segments and berries growing on the end of stalks and is remarkably similar to those depicted
on argillite panel pipes and indeed, this plate in the PCMAG collection. The Pitt Rivers Museum, the
Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology at the University of Cambridge, the Burke Museum at the
University of Washington, and the Museum of Anthropology at the University of British Columbia all
hold similar plates in their collections.
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9.2 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PLATE 1916.99
FIGURE 9 HAIDA ARGILLITE PLATE (1916.99) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
This argillite plate is constructed from one piece of argillite and is circular in shape. It is almost
complete; however there are parts of the rim that have chipped off. Around the rim of the plate are six
groups of incised notches. Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green and Ralf Stocker suggest the number of
these marks signify a particular artist; however the identity of this artist is currently unknown. In the
centre of the dish is a portrait of a European man confined in a circular shape. Europeans, as a type,
follow conventions for white features; an angular face with long pointed nose, small tight-lipped mouth
and parted hair with sideburns (Vaughn and Holm 1982, 140). The portrait on this dish however, is
carved in low relief and demonstrates a keen attention to detail, as shown in his short, parted hairstyle,
sideburns, neck collar with bow, and suit details. It is not clear if commissioned portraits were common
with Haida carvers but the individualistic detail in this portrait suggests the carving could have been
done from life or from a photograph. Vaughn and Holm discuss an argillite figure carving which also
demonstrates unique facial features and also suggest this carving represented an individual rather than
a type(1982, 143). Surrounding the portrait is an elaborate floral design which Northwest coast carvers
Henry Green and Ralf Stocker refer to as ‘foliate work’. Foliate refers to a design which is based off, or
relating to, leaves. The design is symmetrical and consists of scrolling leaves and stems meeting both
beneath and above the portrait. On the left and right sides of the portrait are two large globe shaped
flowers with large petals. The carving style is very fine, thin, and shallow suggesting an expert carver.
June Bedford, member of the Museum Ethnographers Group attributed this piece to Master Carver
Charles Edenshaw; however there is no evidence to support this claim. The bottom of the plate has a
circular flat base with engraved lines dividing it into quarters. The bottom sides of the plate are carved
with scrolling floral designs reminiscent of fern leaves. On the bottom of the plate is a label with an
inscription that reads: “Steatite plate made by the aboriginal Indians of Vancouver’s Island NW
America.”
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This plate is an example of unusual imagery; indeed Macnair and Hoover claim that pictorial
scenes are exceptionally rare in western style tableware. They only know of three examples in the world
(the Royal British Columbia Museum 15704R; Peabody Harvard R166; Canadian Museum of Civilization
J237) (2002, 64). A review of Haida collections in British, Canadian, and American museums’ collections
has revealed no plates in existence depicting a naturalistic portrait thus far.
Bill McLennan, Curator of Pacific Northwest at the Museum of Anthropology, University of
British Columbia, has seen photographs of this plate and has confirmed that it is probably not by the
hand of Charles Edenshaw. He points out the interesting perspective in the depiction of the man’s face
and compares it to an Edenshaw plate at the National Museum of Ireland which also shares the same
kind of skewed, three-quarter view perspective. This alone, however, is not enough to attribute it to
Edenshaw and is probably simply a transition for First Nation’s artists from two-dimensional design to
three-dimensional design (Bill McLennan, pers. Comm. 2012). Robin Wright has also seen photographs
of the portrait plate and agrees with McLennan that it is not an Edenshaw, but could possibly be a
portrait of Sir James Douglas, the first governor of Victoria (Robin Wright, Pers. Comm. 2012). Aside
from geometric or floral designs present on some plates, imagery was often borrowed from western
objects such as coins, medals, flags, and labels from manufactured goods.
10.0 HISTORICAL RESEARCH ON ARGILLITE RECORDERS, AT LEAST 1852-1880S
The argillite recorder is derived from western-style wind instruments specifically a European recorder.
The placement of the mouth piece on the top rather than the side indicates this is a recorder; however
they are often referred to as flutes or flageolets. Argillite recorders can have any number of note holes,
however they usually have six (Macnair and Hoover, 68). The holes are of even size and spacing resulting
in a scale of notes, however, they do not correspond to European or Haida styles of music so were
probably not meant to be played (Vaughn and Holm 1982, 144). The body of the recorder is usually
made from argillite with the mouthpiece and sometimes an end piece made from some kind of soft
metal; pewter and lead is commonly used (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 68). Recorders are often
decorated with two-dimensional floral designs or rosettes and incorporate three-dimensional sculpted
figures. The most common design is the combination of multiple sculptural frog motifs sitting at equal
spaces along the body of the recorder with a single sculptural eagle motif facing the frogs. Metal inlay is
often found in bands or floral decorations on the body of the recorder. Frogs were not actually a native
species to Haida Gwaii but were introduced with travel and trade. Toads however are native species to
Haida Gwaii (Stewart 1979, 68; Green and Stocker). Haida legend explains the lack of frogs:
When the Frog chief first encountered a black bear, he was terrified, particularly when the huge
animal tried to step on the hopping creature for fun. The frog escaped, returned to his village,
and related his frightening experience. Fearful that the bear would seek them out, the frogs
decided to flee the islands (Stewart 1979, 68).
We can assume that argillite recorders were established as a category of argillite carving by at least
1852. Drew and Wilson note the earliest reference to argillite recorders in R.C.P Baylee’s observations.
Baylee was a chaplain aboard a Royal Navy frigate that patrolled waters surrounding Haida Gwaii in
1852 (Drew and Wilson, 1980; 186). He observed that the Haida:
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…offered for sale flutes, made out of stone or slate, and pipes of the same materials with most
curious devices carved on them, displaying a degree of skill truly astonishing, when one
considers the rude implements, a rusty nail or broken blade of a penknife, with which they were
wrought out (Drew and Wilson 1980, 186).
While the earliest reference to an argillite recorder is in 1852, there is no reference for when argillite
recorders were no longer made. The latest example exists in the Museum of Anthropology at the
University of British Columbia and is thought to have been carved in the 1880s as demonstrated by its
bulky, flat carving style (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 69). Therefore we can assume that the PCMAG
argillite recorder was made between 1852 and the 1880s. In museums today, there are only about two
dozen argillite recorders in existence (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 68) which compared to other argillite
categories, makes them relatively rare.
10.1 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF RECORDER 1924.145
FIGURE 10 HAIDA ARGILLITE RECORDER (1924.145) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
This recorder was originally constructed from two pieces of argillite; the body of the recorder and
argillite plug inside the mouthpiece, and one piece of lead; the cast mouth piece. Markings similar to the
shape of the mouthpiece are present on the bottom end of the recorder suggesting that it had a
decorative lead tip which is no longer present. The recorder has previously been damaged and existed in
four pieces: the body, the mouthpiece and plug, and two fragments. During June/July of 2012, the
recorder was treated prior to exhibition. It is now complete and in one piece. The inside of the recorder
is hollow but it was probably meant to be decorative rather than functional. There is a hairline crack
running down the bottom of the recorder.
The body of the recorder is decorated with the frog and eagle design: three frogs sit on the top
side facing the mouthpiece grasping the pipe with their arms and legs. Just below the mouthpiece an
eagle’s head and talons protrude from the body of the recorder in 3D facing the frogs, whilst its wings
and body are engraved in 2D design and wrapped around the body of the recorder. In the two spaces
between the frogs are two sets of note holes set into deeply ridged finger grooves. On the bottom side
of the pipe underneath the finger holes are two rosette motifs surrounded by concentric circles. The
eagles and frogs’ heads as well as the frogs’ backs are inlaid with lead (?) which has been inserted and
then carved smooth to the contour of the animals. These lead inlays may have been highly polished to
26
reflect the light. Our conservator has inspected the mouthpiece and suggested that it was cast when the
lead was molten causing a smooth seamless finish. Northwest Coast Carvers Henry Green and Ralf
Stocker commented on the carving style saying it was ‘wobbly’ and ‘not so great’ suggesting it was
carved by an apprentice carver. The recorder is quite heavy and bulky and signs of the carver’s tool
marks are evident.
10.1.1 GEORGE GUNYA
As previously mentioned, Haida Argillite originates from one specific quarry called Tllgaduu (Slatechuck)
Creek outside of the present Haida Village Hlragilda ‘llnagaay (Skidegate). It has been proposed by
Marius Barbeau, an influential anthropologist at the National Museum of Canada from 1911 to 1949,
that Haida George Gunya, also known as George Young, owned the land where the argillite was found
by white miners in the 1820s (1957, 5). Macnair and Hoover, however, point out that the geologist
George Dawson recorded that the first prospectors did not appear in the area until 1852 (2002, 146).
Barbeau continues by claiming that in the 1820s Gunya soon began to carve argillite flutes, pan pipes,
pipes, plates, dishes, figurines and statuettes essentially attributing the entire argillite tradition to
George Gunya (1957, 146). Subsequent research has refuted this claim and questioned the validity of
Barbeaus’ attribution of the common frog and eagle design specifically to George Gunya and suggest
that many artists carved this design (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 146; Kaufmann 1969; Wright 1977).
Therefore, June Bedford’s attribution of the PCMAG recorder to George Gunya cannot be completely
verified based on the evidence of the use of the frog and eagle motif alone. Nevertheless George Gunya
is referenced as a well-known argillite recorder carver by Haida delegates at the Pitt Rivers Museum (see
Pitt Rivers Flute 1884.111.22). The Royal British Columbia Museum, the Museum of Anthropology and
Archaeology at the University of Cambridge, the Pitt Rivers Museum, the British Museum, and the
National Museum of the American Indian all hold similar recorders in their collections.
11.0 HAIDA TOTEM POLES
Cedar totem poles have many functions. They could be house frontal poles, house portal poles; in which
you would enter the house through a large mouth, memorial poles; erected one year after a chiefs
death memorializing his achievements, or mortuary poles; upon which a box would be mounted in
which a high-ranking individual would be buried (Stewart 1993, 24). The poles would be carved with
crests; depictions of supernatural creatures which proclaim a peoples origin stories, history and lineage.
A families ‘origin crest’ would be gained through an ancestors experience with a supernatural creature
(Stewart 1993, 33). In combination with family crests would be crests of animals, birds, fish, insects,
plants, the sun, the moon and other natural phenomenon. These crests displayed on poles are like
records of the family’s history and status proclaimed for all to see.
These crests and designs are also depicted on model totem poles made of wood or argillite
made for sale. In fact, early model totem poles were replicas of actual totem poles. Several model totem
poles have been matched to the pole they are a replica of in historical photographs. There was a surge
in production of argillite model totem poles between the years of 1881 and 1890. This was a period of
time when all the Haida were converging either in Masset or Skidegate as a result of disease and
enforced conversion to a Christian lifestyle. Because the carving of ceremonial and ritual objects was
27
disallowed, Haida carvers substituted argillite for cedar which resulted in an outpouring of argillite
carvings using traditional subject matter.
11.1 HISTORICAL RESEARCH ON ARGILLITE M ODEL TOTEM POLES
Along with panel pipes, model totem poles were the most highly produced type of argillite carving.
Argillite model totem pole production is divided into two periods. The early period spans from the 1860s
to the 1880s. The late period spans from the 1890s to the 1950s. The majority of model totem poles
created in the early period are assumed to be miniatures of real totem poles in Haida villages.
Replication of real totem poles did continue into the late period as well, but carvers in the late period
also carved designs they had made up or designs that reflect narratives (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 78).
Argillite carvers were usually also carvers of cedar totem poles, masks, and ceremonial regalia etc. so
they had an understanding of how totem poles were designed and carved. Totem poles in the early
period are identified by a hollowed out back which replicates the way real totem poles would be
hollowed to reduce weight (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 77). Generally early model totem poles ranged in
height, however some as tall as one metre were carved in this period. Tall poles, over 60cm, were not
carved after 1890 (Macnair and Hoover 2002, 78).
11.1.2 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF MODEL ARGILLITE TOTEM POLE 1918.43.1
FIGURE 11 HAIDA ARGILLITE MODEL TOTEM POLE (1918.43.1) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
This model totem pole is constructed from two pieces of argillite: the body of the pole and the base
attached with a dowel. The back of the pole is slightly hollowed out reminiscent of real cedar poles and
indicating that it was made in the early period between the 1860s and 1880s. On the back of the pole
the back, buttocks and legs of the top figure are visible as well as a pair of disembodied legs at the
bottom of the pole. It is not clear which figure the second pair of legs belong to.
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On the front side of the pole from top to bottom: The top figure is a human holding the tail of a
killer whale in his/her hands. Below the broken dorsal fin is an inverted human with his/her knees drawn
up on either side of the killer whale. He/she is grasping the base of the killer whale’s dorsal fin. The
combination of killer whale and two humans could refer to a Haida story in which a killer whale stole a
Haida wife. Below this human figure is a grizzly bear, signified by its ears and sharp, pointed teeth.
Finally the bottom figure is identified as Gunarhnisimget (?) by Northwest Coast carvers Henry Green
and Ralf Stocker. The figure is identified as Gunarhnisimget by its wings and grizzly bear claws.
11.1.3 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ARGILLITE MODEL TOTEM POLE 1918.43.2
FIGURE 12 HAIDA ARGILLITE MODEL TOTEM POLE (1918.43.2) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
This argillite model totem pole is constructed from two pieces of argillite: The body of the pole and the
base. The base has become detached and we can see the dowel in the bottom of the pole. On the top of
the pole there is glue discolouration which is evidence that another piece was attached to the top of the
pole. This piece is missing. The back of the pole is slightly hollowed out reminiscent of real cedar totem
poles and indicating this pole was carved sometime between the 1860s and the 1880s.
The front of the pole, from top to bottom: The top figure is unidentifiable; it has no ears but
does have a snout, paws and is bearing its teeth. Henry Green and Ralf Stocker refer to this figure as one
of higher consciousness. Below this figure is a grizzly bear identified by its sharp, pointed teeth, in its
paws it holds a frog or a toad. Below the toad is a raven, with pointed beak, formline design wings and
talons. It is possibly wearing a clan hat signified by the circular ring on its head. Below the raven is a
beaver identified by its two large front teeth, cross hatched tail and piece of wood held in its hands.
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11.1.4 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF WOODEN MODEL TOTEM POLE 1920.286
FIGURE 13 HAIDA WOODEN MODEL TOTEM POLE (1920.286) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
This model totem pole is constructed from one piece of yellow cedar and painted red, green and black.
It is complete and has no parts missing. There is a scratch on the right cheek of the figure with an
extended tongue. There is a small hole which indicates this pole may be a replica of a house portal pole;
on ceremonial occasions people would enter a long house through this hole. The pole is decorated with
carved figures as well as painted Haida formline designs, such as the use of ovoids for the eyes and ears
of some figures.
The identification of the crest figures on this pole is uncertain. Northwest Coast carvers Henry
Green (Tsimshian) and Ralf Stocker (Haida) suggest that this pole is probably Haida but shows some
influence of Tlingit styles. In their examination of the pole they identify the bottom crest, only half of
which is showing as a killer whale. This figure does not display a pectoral or dorsal fin or tail but does
have a large mouth with many teeth which are characteristics of a killer whale (Stewart 1979, 42). It also
has large round eyes which are often seen on pilot whales. Above the whales face is the portal hole.
Above the hole is a figure with a hooked nose which Henry Green and Ralf Stocker suggest could be a
salmon with a hooked nose. It could also be a hawk. The identification of the next figure is unclear,
Henry Green and Ralf Stocker mention a beaver, however this figure does not depict the characteristics
of a beaver, namely two large front teeth, a cross-hatched tail, or chewing stick (Stewart 1979, 50). The
figure has an extended tongue touching the top of the hooked-nose figure. This figure could be a bear.
The defining features of a bear are ears, large flaring nostrils, a wide mouth with conspicuous teeth,
claw like hands and often a protruding tongue (Stewart 1979, 43). This figure has all of these
characteristics except the teeth, leading me to suggest it may be a bear rather than a beaver. Between
this figures ears is a wolf cub emerging from a hole. This hole is located between an adult wolf’s knees.
It has been suggested in earlier observations that this figure is a bear; however it has a long, protruding
snout suggesting it is a wolf (Stewart 1979, 46). The wolf holds a human figure in its mouth. Between the
wolf’s ears is a small human face.
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12.0 HISTORICAL RESEARCH ON HORN SPOONS
Horn spoons are made from the horn of mountain goats, mountain sheep and later, cows. These
animals did not live on Haida Gwaii, so horn was acquired through trade with mainland First Nations
groups directly or indirectly from European trading ships. Unlike argillite however, horn spoons are not
unique to Haida Gwaii, and were made by many other groups on the mainland including the Tsimshian,
Tlingit and Kwakwaka’wakw, meaning that these spoons could have been made by carvers from any of
these groups. Spoons can be made from either one or two pieces of horn. The horn spoons in the
PCMAG collection are made from two pieces. The creamy gold colour of the bowls of the two spoons in
the PCMAG collection indicate that they are made from mountain sheep horn, while the smaller, dark
handles are made from mountain goat horn. In order to make the bowl of the spoon, the horn is heated
and steamed until it is flexible and workable and then it is placed into a specially designed mould and
left to cool. Meanwhile another piece of horn is carved for the handle, using the natural curve of the
horn. The handles and the bowl were then attached using rivets (Jonaitis 2006, 159). Horn spoon
handles are carved similar to totem poles, with family and clan crests but often only have about four or
five crests on them. Similar to model totem poles, the crest design on horn spoons were often replicas
of the owner’s house pole. These types of spoons were only used during important ceremonies such as
potlatches, to serve food from large ceremonial dishes and occasionally to eat with, but only by very
high-ranking chiefs. Horn spoons were thought of as ceremonial objects so they were stored with
ceremonial regalia in bentwood boxes and only brought out on special occasions (MacDonald, 1998).
12.1 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF H ORN SPOON 1930.19.1
FIGURE 14. HORN SPOON (1930.19.1) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
This horn spoon is made from two pieces of horn; the bowl is mountain sheep horn and the handle
mountain goat horn. The two pieces are attached with 3 copper rivets, although there are three extra
holes, one of which has a copper rivet in it, suggesting that the handle may have been attached to
another spoon bowl. The spoon follows the natural curves of the horns used, giving it a gentle S shape.
There are no signs of any other damage.
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The bowl of this spoon has been heated, steamed, and moulded into a perfectly rounded,
smooth bowl. The mountain sheep horn has been shaped and moulded so it is thicker in the centre of
the bowl and very thin and transparent in some areas. There is no decoration on the bowl of the spoon
but there is a patina which Henry Green and Ralf Stocker suggest is left behind from using the spoon to
pass out eulachon grease or seal oil at feasts. The handle depicts four figures. At the base of the handle
is a large transforming figure, raven transforming (?), with a large beak and wings, but with human
hands and legs on the back of the handle. Between the raven’s ears is a small inverted human. Above
the human is a hawk, the tips of its feathers are inserted into the human’s mouth. Henry Green and Ralf
Stocker refer to this figure as a half-human half-hawk, which is a metaphor for receiving spiritual
messages. The top figure appears to be a human with a fin on his head, there is a small hole through the
fin. Henry Green and Ralf Stocker state it is probably meant to represent a killer whale. They also state
that this combination of crests is meant to represent the transformation of a human being taken down
to meet the chief of the sea (killer whale). A killer whale with a hole in its fin is also used by the
Tsimshian, who saw whales as being members of one of four clans. The fin with the hole represents the
Gispawadwe’da clan (Stewart 1979, 42). These types of spoons were also made by other Northwest
Coast groups such as the Tsimshian so the presence of this whale could represent some kind of intertribal influence.
12.2 DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF H ORN SPOON 1930.19.2
FIGURE 15. HORN SPOON (1930.19.2) PHOTO COURTESY OF PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY.
This spoon in constructed from two pieces of horn; the bowl is made from mountain sheep horn and the
handle from mountain goat horn. The two pieces are attached with two copper rivets. The spoon
follows the natural curves of the horns used, giving it a gentle S shape. There are no signs of any other
damage.
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The bowl of the spoon has been heated, steamed, and moulded to form the smooth bowl
shape. The centre of the bowl is thicker than the edges which are very thin and almost transparent.
There are some misshapen parts of the bowl. The handle of the spoon is intricately carved with four
figures. At the base is a large thunderbird holding a pilot whale in its talons. The thunderbird is signified
by its large hooked beak and large intricately designed wings. The pilot whale is indicated by its small
size and large round eyes. Between the thunderbirds ears is an inverted human holding his extended
tongue. The top figure is a raven. These crests were identified by Henry Green and Ralf Stocker.
12.2.1 THUNDERBIRDS
Thunderbirds are especially significant crests for many Northwest Coast First Nations. The thunderbird is
a great bird living high in the mountains and was the most powerful of all spirits, the ultimate
personification of ‘chief’ and only the most prestigious chiefs have a thunderbird as a crest (Stewart
1979, 65). Thunderbirds are associated with different stories for different nations, but they are known
for their ability to kill and devour whales, lifting them out of the ocean and devouring them in the
mountains. They are especially significant for groups that hunt whales, such as the Nuu-chah-nulth, and
also to the Kwakwaka’wakw. Thunderbirds are identified by large wings, curling appendages on its head,
and a sharply recurved upper beak similar to a hawk (Stewart 1979, 65)
12.3 COMPARISON TO PITT RIVERS MUSEUM ’S HORN SPOONS
The Pitt Rivers Museum has two spoons in its collection which are similar to the two spoons in the
PCMAG collection. In 2009 the Pitt Rivers Museum collaborated with the British Museum to host an
extended handling session of their collections with a delegation of Haida people. The project was called
Haida Material Culture in British Museums: Generating New Forms of Knowledge. During these handling
sessions the museum staff recorded the comments of the Haida delegates viewing the objects and have
attached them to their database and their collection records on the Reciprocal Research Network. These
notes are extremely useful to understanding the PCMAG spoons. The following information is retrieved
from those notes.
The Pitt Rivers Museum spoon 1917.53.283, which can be viewed on the Reciprocal Research
Network, has similarities with both PCMAG spoons 1930.19.1 and 1930.19.2. They are of similar size;
the bowls are both made from mountain sheep horn and have mountain goat horn handles. The Pitt
Rivers spoon depicts a thunderbird holding a pilot whale. Between its ears is a frog facing downwards
with a fin on its back. Above the frog is a human with a raven head and another human with a fin on its
head.
The thunderbird and pilot whale on the Pitt Rivers’ spoon are remarkably similar to those
depicted on 1930.19.2; however I believe they are by different carvers. Christian White, a Haida carver
also commented that these pilot whales are also referred to as black fish or false killer whales. He also
stated that on the Pitt Rivers Spoon the thunderbird figure displayed typical Haida design principles in
the high forehead and large eyes. The thunderbird on the PCMAG spoon 1930.19.2 also demonstrates
these design aspects. It was commented that all of the crests on the Pitt Rivers spoon (thunderbird with
pilot whale, frog, raven transforming) were all crests used by fellow Haida Diane Brown’s clan, Ts’aahl.
Based on the presence of these crests on the two PCMAG’s spoons, it could be possible that these
spoons were also carved by a member of the Ts’aahl clan.
33
In terms of physical attributes, the Haida present at the handling session commented on the
greenish hue of the Pitt Rivers’ spoons and proposed that the discolouration of the darker mountain
goat horn could be the result of UV damage. The PCMAG spoons do not show any evidence of green
discolouration, they are still a dark brown-black which may suggest they have not been displayed for an
extended period of time like the Pitt Rivers’ spoons. They also commented on the use of copper to join
the two pieces of horn together. In Haida culture, copper is a sign of wealth and it is not surprising that
it was used on spoons which were only associated with wealth and people of high rank. Finally, they
mentioned that the irregular shape of some spoon bowls, such as PCMAG 1930.19.2, could have been
caused by being placed in too hot of a soup and therefore lose its shape. However, the scoop can be reformed using the original heating, steaming, and moulding techniques (Pitt Rivers Catalogue Records
1917.53.283, Reciprocal Research Network).
13.0 CONTEMPORARY ARGILLITE CARVING AND THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY CANADIAN NORTHWEST COAST
COLLECTION
Contemporary argillite carving continues to hold an important role in Haida artistic production today. It
forms an important part of Haida cultural identity with many carvers enjoying national and international
recognition. Argillite is still quarried from Slatechuck Creek in a traditional manner, with carvers carrying
great slabs of argillite down the mountain. There is a strong sense of cultural continuity between
contemporary argillite carvers and those of the nineteenth century. In Carol Sheehan’s book Breathing
Stone: Contemporary Haida Argillite Sculpture she interviews 15 contemporary Haida argillite carvers
about their practice. A reoccurring theme in these interviews is that argillite carving is a strong artistic
expression of what it is to be Haida, and that this skill has been passed down through generations of
carvers teaching each other. Many of the carvers express that they have a responsibility to learn, teach
and pass on other aspects of Haida culture such as Haida language, stories, songs, dances as well as
Haida argillite carving and Haida art more broadly.
The area referred to as the Northwest Coast of North America is a rich and culturally diverse
area with a complex and fascinating history. The PCMAG collection represents just one small part of this
geographical area and its history. The constitution of the collection is unusual, as the PCMAG did not
actively collect Northwest Coast material culture and the collection was not donated by a single donor.
Instead it arrived through donations and purchases via six individual sources. The argillite collection (10
pieces) is especially interesting in that its formation as a collection points directly to the nature of the
objects themselves. As discussed above, argillite carvings were developed solely as trade items, sold into
the tourist marketplace as souvenirs to sailors, traders, or tourists travelling up the Northwest Coast.
They originated from a very small and distinct place on the west coast of Canada and travelled long
distances to come together in Plymouth, almost 5000 miles away.
Interestingly, the argillite objects in the collection represent a range in the type of carving and
the level of skill displayed. Three of the argillite carvings are remarkable in their rarity and unique
subject matter. The argillite recorder (1924.145) is a significant object because of the rarity of argillite
recorders in museum collections generally; only about two dozen exist in public collections. Objects such
34
as these are testament to the artistic skill and creativity of Haida argillite carvers. The carved argillite
plate (1916.99) with the depiction of a European man in the centre surrounded by fine floral incised
carving is also of note. Research into other museum collections has discovered no other similar plates
and the story behind this plate may never be fully revealed. Finally, the panel pipe (1899.42.1711x)
which depicts a woman with her skirts drawn above her bottom and a scene of hair pulling is also
unique in its subject matter. In consultation with published sources on the depiction of women on
argillite pipes, no others have depicted a woman in such a sexually explicit manner. We cannot miss the
humour of the carver placing the woman’s exposed bottom so close to the mouth of the pipe. The
depiction of hair pulling, a man listening to an event inside the cabin with his sword drawn also suggest
some kind of violent event which perhaps the carver witnessed. It is these scenes and stories which
argillite carvings have the potential to communicate which make them such powerful objects. Not only
do the objects in this collection have the potential to tell us about the richness of Haida history, cultural
beliefs, and artistic production, they also tell us stories of conflict and encounter, adaptation and
creativity, resistance and cultural survival which are all part of the complex relationships between
indigenous communities and colonists. Some of these tensions are still being felt today by indigenous
communities, and collections such as the PCMAG’s Northwest Coast collection can be invaluable access
points for the discussion of such relationships in UK museums.
35
14.0 WORKS CITED
Barbeau, Marius. 1957. Haida Carvers in Argillite. Department of Northern Affairs and Natural
Resources, Ottawa.
Burkinshaw, Jane. 1999. Klaya-ho-alth Collections from the Northwest Coast of North America in the
Royal Albert Memorial Museum Exeter. Exeter: Exeter City Museums.
Cole, Douglas. 1995. Captured Heritage: The Scramble for the Northwest Coast. Vancouver: University of
British Columbia Press.
Cole, Douglas and Ira Chaikin. 1990. An Iron Hand Upon the People: The Law Against the Potlatch on the
Northwest Coast. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press.
Council of the Haida Nation. Nd. “History of the Haida Nation.” Accessed May 16th, 2012.
http://www.haidanation.ca/Pages/Haida_Nation/History.html
Drew, Leslie and Douglas Wilson. 1980. Argillite, Art of the Haida. North Vancouver: Hancock House.
Duff, Wilson and Michael Kew. 1958. “Anthony Island, A Home of Hiadas” in British Columbia Provincial
Museum Annual Report for 1957. 37-64.
Duff, Wilson. 1946. “The Indian History of British Columbia.” In Anthropology in British Columbia. Vol. 1.
Memoir No. 5.
Duff, Wilson. Bill Holm, and Bill Reid. 1967. Arts of the Raven. Vancouver: Vancouver Art Gallery.
Fladmark, Knut R. 1973. “The Richardson Ranch Site: A Nineteenth-Century Haida House.” In Historical
Archaeology in Northwestern North America. Edited by Knut R. Fladmark and Ronald M. Getty.
Calgary: University of Calgary. 53-96.
Harris, Christie. 1992. Raven’s Cry. Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre.
Holm, Bill. 1965. Northwest Coast Indian Art: An Analysis of Form. Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre.
----------. 1972. The Crooked Beak of Heaven. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Holm, Bill and Bill Reid. 1975. Indian Art of the Northwest Coast: A Dialogue on Craftsmanship and
Aesthetics. Seattle: University of Washington press.
Jonaitis, Aldona. 2006. Art of the Northwest Coast. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
----------.1992. “Franz Boas, John Swanton and the New Haida Sculpture at the American Museum of
Natural History.” In The Early Years of Native American Art History: the Politics of Sponsorship
and Collecting. Edited by Janet Catherine Berlo. 22-62. Vancouver: University of British Columbia
press.
Kaufmann, Carol N. 1969. “Changes in Haida Indian Argillite Carvings, 1820-1910. PhD thesis. University
of California.
36
Krmpotich, Cara and Laura Peers. 2013. This is Our Life: Haida Material Heritage and Changing Museum
Practice. Vancouver: University Of Brit Columbia Press.
MacDonald, George. 1998. “The Haida, Children of Eagle and Raven.” Last modified April 1 st, 2010. The
Canadian Museum of Civilization. Accessed June 17th, 2012.
http://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/aborig/haida/haindexe.shtml#menu
Macnair, Peter L. and Alan L. Hoover. 2002. The Magic Leaves: A History of Haida Argillite Carving.
Victoria, British Columbia: Royal British Columbia Museum.
Macnair, Peter L., Alan L. Hoover and Kevin Neary. 1980. The Legacy: Continuing Tradition of Canadian
Northwest Coast Indian Art. Victoria: Royal British Columbia Museum.
“Queen Charlotte Islands renamed Haida Gwaii in historic deal.” 2009. Canadian Broadcasting Company.
December 11. Accessed June 13, 2012. http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/
british-columbia/story/2009/12/11/bc-queen-charlottle-islands-renamed-haida-gwaii.html
Sheehan, Carol. 1981. Pipes That Won’t Smoke; Coal That Won’t Burn: Haida Sculpture in Argillite.
Calgary, Alberta: Glenbow Museum.
Sheehan, Carol, Jack Litrell, and John W. Heintz. 2008. Breathing Stone: Contemporary Haida Argillite
Sculpture. Calgary: Frontenac House.
Stewart, Hilary. 1979. Looking at Indian Art of the Northwest Coast. Vancouver: Douglas and McIntyre.
Stone, Thomas. Robert L. Barclay. Ian N.M. Wainright. 2007. “CCI Note 12/1” Canadian Conservation
Institute. Ottawa, ON: Canada.
Tamura, Misa. Unpublished Conservation Treatment Record for Kew Gardens. UCL Institute of
Archaeology, Conservation for Archaeology and Museums. 6th October, 2011.
Vaughn Thomas and Bill Holm. 1982. Soft Gold: The Fur Trade & Cultural Exchange on the Northwest
Coast of America. Portland: Oregon Historical Society.
Wainright, I.N.M and J.L Down. 1985. “Slatechuck Creek Argillite: Its Structure, Composition and
Dimensional Stability.” Journal of the International Institute for Conservation – Canadian group.
V10-11. 8-19.
Winter, Joseph C. 2000. Tobacco Use by Native North Americans: Sacred Smoke and Silent Killer.
Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma.
Wright, Robin. 1977. “Haida Argillite Pipes.” M.A. thesis. Seattle: University of Washington.
---------. 1979. “Haida Argillite Ship Pipes. American Indian Art. 5(1): 40-47.
---------. 1980. “Haida Argillite Pipes: The Influence of Clay pipes.” American Indian Art. 5(4): 42-47, 88.
---------. 1982. “Haida Argillite Carved for Sale.” American Indian Art. 8(1): 48-55.
37
---------. 1986. “The Depiction of Women in Nineteenth Century Haida Argillite Carving.” 11(4):36-45.
---------. 2001. “Nineteenth Century Haida Argillite Carvings: Documents of Cultural Encounter.” In Art
and the Native American: Perceptions, Reality and Influences. Edited by Mary Louise Krumrine
and Susan Clare Scott. Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania State University.
15.0 ADDITIONAL READING
Augaitis, Daina, Lucille Bell, Nika Collison, Vince Collison, Robert Davidson, Jacqueline Gijssen, Guujaaw
et al. 2006. Raven Travelling: Two Centuries of Haida Art. Vancouver and Seattle: Vancouver Art
Gallery, Douglas and McIntyre and University of Washington Press.
Barbeau, Marius. 1953. Haida Myths: Illustrated in Argillite Carvings. [Ottawa}: Dept. of Resources and
Development, National Parks Branch, National Museum of Canada.
Bell, Lucille, and Vince Collison. 2006. “The Return of Our Ancestors, the Rebirth of Ourselves.” In Raven
Travelling: Two Centuries of Haida Art, ed. Augaitis, Daina, Lucille Bell, Nika Collison, Vince
Collison, Robert Davidson, Jacqueline Gijssen, Guujaaw et al., 140-145, Vancouver and Seattle:
Vancouver Art Gallery, Douglas and McIntyre and University of Washington Press.
Busby, Sharon. 2003. Spruce Root Basketry of the Haida and Tlingit. Seattle: Marquand Books :
Distributed by University of Washington Press.
Clapp, Alan C., and Robert Bringhurst. 1991. Spirit of the Haida Gwaii. Vancouver: Deluxe Productions
Canada Ltd.
Drew, Leslie. 1982. Haida, their Art and Culture. Surrey, B.C.: Hancock House.
Duffek, Karen, and Charlotte Townsend-Gault. 2005. Bill Reid and Beyond: Expanding on Modern Native
art. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre.
Eastman, Carol M., Elizabeth A. Edwards, Lillian Pettviel, and Duane Pasco. 1991. Gyaehlingaay:
Traditions, Tales, and Images of the Kaigani Haida. Seattle: Burke Museum Publications.
Gill, Ian. 2009. All That We Say Is Ours: Guujaaw and the Reawakening of the Haida Nation. Vancouver
and Berkeley: Douglas & McIntyre.
Gunn, S. William. 1967. Haida Totems in Wood and Argillite. [Vancouver]: Whiterocks Publications.
Krmpotich, Cara. 2008. Repatriation and the Production of Kinship and Memory: Anthropological
Perspectives on the Repatriation of Haida Ancestral Remains. Ph.D Dissertation, University of
Oxford.
38
MacDonald, George F. 1983. Haida Monumental Art: Villages of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Vancouver:
University of British Columbia Press.
MacDonald, George F., and George F. MacDonald. 1993. Chiefs of the Sea and Sky: Haida Heritage Sites
of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
MacDonald, George F. 1996. Haida Art. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre.
Mauz , Marie, Michael Eugene Harkin, and Sergei Kan. 2004. Coming to Shore: Northwest Coast
Ethnology, Traditions, and Visions. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
McLennan, Bill, and Karen Duffek. 2007. The transforming image: painted arts of Northwest Coast First
Nations. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre.
McMahon, Kevin. 2004. Stolen Spirits of Haida Gwaii. Mississauga, Ontario: McNabb Connolly.
Pearson, Pearle, Jenny White, and Terri-Lynn Williams. 1985. Crests of the Haida. Vancouver: WEDGE,
Faculty of Education, University of British Columbia.
Reid, Martine. 2011. Bill Reid and the Haida Canoe. Madeira park, BC: Harbour Publications.
Sheehan, Carol. 2005. Songs of Sea and Sky, Songs of Haida Gwaii: Haida Argillite Sculpture. Calgary:
Masters Gallery.
Stewart, Hilary. 1979. Robert Davidson, Haida Printmaker. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre.
Steltzer, Ulli. 1984. A Haida Potlatch. Seattle: University of Washington Press.
Steltzer, Ulli. 1997. The Spirit of Haida Gwaii: Bill Reid's Masterpiece. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre.
Sturtevant, William C. 1974. Boxes and bowls; decorated containers by nineteenth-century Haida, Tlingit,
Bella Bella, and Tsimshian Indian artists. Washington: Published for the Renwick Gallery by
Smithsonian Institution Press; [for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off.].
Swanton, John Reed, and John Enrico. 1995. Skidegate Haida myths and histories. Skidegate, B.C.: Queen
Charolotte Islands Museum Press.
Townsend-Gault, Charlotte, Jennifer Kramer, and i- e-in. 2013. Native art of the Northwest Coast: a
history of changing ideas. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.
Worl, Rosita, Maria Williams, Robert Davidson, and Kathy Dye. 2008. Celebration: Tlingit, Haida,
Tsimshian Dancing on the Land. Juneau, Alaska: Sealaska Heritage Institute.
39
Wright, Robin Kathleen, Daina Augaitis, Robert Davidson, and James Hart. 2013. Charles Edenshaw.
London: Black Dog Publishing.
40
APPENDICES
1.0 PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY CANADIAN NORTHWEST COAST COLLECTION
SPREADSHEET………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..42
2.0 CONSERVATION RESEARCH ON ARGILLITE: ENVIRONMENT AND CONSERVATION CONCERNS………..47
3.0 CONSERVATION TREATMENT ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….51
41
1.0 PLYMOUTH CITY MUSEUM AND ART GALLERY CANADIAN NORTHWEST COAST COLLECTION SPREADSHEET
Object Number
Name
Description/
materials
Group/Originating
community
Geographical
area
Provenance (date of
acquisition/registratio
n, name of donor)
Inscription
1899.42.1710x
Panel Pipe
Carved
Argillite
Haida Nation
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
1899, Purchase from L.
G. Metham
Partially removed, offwhite label, visible are
the numbers “41”
1899.42.1711x
Panel Pipe
Carved
Argillite
Haida Nation
1899, Purchase from L.
G. Metham
None
1903.90.4405x
Panel Pipe
Carved
Argillite
Haida Nation
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
Nov, 1903, Bequest
from Francis Brent
Small round off-white
label with zig-zag edges
reads “14/ 7.B.9”
*Rectangular off-white
label with light blue
edging and unknown
symbol in top left corner
reads: “14 7.B.9 Carved
Stone pipe, Vancouver” *
It has been suggested
these numbers refer to
lot numbers in an auction
house, trading post, or
curio shop
Notes
42
Object Number
Name
Description/
materials
Group/Originating
community
Geographical
area
1903.90.4406x
Panel Pipe
Carved
Argillite
Haida Nation
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
1903.90.4407x
Panel Pipe
Carved
Argillite
Haida Nation
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
Provenance (date of
acquisition/
registration, name of
donor)
Nov, 1903, Bequest
from Francis Brent
Nov, 1903, Bequest
from Francis Brent
Inscription
Notes
Small round off-white label with
zig-zag edges reads “14/ 7.B.9”
*Rectangular off-white label
with light blue edging and
unknown symbol in top left
corner reads: “14/7.B.9 Carved
Stone pipe, Vancouver” * It has
been suggested these numbers
refer to lot numbers in an
auction house, trading post, or
curio shop.
Small round off-white label with
zig-zag edges reads “14/ 7.B.9”
*Partially removed rectangular
off-white label with light blue
edging, unknown inscription * It
has been suggested these
numbers refer to lot numbers in
an auction house, trading post,
or curio shop
43
Object Number
Name
Description/
materials
Group/Originating
community
Geographical
area
1903.90.4417x
Plate
Carved
argillite
Haida Nation
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
1916.99
Plate
Carved and
incised
argillite
Haida Nation
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
Provenance (date of
acquisition/
registration, name of
donor)
Nov, 1903, Bequest
from Francis Brent
1916, Bequest from
Joshua Wood
Inscription
Small round off-white label
with zig-zag edges reads “14/
7.B.8” *Rectangular off-white
label with light blue edging
and unknown symbol in top
left corner reads: “14/7.13.8
Stone dish (illegible word)
Jazzer (?) Vancouver” Small
round off-white label reads
“14/22/15, 7B” ** It has been
suggested these numbers
refer to lot numbers in an
auction house, trading post, or
curio shop
Large faded white label reads
”Steatite plate made by the
aboriginal Indians of
Vancouver’s Island NW
America”
Notes
Attributed to Charles
Edenshaw by June
Bedford (Museum
Ethnographers
Group visit) but
Robin Wright and Bill
McLennon (MOA)
have since stated it is
probably not an
Edenshaw.
44
Object Number
Name
Description/
materials
Group/Originati
ng community
Geographical
area
1918.43.1
Model
Totem
Post
Carved argillite
Haida Nation
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
1918.43.2
Model
Totem
Post
Carved argillite
Haida Nation
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
1920.286
Model
totem
post
Carved and
painted wood
Haida Nation
1924.145
Recorder
Carved argillite,
metal (?) inlay
and cast lead
(mouthpiece)
Haida Nation
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
Provenance (date of
acquisition/
registration, name of
donor)
March, 1918, Purchase
from Kardon Son and
Hosking, Plymouth.
Catalogue card notes
previously purchased in
Vancouver approx. 1885
March, 1918, Purchase
from Kardon Son and
Hosking, Plymouth.
Catalogue card notes
previously purchased in
Vancouver approx. 1885
1920, Gift from Miss
Bennett
Inscription
1924, Gift from Miss
Bennett
None
Notes
None
None
None
Attributed to George
Gunya by June Bedford
(Museum
Ethnographers Group
visit), however no
evidence to say so.
45
Object Number
Name
Description/
materials
Group/Originating
community
Geographical
area
Provenance (date of
acquisition/registratio
n, name of donor)
Inscription
1930.19.1
Spoon
Haida Nation
None
Spoon
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
British
Columbia,
Canada, North
America
1930, Gift from
Admiral Hutchinson
1930.19.2
Carved and
steamed
horn, copper
rivets
Carved and
steamed
horn, copper
rivets
1930, Gift from
Admiral Hutchinson
None
Haida Nation
Notes
46
2.0 CONSERVATION RESEARCH ON ARGILLITE: ENVIRONMENT AND
CONSERVATION CONCERNS
An argillite conservation research report was requested as a part of the PCMAG Canadian Northwest
Coast research project. What follows is a copy of the preliminary research report with information
gathered from both primary and secondary sources. These sources include publications and advice from
conservators who have experience working with argillite. This information was collated in order to make
an informed decision on the course of conservation treatment for the PCMAG argillite collection. A
report on the treatment undertaken is also included in this section.
2.1. RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND TEMPERATURE
The physical nature of argillite means that it both absorbs and deabsorbs moisture from the
atmosphere. Wainwright and Down (1985) performed several experiments on samples of argillite
regarding the effect of changes in temperature and humidity. They found that the greatest change in
dimension occurred rapidly with an increase in humidity and was observed to be five times greater in
the direction perpendicular to the grain than parallel to the grain like other slates or shales (Wainright
and Down 1985, 14). Relatively little change was observed due to fluctuations in temperature, however
fluctuations in temperature can cause fluctuations in humidity, therefore causing change (Ibid 1985, 14).
They also found that argillite deabsorbs water faster at high humidities rather than low humidities, and
that deabsorption and absorption occurs on the surface area of the carving and on small protruding
features (ibid 1985, 14).
2.1.1 RECOMMENDATIONS
As a result, a relative humidity in the range of 30-50% with as little fluctuation as possible is
recommended for the storage and display of argillite carvings (Stone, Barclay, Wainwright 2007;
Wainright and Down 1985, 15) which should, ideally, be monitored with a hygrothermograph or
datalogger. The collection is currently stored with many other materials which may require slightly
different environmental control, so reducing the frequency of fluctuations is of utmost importance.
2.2 MECHANICAL DAMAGE
Due to their fragile nature resulting from their mineralogical make-up and sensitivity to humidity,
argillite carvings are extremely fragile and susceptible to mechanical damage caused by improper
handling or mechanical shock. Some pieces in the collection currently demonstrate the results of
mechanical shock which was probably sustained before entry to the museum.
2.2.1 RECOMMENDATIONS
The Northwest Coast collection is currently stored in compact shelving in archival boxes supported with
Plastazote. Some objects are covered with acid free tissue and others are not. Some boxes are labelled
inside on the Plastazote while others are not. For the sake of consistency, a decision should be made
regarding the necessity of acid free tissue and each box should be labelled on the inside to reduce the
frequency of handling (i.e. looking for the accession number as they are only on the lids on the outside
47
of the box). In addition, each box needs finger holes carved into the nest of the Plastazote to allow for
easier removal and handling of each object. Each box should also have a photo or drawing of the
object’s stored orientation placed inside the box which would reduce the risk of damage occurring
whilst removing and returning the objects to their Plastazote nests.
2.3 LIGHTING
While argillite is not particularly sensitive to light, it is important to refrain from excessive incandescent
light levels. Displaying argillite in cases with lights located inside the case may result in increased
temperature and may alter humidity and lead to subsequent damage (Stone, Barclay, and Wainright
2007).
2.3.1 RECOMMENDATIONS
While the Click case we are using is not large enough to have interior lights, it is recommended that the
maximum lighting conditions argillite should be exposed to is 350 lux lit by a 75 watt spotlight from a
distance of 240 cm. When argillite is displayed in conditions with higher lighting levels, light levels
should be monitored with a light meter and the temperature and humidity levels inside the case should
be monitored using a datalogger (Wainright and Down 1985, 16).
2.4 CLEANING AND RECONSTRUCTION
2.4.1 CLEANING
According to the Canadian Conservation Institute, prior to cleaning it is important to determine if there
is any coating on the surface of the object. The CCI recommends visually inspecting the object and
conducting spot tests in unobtrusive areas with Varasol or Shellsol and observing changes before
proceeding. If the use of solvents changes the appearance of the argillite surfaces, cleaning should be
confined to the light dusting, although damp cotton swabs can be used to pick up loose dirt without
transferring moisture (Stone, Barclay, and Wainwright 2007). It is imperative that an excessive amount
of water is not used to clean argillite as it will only result in damage (Stone, Barclay, Wainwright, 2007;
Fenn Pers. Comm., 2012; Swierenga Pers. Comm., 2012).
Argillite that has previously been repaired may demonstrate traces of adhesive which has
turned yellow and unsightly. It may be possible to remove with the help of non-water based solvents
such as Toluene and Methylene (Methylene chloride?), although they may alter surface coatings.
Additionally, a 1:1 mixture of tetrahydrofuran and dimethyl formamide has been reported by Remillard
in 1984 to be successful in removing old adhesives (Wainright and Down 1985, 17). Water based
solvents such as Acetone and glacial acetic acid should be avoided (Stone, Barclay, Wainwright, 2007)
Misa Tamura, UCL conservation student at Kew Gardens (2011), took samples of an old adhesive
from their pipe and spot-tested different solvents to remove the old adhesive. Her study shows that
deionised water, warm deionised water, IMS, Acetone, and Dichloromethane were all unsuccessful at
removing the adhesive. Instead she found that the use of an enzyme, papain 5% w/v in deionised water
48
with Laponite RD (magnesium silicate synthetic inorganic clay, application as poultice) to soften the
adhesive for mechanical removal was most successful (Tamura Conservation Treatment Record).
2.4.2 RECONSTRUCTION
When considering reconstruction, the CCI warns against undoing old glue joins unless it is absolutely
necessary because the chances of realigning the break surfaces are extremely low, especially if the join
was made prior to carving. Instead they recommend treating the surface stains of the adhesive as
discussed above (Stone, Barclay, Wainwright, 2007).
In terms of possible adhesives, Fenn warns against all water based glues or dispersions as well as
household cements or glues dissolved in water-based solvents such as acetone or alcohol (Fenn Pers.
Comm., 2012)
Heidi Swierenga, Conservator at the Museum of Anthropology, suggests using B72 dissolved in
Acetone, which is a water-based solvent, however she notes that the MOA has not done any argillite
repairs for 12 years so this may be outdated information (Swierenga Pers. Comm., 2012).
Amy Drago, Conservator of stone, wall paintings, and mosaics at The British Museum, also
suggests the use of Paraloid B72 but does not mention the use of a solvent. If a solvent is needed,
however, Paraloid B72 is soluble in toluene, xylene, carbon tetrachloride, and MEK (Museum of Fine
Arts, Boston Material Record: B72). Drago also mentions that a colleague has used Sebrailt polyester
resin and a bamboo stick as a dowel but has not used this method herself (Drago Pers. Comm., 2012).
Caroline Marchand, Objects Conservator at the Canadian Museum of Civilization, suggests
Acryloid B72 (Paraloid B72) or PVB (Polyvinyl Butryal resin) or any solvent based adhesive. For larger
repairs, she suggests the use of conservation grade Epoxy resin and for damages like detached pieces
she suggests Ceramic fibre paste (Marchand Pers., Comm. 2012).
Tamura suggested the use of an adhesive called Araldite 2020 (two-part epoxy resin, Bisphenol A
epoxy resin, 1.4 Butaneaioidiglyciayl ether, and isophoronediamine) applied to the join and held in place
with magic tape and Parafilm and left overnight to dry. In her case, the join failed due to insufficient
areas of contact to make the join. The successful treatment consisted of the following steps:



securing the join with clamps
making an initial (and partial) bond in the join using a fast setting adhesive (cellulose nitrate)
filling the gap with epoxy putty
2.4.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
It is important to remember that any surface coatings or modifications may be the result of authentic
ethnic technology. Removing these coatings would damage the integrity of the object. By removing the
coating we would be removing part of the historical identity of the object. It is my recommendation that
an effort is made to not remove any surface modifications whenever possible.
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In terms of authentic ethnic adhesives, Tamura suggests spot-testing the adhesives to
determine if they are in fact adhesives used by the carver or if they are adhesives used by subsequent
owners or museums. Her study of an adhesive on an argillite pipe at Kew gardens shows, however, that
the exact type of adhesive could not be determined, however it did contain an animal protein (Tamura
2011, 3-5). If the PCMAG conservation staff decide to engage in treatment, we need to discuss the value
of preserving authentic ethnic adhesive (if one is present) over the educational and interpretational
value of a complete object. It is my opinion that due to the small nature of the collection, the relevancy
to the collection to the museum’s mission, and the significance of the objects to the genre of Haida
argillite carving, treatment should only be done if considered absolutely necessary and should be
undertook with caution. In discussion with Conservator, Neil Wressell, we identified which objects
would be considered acceptable for conservation and I think it would be of value to try and repair at
least one of these selected objects.
From the advice presented above by conservators Julia Fenn, Heidi Swierenga, Misa Tamura,
Caroline Marchand and Amy Drago, I would suggest the use of Paraloid B72 dissolved, if necessary, in a
non-water soluble solvent such as toluene or xylene.
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3.0 CONSERVATION TREATMENT
Conservation treatment was conducted during June and July of 2012 at the PCMAG by Senior
Conservator, Neil Wressell, and assisted by Emma Knight.
Observation and Analysis
The conservation report above was given to the conservator for his review and consideration. We then
discussed the best possible course of treatment for two selected objects: the recorder (1924.145) and a
panel pipe (1899.42.1711x). Each object was examined by Neil, noting any areas of weakness or loss.
The recorder was in 4 pieces; the lead mouthpiece had broken away from the body of the recorder
creating two large fragments and several small losses. A small hairline crack running the length of the
base of the recorder was also observed.
The panel pipe was in two separate pieces with small losses around the joint. Some appendages
are missing from some of the figures on the pipe. One figure on the left side was found to have been
previously detached from the rest of the pipe and re-attached using a ferrous metal dowel inserted
horizontally into the stem of the pipe. Neil assessed the dowel to see if it could be removed, however it
was found that the end of the dowel had been flattened making removal not an option. He also found
remnants of old adhesive around this second joint which had become dry and brittle and fragmented
not allowing the joint to realign correctly. This old adhesive was mechanically removed with a scalpel.
Cleaning
Before re-adhesion, both the recorder and the panel pipe were dry-cleaned using a small paint brush to
remove any loose dirt and dust. Both pieces were considerably dusty and dry-dusting removed a
substantial amount of the dust. Due to the nature of the high relief argillite carving and some surfaces
not being as polished as others, there was a substantial amount of dirt and dust that could not be
removed with a dry paintbrush alone. Spot tests were undertaken on a discrete area of both pieces with
water, IMS and Stoddard Solvent. No surface coating was found to be soluble although these tests do
not rule out that a surface coating is present. Enzyme cleaning was required for each piece using cotton
wool swabs. Care was taken not to moisten the argillite too much.
Adhesive Spot Tests
On the advice provided by the conservators in the report, Paraloid B72 and Araldite 20/20 were deemed
suitable adhesives for argillite. Neil performed adhesive spot tests on the inside of a fragment of the
argillite recorder. The first Araldite 20/20 application quickly migrated into the surface of the argillite;
more than tripling the size of the original amount applied and saturating the stone matrix darkening the
stone, indicating that the adhesive applied at this catalyzed state may leave a shadow staining around
the joint. The second adhesive test was an application of Paraloid B72 which did not migrate into the
argillite, however it was decided that the B72 was not strong enough for the thickness of the stone at
the joint to weight ratio of the work. A third test of Araldite 20/20 that had been allowed to catalyse to
a viscous state produced the desired consistency and no migration into the surrounding stone was
observed.
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Dry Run
Neil engaged in a dry run of the adhering process, fitting each piece together while taking note of any
losses and deciding on what type of clamps should be used. Neil decided that Diamond tape (made by
Sellotape) was the best option for holding the joint secure, taking into account the weight of the lead
mouthpiece to be attached to the recorder, and the weight of the panel pipe fragment. Diamond tape
was spot tested on an area of argillite and found to leave no residue. The panel pipe would then be
further secured with fibreglass pressure clamps.
Adhesion
The recorder was treated first, gluing all four pieces of the recorder together at once to avoid stepping
or gaps in the joints. Small amounts of excess glue that seeped from the join were removed with moist
cotton swabs. The join was secured with Diamond tape, supported with plastazote mounts and left to
harden for 48 hours. The joint was then inspected by Neil and determined to be successful. The panel
pipe was then treated with the same Araldite 20/20 formula. It was decided that it would be best
practice to secure the joint held together with the dowel to reduce any further damage due to
movement. This joint was adhered first, followed by the second joint. Diamond tape was used to secure
the joints and hold the pieces together. The pipe was further secured with fibreglass pressure clamps
and supported with plastazote mounts. After 48 hours the pipe was examined by Neil and determined
to be successful.
Filling and Painting In
After the adhesions were completed, small areas of loss were observed around the joints on the panel
pipe and minimal areas of loss were observed around the joints of the recorder. Flügger, an acrylic,
water-based filler was used to fill these losses. Flügger was chosen because it is soft and requires no
sanding which may have damaged the argillite surface, it doesn’t shrink or crack and it is a reversible
treatment. The filler was mixed with pure pigments, Burnt Umber, Prussian Blue, Ivory Black and Alizarin
Crimson. The filler was applied with a spatula with any excesses removed with moist cotton swabs. After
24 hours, final colour adjustments on the fills were made using Daler Rowney Cryla Acrylic paints,
Paynes Grey and Raw Umber with Golden Porcelain Restoration Glaze (Gloss) medium for correct gloss
to match stone finish. Disfiguring scratches were darkened down with Regalrez 1094.
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