Lakehead University
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Electronic Theses and Dissertations
Electronic Theses and Dissertations from 2009
2012-11-10
Motivating the baby boomer generation:
an application of the theory of planned
behaviour, exercise behaviour, and
stages of change on physical activity intentions
Hoegy, Laurin
http://knowledgecommons.lakeheadu.ca/handle/2453/283
Downloaded from Lakehead University, KnowledgeCommons
Motivating the Baby Boomer Generation: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behaviour,
Exercise Behaviour, and Stages of Change on Physical Activity Intentions
A Thesis
Presented to the
School of Kinesiology
Lakehead University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the
Degree of Master of Science
in
Kinesiology,
With specialization in Gerontology
By Laurin Hoegy
© 2012
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge and thank Dr. Jane Taylor for all of her help and support
throughout my Masters degree. Taking me on as a student and always guiding me in the right
direction, I would have been lost without you! I would also like to thank my committee members
Dr. Joey Farrell and Dr. Margaret McKee for believing in me and always being there when I
needed a little extra help. I couldn’t have done it without all of you!
ii
Abstract
Background/Objectives: The Baby Boom Generation, born between 1946 and 1964, is creating a
shift in Canada towards an aging population. In 2031, 22.8% of the population will be over the
age of 65, compared to 14.1 in 2011 (Statistics Canada, 2010). Although it is well known that
physical activity is an integral aspect of healthy aging (Swan, Friis, & Turner, 2008) and that the
benefits of physical activity far outweigh the risks, less than 50% of baby boomers participated
in regular physical activity in 2010 (Statistics Canada, 2011). Theoretical research using the
Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the Stages of Change Model (SCM) has been used
extensively in the behavioural health field. To our knowledge, no study has focused on the baby
boom population specifically and their behaviour and intentions toward physical activity.
Method: One-hundred and seventy male and female baby boomers (aged 45 to 66) participated in
the study. Using questionnaires, stage of change (SCM), demographics, attitudes, subjective
norm, perceived behavioural control, behavioural beliefs, normative beliefs, control beliefs
(Theory of Planned Behaviour; TPB) and exercise behaviour (Godin Leisure Time Exercise
Questionnaire; GLTEQ) were assessed. Results: Stepwise regression analyses indicated that the
TPB constructs predicted 35.6% of physical activity intention, and intention predicted 29.4% of
physical activity behaviour. Statistical differences were seen between the SCM contemplators
and preparers and the action and maintainers on the TPB constructs. Conclusions: The TPB
produced important theoretical insight into the physical activity intentions and behaviours of
baby boomers based on participants’ stage of change. PBC and attitudes were the strongest
predictors of intention. These findings suggest that these constructs should be targeted in
interventions designed to increase physical activity participation in the baby boom population.
iii
Table of Contents Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ ii
Abstract.......................................................................................................................................... iii
List of Figures............................................................................................................................... vii
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Review of Literature ........................................................................................................................ 6
Physiological Changes with Age ................................................................................................. 9
Psychological Changes with Age .............................................................................................. 11
The Transtheoretical Model and the Stages of Change Model ................................................. 12
The Theory of Planned Behaviour ............................................................................................ 13
Belief Based Structure of the TPB. ....................................................................................... 15
Application of the TPB. ......................................................................................................... 17
Baby Boomers, Physical Activity, TPB, and the SCM ............................................................. 22
Purpose .......................................................................................................................................... 23
Hypotheses ................................................................................................................................ 23
Pilot Study ................................................................................................................................. 24
Method ........................................................................................................................................... 26
Participants and Procedures ....................................................................................................... 26
Instrumentation .......................................................................................................................... 27
Stages of change. ................................................................................................................... 27
TPB questionnaire. ................................................................................................................ 27
Attitude toward the behaviour. .......................................................................................... 27
Subjective norm. ................................................................................................................ 28
Perceived behavioural control. .......................................................................................... 28
Intention ............................................................................................................................. 28
Secondary beliefs............................................................................................................... 29
Exercise Behaviour. ............................................................................................................... 29
Statistical Analyses .................................................................................................................... 29
Results ........................................................................................................................................... 31
Sample Characteristics .............................................................................................................. 31
Homogeneity of Demographics in Relation to Intention and Behaviour .................................. 32
Participation in Physical Activity .............................................................................................. 33
Differences Between Gender and Age on the SCM .................................................................. 37
Differences Between Gender and Age on the Main Constructs of the TPB ............................. 37
Differences Between Gender and Age on the Secondary Constructs of the TPB ..................... 38
Differences between SCM and TPB Constructs ....................................................................... 39
Reliability .................................................................................................................................. 41
Bivariate Correlations ................................................................................................................ 41
Regression Analysis .................................................................................................................. 42
Discussion...................................................................................................................................... 45
Physical Activity Participation Rates in the Baby Boom Generation ....................................... 45
Gender, Age, and the SCM........................................................................................................ 47
Gender, Age, and the TPB Constructs....................................................................................... 48
iv
The Baby Boom Generation, the SCM, and the Main Constructs of the TPB .......................... 49
Predicting Baby Boomer Physical Activity Intentions .............................................................. 51
Predicting Baby Boomer Physical Activity Behaviour ............................................................. 52
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 53
Future Considerations .................................................................................................................... 55
References ..................................................................................................................................... 56
Appendix A – Information Letter .................................................................................................. 66
Appendix B – Consent Form ......................................................................................................... 69
Appendix C - SCM ........................................................................................................................ 71
Appendix D – Demographics and TPB ......................................................................................... 73
Appendix E – GLTEQ ................................................................................................................... 83
v
List of Tables Table 1. Frequency of Participants Stage of Change .................................................................... 31 Table 2. Baby Boom Generation Age Grouping ........................................................................... 32 Table 3. Main TPB Construct Means Based on Age Group (Years) ............................................ 38 Table 4. Mean, Standard Deviations, ANOVA Results, and Effect Sizes for TPB Constructs by
Stage of Change ............................................................................................................................. 39 Table 5. Reliability, Mean, and Standard Deviations of the TPB Constructs ............................... 41 Table 6. Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Measures of the TPB Constructs ....... 42 vi
List of Figures
Figure 1. Theory of Planned Behaviour ........................................................................................ 13 Figure 2. TPB Results of the Pilot Study ...................................................................................... 25 Figure 3. Percent Participating in Physical Activity Based on Number of Times/Week .............. 34 Figure 4. Activity Status of Male and Female Participants based on METs ................................. 35 Figure 5. Participation in Type of Physical Activity Based on GLTEQ ....................................... 35 Figure 6. Response rate to GLTEQ “In one week, how often do you work up a sweat” .............. 36 Figure 7. Amount of Variance Explained in Intention from TPB Main Constructs ..................... 43 Figure 8. Amount of Variance Explained in Intention by TPB Main and Secondary Constructs 44 Figure 9. Theory of Planned Behaviour: Amount of Behavioural Variance Explained................ 44 vii
1
Introduction
Participating in physical activity throughout one’s life is an integral aspect of maintaining
a healthy lifestyle (Fiatarone Singh, 2004). Currently, the baby boom generation is in mid-life,
but over the next decade, there will be an influx of baby boomers over the age of 65. A baby
boomer is an individual born between 1946 and 1964 (Verma & Samis, 2011). Boomers view
themselves as different from past cohorts of older adults, having been shaped by a distinctive
history that celebrated individuality and freedom from past social mores (Lachman, 2004). In
keeping with this historical disregard for the norm, boomers disregard the stereotypical aging
process and do not consider themselves as growing old (Swan, Friis, & Turner, 2008). It is
predicted that during old age, boomers will continue to defy stereotypes and carry on with the
activities they are doing now.
As the Canadian population is seeing a shift in its demographics from young to old and
the baby boom generation enters into its retirement years, the move towards an aging population
becomes more pronounced. Despite the current reference to boomers as zoomers there is still a
negative connotation associated with population aging, which perpetuates myths and stereotypes
about older Canadians (Zimmerman, 2000). Researchers believe that this negative idea of
population aging originated in the United States (Gee & Gutman, 2000). Researchers in the
United States believe this overwhelming influx of older adults will lead to greater health care
costs (Callahan, 1987), and create intergenerational inequities favouring older adults (Kotlikoff,
1993). On the other hand, some believe that the baby boom generation is going to change how
we see aging and completely redefine its concepts.
Redefining the concepts of aging begins with a healthier lifestyle. The overall approach
to baby boomers’ participation in physical activity should be proactive rather than reactive.
2
Being active before old age will help prevent early onset of age-related disease and disability
(Hartman-Stein & Potkanowicz, 2009). Only one-half of baby boomers are physically active
(Horton, 2010). Those who are active understand the benefits of physical activity in maintaining
optimal aging including slowing down the aging process altogether. Most boomers (98%)
understand the benefits of leisure time physical activity, yet half of them remain inactive
(Horton). In addition to lack of involvement in physical activity, baby boomers in general have
not made optimal healthy lifestyle choices. Unhealthy behaviour is reflected in eating habits,
smoking, and alcohol consumption. Researchers Worsley, Wang, and Hunter found that exsmokers were more likely to be overweight and obese compared to their non-smoker and smoker
counterparts (2011). These results imply that the effects of smoking can be long lasting, past the
pharmacological effect of tobacco and nicotine (Worsley, Wang, & Hunter). Therefore, because
of unhealthy eating, a higher propensity toward smoking and overconsumption of alcohol, these
choices are reflected in levels of obesity and overweight which are considerably higher than
those of any other age group (Buckley, 2008).
The prevalence of diabetes is highly correlated with rates of overweight and obesity
(Chen, Wright, & Westfall, 2009). Overall, self reported diabetes is 60% higher in males aged 40
or more compared to women (Tang & Chen, 2000). Fifty-six percent of adults 65 years and older
are currently overweight and obese compared to 60.8% of baby boomers (Statistics Canada,
2010). These rates have increased from 58.1% since 2005 and will continue yearly into old age.
Youth rates of overweight and obesity levels have been coined as an epidemic across the nation
(Tremblay & Williams, 2003; Wang & Lobstein, 2006). It is believed that environmental factors
such as calorie dense food, excessive video game play, and physical inactivity are major
contributors (Tremblay, Shields, Laviolette, Craig, Janssen, & Connor Gorber, 2010; Tremblay
3
& Williams; Wang & Lobstein). Between 1981 and 1996 the prevalence of obesity in children 7
to 13 years tripled from 5% to 15% (Tremblay & Williams, 2000). While attention to overweight
and obesity rates among Canada’s youth is important, concern for the health of the baby boomer
population is equally important. There is a need to focus on proper health intervention in both the
young and old to ensure a healthier population overall. Physical activity is a natural way to
reduce obesity rates and increase healthy lifestyles.
Participation and maintenance of regular physical activity is one of the most important
health behaviours to reduce and prevent the severity of many chronic diseases (Schutzer &
Graves, 2004). Sedentary behaviour is linked to health related problems such as osteoporosis,
obesity, type II diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular disease, and types of cancer (Blair & Brodney,
1999; Schutzer & Graves). With exercise, there is a decrease in the risk of these health problems,
yet only a minority of the 65 plus age group get sufficient physical activity to maintain optimal
health benefits (Statistics Canada, 2005). Common barriers cited are their low self-efficacy,
misguided attitude toward the task, discomfort while performing the task, and overall poor
balance that increases an individual’s fear of injury (Nied & Franklin, 2002). For some
individuals, it is not a part of their daily routine so they do not make time for exercise. Others
feel too much pressure from peers and rely on the opinion of others, or in some cases do not take
their advice. With age, cognitive decline, illness, and fatigue are factors that hinder an
individual’s performance in physical activity (Nied & Franklin).
Uncertainty of one’s own ability to participate in physical activity may act as a barrier
and delay baby boomers’ participation in physical activity. If an individual were able to change
the way he or she feels about a certain task (such as physical activity), he or she would be more
inclined to participate. Barriers to physical activity need to be taken into account when planning
4
exercise intervention. If researchers can pinpoint barriers that affect the inactive baby boom
cohort more specifically, a proactive approach to aging can be used to encourage healthy
lifestyles and promote effective intervention. An approach researchers use to better understand
these barriers is theoretical modelling. Identifying the cause of these barriers, can help
researchers apply a more insightful take on effective intervention studies.
An approach that is used in the health and behavioural field is defining an individual’s
stage of change before they begin a physical activity program. Prochaska and DiClemente (1984)
initially designed the Stages of Change Model (SCM) for smoking cessation programs. However,
the model was then used for other health behavioural changes including life style counselling and
physical activity (CSEP, 2011). Ranging from contemplation to maintenance, understanding
where baby boomers are at physically can help guide physical activity interventions in the right
direction. Just knowing what stage an individual is in will not necessarily give researchers
enough information to develop effective interventions. Understanding why or why not they are
active, incorporated with their stage would be an effective way to design a potential intervention.
Researchers use theoretical models to better understand group behaviour. One that has
been used in many different domains, including health behaviour, is the theory of planned
behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1985, 1991). The TPB has been applied to many health behaviours
including eating behaviour (Madden et al., 1992), addictive behaviours such as smoking
(Borland et al., 1991), driving (Richard et al., 1995), HIV/AIDS (Boyd & Wandersman, 1991),
oral hygiene (McCaul et al., 1988), exercise (Courneya, Conner & Rhodes, 2005), and more
specifically in the exercise domain, strength training in older adults (Dean, Farrell, Kelley,
Taylor, & Rhodes, 2007). The theory has proven validity in its ability to predict behaviour in the
exercise domain (Courneya, 1995). The TPB has been applied to samples of older adults and the
5
results have been promising in predicting exercise behaviour but limited theoretical research has
been conducted using the baby boom cohort. Implementation of intervention programs that
reflects results of theoretical inquiry may encourage a more positive and long lasting engagement
in physical activity for baby boomers.
The SCM and the TPB both provide theoretical information that gives insight into the
proper design of intervention studies. Interventions are generally considered preventative or
therapeutic in nature (Hennekens & Buring, 1987). Physical activity interventions can be
considered both preventative and therapeutic in that they are geared toward reducing the risk for
future disease and disability. With those who already suffer from health problems, physical
activity is known to reduce the severity and aid in maintenance of health status. The results of
this study may provide insight in guiding future investigators in developing interventions focused
on baby boomers and improving physical activity levels among the sedentary population using
the TPB and SCM. The intention of this research, therefore, is to investigate a cohort of baby
boomers, their current stage of physical activity (Stages of Change model), and their overall
intention and behaviour towards physical activity (Theory of Planned Behaviour). Once this
profile is obtained, future researchers’ can use it as a guideline to facilitate baby boomers’ entry
into older age.
6
Review of Literature
The increase in population by the baby boom cohort can be attributed to the steady
economic growth after WWII and the cost of living being more affordable for growing families
(Foot, 1996). During the boom, Canada’s immigration levels also increased. Most of these
immigrants were of childbearing age and contributed greatly to the influx of children born during
this time (Foot). The baby boom came to an end when women began pursuing higher education
and focusing on careers, putting family life on hold until they were older and well established.
The introduction of the birth control pill in the 1960s made this option easier, and thus the baby
boom ended in the mid-1960s (Goldin, 2004).
Beginning in 2011, the baby boom generation began its transition into older adulthood.
With the first boomers turning 65 in 2011, there will be an increase from 14.1% of the
population 65 years of age or greater, to 22.8% of the population by 2031 (Statistics Canada,
2010). The considerable increase in Canada’s aging population compared to previous generations
creates a cause for concern. There is a need to allocate resources wisely and ensure the
maintenance of a first-class healthcare system. Throughout one’s life, the use of Canada’s
healthcare system fluctuates. At birth, it is vital for life but it is not until someone is between 30
and 40 that the need presents itself again. Pregnant women use the healthcare system more so
than men during this time, however nearing 50, men require more attention due to chronic
conditions such as cardiovascular disease and coronary artery disease (Reinhardt, 2003). For
adults 60 or older, both sexes require the same amount of medical attention. Healthcare workers
are predicting an increased need for long-term care as baby boomers start turning 65 and more so
when they are all 65 or older. However, researchers Evans, McGrail, Morgan, Barer, and
Hertzman (2001) indicated that even though there will be a higher percentage of the population
7
over the age of 65 in 2031, the need for everyday healthcare will not be as great as previous
cohorts. The projected versus actual statistics of acute medical services has decreased since 1969,
yet the effects of population aging varies depending on the type of services required (Woods
Gordon Management Consultants, 1984). Katzmarzyk, Gledhill, and Shephard (2000) stated that
if 10% of individuals who were sedentary became physically active, it would save 150 million
Canadian dollars in healthcare costs, sick leave, and lost revenue over a period of one year.
Need for healthcare in active individuals is minimal when compared to sedentary
individuals (Swan, Friis, & Turner, 2008). With life expectancy predicted to increase to 85.4 and
88.4 years for males and females respectively by 2036, action is required to promote healthy
lifestyles (Statistics Canada, 2010). Since individuals are living longer, the importance of
maintaining a healthy lifestyle in the later years becomes even more important. Physical activity
can delay the onset of disease (Buckely, 2008; Fiatarone & Singh, 2004). Keeping active will
allow an individual to be able to enjoy the later years of life instead of relying on the country’s
healthcare system. Wetle and Havlik (2005) indicate that although women are living longer than
men, during the later years of their lives, women suffer disproportionately from disease and
disability. Even if exercise is started later in life, both men and women who are physically active
can delay the loss of functional mobility (Blocker, 1992). Older adults with chronic disease such
as stroke or heart disease still benefit from forms of physical activity for example walking or
other light aerobic activities (Ashe, Miller, Eng, & Noreau, 2009). Physical activity can enhance
an individual’s quality of life during the aging process (Taylor & Johnson, 2008).
Leading an unhealthy and sedentary lifestyle has major effects on an individual. Unlike
active healthy aging, sedentary living is associated with a rapid decline in physical and cognitive
functioning (Weir, Baker, & Horton, 2010). Physical activity is being promoted across Canada
8
and is a priority for public health interventions. Despite the published benefits of regular physical
activity, overall participation rates are still low. Statistics Canada (2010) reported that there is an
inverse relationship with age and participation in physical activity. Researchers have found that
98% of people over the age of 50 are aware of the importance of physical activity and its positive
effects on maintaining health (Ory, Hoffman, Hawkins, Sanner, & Nockenhaupt, 2003).
However, only 49.4% of baby boomers participate in regular leisure time physical activity
(Classified as active, moderately active, or inactive based on average daily physical activity over
the past three months; Statistics Canada). As individuals age, the percentage of those active
continues to decrease. Only 43% of older adults aged 65 or greater participate in physical activity
(50% of males, 37% of females; Statistics Canada). Benefits of physical activity outweigh the
risks, yet half of baby boomers are not inclined to participate.
Inactivity in older adults can be attributed to internal and external factors. Internal factors
that affect one’s choice to participate in physical activity include a lack of motivation toward the
activity, fear of injury, low levels of self efficacy, cognitive decline and illness/fatigue (Neid &
Franklin, 2002), comorbidities (Morey, Pieper, & Cornoni- Huntley, 1998), and lack of
knowledge of the benefits related to exercise (Dishman, 1994). External factors include
environmental factors (Dishman), such as air quality, accessibility (Taylor & Johnson, 2008),
lack of resources, lack of support from social networks (including family, friends, healthcare
providers), and lack of time (Crombie et al., 2004). Determining the underlying factors for the
reluctance of baby boomers’ participation in physical activity could lead to more appropriate
intervention studies geared specifically to the baby boomer cohort. Research into the intentions
and behaviours baby boomers’ have towards physical activity could also lead to more efficient
9
public health promotion of physical activity for this cohort, as well as helping boomers feel more
confident in performing physical activity.
The time commitment to participate in physical activity can be overwhelming.
Individuals choose not to participate rather than accommodate exercise in their daily lives. When
there is a decrease in older adults’ ability to perform activities of daily living and instrumental
activities of daily living, caregivers and family members might disengage from these older adults
and substitute remedies for activity management such as prescription drug use. Alternatives to
physical activity are then used to strive for a healthier lifestyle. Society finds it easier to take
prescribed medication to maintain weight, or eat low-fat, pre-packaged meals (Chao, Foy, &
Farmer, 2000). Fortunately, more often physical activity is effective in enhancing health, is
feasible on a day to day basis, and is safe and inexpensive for the majority of the population
(Vuori, 1998). Encouraging baby boomers to stay active into older age can mitigate the
physiological and psychological changes seen with aging.
Physiological Changes with Age
As aging occurs, there are typical patterns of change. Decreased muscle mass, decreased
bone mass and increased total visceral fat mass (Fiatarone Singh, 2004). The changes in body
composition may affect metabolic, cardiovascular, and musculoskeletal function negatively
(Hughes, et al., 2001). This loss of function as we age is based on many factors. Sarcopenia, or
loss of muscle mass, is associated with a sedentary lifestyle. Other reasons for loss of function
include reduced levels of, and responsiveness to tropic hormones, consequent decrease or
imbalance in protein metabolism, neurodegeneration, muscle fibre atrophy, decreased functional
capacity, and alteration in gene expression (Thomas, 2007). Lifestyle is the only thing that an
individual has direct control over in the prevention of muscle loss; but still we are seeing one-
10
half of all baby boomers remain sedentary (Horton, 2010). A decreased functional capacity is
related to decreases in maximal and submaximal aerobic capacity, cardiac contractility, maximal
heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output (Fiatarone Singh). Participating in regular physical
activity can modify the decrements in functional capacity and individuals can sustain higher
submaximal workloads with less cardiorespiratory response and less overall musculoskeletal
fatigue (Fiatarone Singh). It is also evident that older endurance trained athletes are able to
maintain higher stroke volume, and cardiac output during peak exercise (Hagberg, 1998).
By not participating in physical activity, an individual increases his or her risk for disease
and disability. Benefits of physical activity include reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease
(CVD), diabetes, osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, and colon cancer, while improving
neuropsychological health (Neid & Franklin, 2002). If functional loss becomes too great, an
individual will not be able to perform activities of daily living. Moving from an inactive to active
lifestyle later in life will set back the date of dependence by ten to twenty years depending on the
individual and amount of activity (Shephard, 1993). The rate of functional loss remains constant
in active and inactive individuals, however the inactive reach a threshold where support is
needed at a younger age (Shephard, 1987). Combinations of lifestyle choices, recreational sport,
unstructured play, and household and occupational tasks can contribute to a desirable exposure to
physical activity that will be lifelong and robust enough to counteract age and disease related
losses of bone. Canadian Physical activity guidelines suggest that an adult maintain an average
of 150 minutes of physical activity per week. Activity can be performed in bouts of 10 minutes
or more (CSEP, 2011). Participating in physical activity is not difficult or expensive. Finding the
time throughout one’s day is the hardest part for any individual.
11
Psychological Changes with Age
Participation in regular physical activity has health benefits including increased quality of
life and prevention of chronic diseases (Rejeski & Mihalko, 2001). Mental illness is socially
debilitating and associated with increased risk for suicide attempts, drug and alcohol use, and
homelessness (Fox, 1999). There are cases of mental instability that go undiagnosed. These
individuals suffer from low mental well-being characterized by emotional distress, low selfesteem, poor body image, sense of hopelessness, chronic stress, and anxiety (Fox). Given that
these are not clinically diagnosed, major implications for other problems such as heavy drinking,
family breakdown, physical violence and abuse, and overall quality of life occur. Depression is a
widespread disorder affecting 5 to 10% of the population of most developed countries
(Weissmann & Klerman, 1992). Biddle and Mutrie (2008) stated that physical activity is
associated with a decreased risk of developing clinical depression and aerobic and resistance
exercise is effective in treating depression. The effects of physical activity produce similar
results to that of psychotherapeutic interventions. As well as reducing the effects of depression,
physical activity provides moderate reductions in state and trait anxiety (Fox).
Rejeski, Brawley, and Shumaker (1996) explored the relationship between functional
status and health-related quality of life (HRQL). They reported on a number of studies that found
a direct relationship between HRQL and physical activity. When serious medical conditions arise,
older adults who are physically active report that they enjoy better physical functioning, greater
energy, less fatigue, less pain, improved psychosocial well being, and less distress than those
reporting lower levels of physical activity (Rejeski, et al.). Furthermore, Morey et al. (2002)
investigated older adults who participated in an ongoing supervised exercise program over a 10-
12
year period and determined that long-term participation in structured exercise programs
protected against premature mortality and functional disability.
The Transtheoretical Model and the Stages of Change Model
The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) has been an important theoretical concept used for
studying exercise behaviour (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1984; Prochaska & Velicer, 1997). The
TTM integrates concepts from cognitive, affective, and behavioural processes and principles of
change from leading theories of psychotherapy and health psychology (Jordan, Nigg, Norman,
Rossi, & Benisovich 2001). It consists of four constructs including stages of change, processes of
change, self-efficacy, and decisional balance. The model draws from other theories of
intervention, hence the name transtheoretical (Prochaska & Velicer). It focuses on understanding
when, how and why people change their health behaviours (Courneya & Bobick, 2000a).
The Stages of Change Model (SCM) is the first construct in the TTM and is used
extensively in the health and behavioural field. Stages of change are used to distinguish when a
meaningful change occurs. There are six stages of change including precontemplation (no intent
to change behaviour), contemplation (want to change in the next six months), preparation
(change in the next 30 days), action (made a change, but not longer than six months),
maintenance (active and maintaining activity level longer than 6 months) and termination
(Courneya & Bobick, 2000a; DiClemente et al., 1991; Prochaska et al., 1992). The termination
stage has been proven irrelevant for the exercise domain (Courneya & Bobick, 2000b). Intention
is the immediate determinant of exercise behaviour and can be seen as a precursor to the stages
of change (Courneya, 1995).
13
The Theory of Planned Behaviour
The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) is an extension of Ajzen and Fishbein’s Theory
of Reasoned Action (TRA; 1975). The TRA is based on the assumption that a person’s intention
to perform or not to perform a behaviour is the immediate determinant of that action (Ajzen,
1988). The TRA assumes that attitudes toward a behaviour and subjective norms predict
intentions to perform a behaviour and these intentions in turn predict actual performance of the
behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). The TRA did not account for behaviours over which people did not
have complete volitional control (Ajzen, 1991), and overall, limited behaviours can be controlled
completely (Ajzen 1985). Ajzen (1985) incorporated a third component to this theory: perceived
behavioural control (PBC), creating the TPB. Figure 1 illustrates Ajzen’s TPB.
Figure 1. Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1988, p. 132)
The TPB is an attempt to provide a conceptual framework that addresses the issue of
incomplete volitional control (Ajzen, 1985; Ajzen & Madden, 1986; Schifter & Ajzen, 1985). A
central factor in the TPB is the individual’s intention to perform a certain behaviour. Intentions
reflect primarily an individual’s willingness to engage in a given behaviour. Typically, the more
favourable the attitude and subjective norm with respect to a behaviour, and the greater the PBC,
the stronger an individual’s intention to perform the behaviour (Ajzen, 1988). People who
14
believe they do not have access to the resources or opportunities to perform a certain behaviour
are less likely to develop behavioural intentions even though they hold favourable attitudes
toward the behaviour and they believe important others approve of the behaviour (Ajzen).
Intention is defined as the combination of the strength of effort and willingness to
perform the behaviour (Carron, Hausenblas, & Estabrooks, 2003). Intention is the immediate
antecedent of behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). The intention is based on attitude toward the behaviour,
subjective norm, and perceived behavioural control. According to the theory, the stronger a
person’s intentions, the more likely he or she will be to engage in the behaviour (Ajzen, 1988).
Attitude is defined as a person’s positive or negative evaluation of performing a behaviour
(Carron et al.; Courneya, 1995). Attitudes cannot be observed directly but have to be inferred
from observed consistency in behaviour (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Subjective norm is defined as
the perceived social pressure and/or expectation of others that an individual should engage or not
engage in a behaviour (Ajzen, 1991; Carron et al.).
PBC emphasizes how much control an individual believes he or she has over
performance of a particular behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). PBC is defined as the perceived ease or
difficulty of performing a behaviour (Carron et al., 2003). PBC may also be a direct determinant
of behaviour if the behaviour is not completely volitional (Courneya, 1995). The direct effect of
perceived behavioural control on behaviour accounts for barriers that affect behaviour despite an
individual’s best intentions (Brenes, Strube, & Storandt, 1998). Studies have shown that exercise
behaviour, attitude, and perceived behavioural control are the strongest predictors of exercise
intention, and perceived behavioural control and intention are the strongest predictors of
behaviour (Brenes, Strube, & Storandt; Godin & Kok, 1996).
15
Belief Based Structure of the TPB. When using the TPB, establishing the cognitive
foundation of a population’s salient exercise beliefs will give the researcher a better
understanding of the population itself (Downs & Hausenblas, 2005). The TPB can be used in
many ways. If the goal is to predict behaviour, direct measure of intention will be the only
relationship examined. If the objective is to predict intention as well as behaviour, then the
measures of attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control will be taken into
consideration. However, if the aim is to understand intention and behaviour, researchers must
examine the behavioural, normative and control beliefs (Downs & Hausenblas). In order to
understand the psychological and cognitive determinants of people’s physical activity, it is
important to identify which beliefs most strongly determine their attitudes, subjective norms and
perceived behavioural control.
The constructs of the TPB have a belief-based structure (Collette, Godin, Bradet, &
Gionet, 1994; Conn, Tripp-Reimer, & Maas, 2003; Kerner & Grossman, 200). The secondary
constructs (behavioural, normative and control beliefs) lead into the main constructs (attitude,
subjective norm and PBC) in predicting intention. Attitude toward the behaviour is based on
behavioural beliefs that are weighted by evaluations of the importance of the beliefs (Ajzen &
Driver, 1992). Behavioural beliefs are the perceived positive and negative consequences of
performing the exercise behaviour (Conn, Tripp-Reimer, & Maas). Courneya (1995)
demonstrates that behavioural beliefs have predicted stage of exercise adoption in older adults.
Rowland, Dickinson, Newman, Ford, and Ebrahim (1994) studied retired women, and reported
that behavioural beliefs predicted exercise behaviour in these women. In 1993, Wankel and
Mummery reported on significant belief predictors in older adults’ attitude toward physical
activity. Their findings suggest that older adults believe physical activity improves overall level
16
of fitness and health, and allows them to be more comfortable with their appearance. However,
there is a strong belief among older adults that physical activity could result in injury, therefore,
the risks may outweigh the benefits for some individuals (Wankel & Mummery, 1993).
Subjective norms are based on normative beliefs. These beliefs are an individual’s
perceptions that those important to him or her approve or disapprove of the behaviour (Conn,
Tripp-Reimer, & Maas, 2003). How much the person is motivated to comply with those referents
will weight the belief (Ajzen & Driver, 1992). Significant others are person dependent, for one it
could be a spouse, another, children or family doctor. Although the theory contends that
children’s beliefs concerning exercise might influence the older individual’s behaviour it is not
supported in the research regarding exercise behaviour (Courneya, & McAuley, 1995; Terry &
O’Leary, 1995; Blue, Wilbur, & Marston-Scott, 2001). Some report normative beliefs predict
exercise intention in older adults (Wankel & Mummery, 1993), while Theodorakis (1994) found
that normative beliefs were unable to predict exercise intention or behaviour in older adults.
Perceived behavioural control is based on control beliefs. Control beliefs distinguish the
perceptions about how easy or difficult it is to perform a behaviour (Conn, Tripp-Reimer, &
Maas, 2003). PBC is a main predictor of exercise intention and behaviour, therefore control
beliefs are important predictors of exercise intention and behaviour (Blue, Wilbur, & MarstonScott, 2001).
The TPB proposes that people will intend to perform a behaviour when they view it to be
a positive behaviour, believe that those important to them think they should perform it, and when
they perceive it to be under their own control (Courneya, 1995). The stronger the individuals’
intention to perform the behaviour, the more a person is expected to try, therefore the greater
likelihood the behaviour will be performed (Dean et al., 2007). The model as a whole has proven
17
to be a useful predictive model as attitude towards the behaviour is a significant predictor of
behavioural intention (Collete, Godin, Bradet, & Gionet, 1995; Courneya & McAuley, 1995;
Dzewaltowski, Noble, & Shaw, 1995). However, a majority of studies have found a lack of
association between subjective norms and the intention of participants to exercise (Courneya &
McAuley; Terry & O’Leary, 1995). The subjective norms construct is seen as an attempt to
account cognitively for social influence in exercise behaviour change (Courneya, Nigg, &
Estabrook, 1998).
Application of the TPB. The TPB has been used extensively to predict intentions and
behaviours in different areas of research including individual’s participation in exercise.
Armitage and Conner (2001) conducted a meta-analysis of 185 independent studies published
until the end of 1997. Overall, the TPB accounted for 27% of the variance in behaviour and 39%
of the variance in intention. The meta-analysis provides support for the efficacy of the TPB in
predicting behaviour and intention.
Downs and Hausenblas (2005) reviewed TPB and exercise studies that conducted
elicitation studies examining the behavioural, normative, and control beliefs. Overall, 47 studies
met the criteria. Results indicated that the most important behavioural change seen throughout
the studies was improved physical and psychological health. Another interpretation was that the
most frequently reported normative influences were from family and friends. These results were
consistent with previous research (Norman & Smith, 1995; Terry & O’Leary, 1995). However,
some studies reported a personal physician being an important normative influence because
people consider their physician to be an important authority regarding behaviour and promotion
of physical activity. In these cases, physicians have the potential to play a valuable role in
exercise intervention. Downs and Hausenblas found that behavioural beliefs explained 54% of
18
the variance in attitude, normative beliefs explained 56% of the variance in subjective norm and
control beliefs explained 34% of the variance in perceived behavioural control. The overall
predictive ability of the beliefs varied between studies. It was lower (r = 0.37) in a study of
cancer patients (Courneya & Friedenreich, 1997) compared to a study of fitness participants (r =
0.60; Deyo, 1984). It is important to understand the predictability of the beliefs within different
populations to demonstrate the variability in individual’s beliefs toward exercise (Downs &
Hausenblas).
When examining the most common control beliefs stated, Downs and Hausenblas (2005)
discovered a variation from previous studies. Carron et al. (2003) found lack of time, energy and
motivation to be the most common control beliefs. However, Downs and Hausenblas determined
that health issues, inconvenience/lack of access to exercise facilities, lack of motivation and
energy, and lack of social support were the most common. One reason for this discrepancy in
findings relates to the current health status of the sample. Carron et al. based their findings on
healthy populations, whereas Downs and Hausenblas reviewed 13 studies that included special
populations where physical barriers to participation in physical activity would be more
problematic.
Godin, Valois, and Lepage (1992) conducted an analysis of PBC and its influence on
exercise behaviour and intention. They used two study groups: one consisting of 357 adults of
the general population, and the second consisting of 136 pregnant women. Results indicated that
in both studies perceived behavioural control contributed to the prediction of exercise intention.
Study one, using the general population, reported that there was an indirect influence upon
behaviour through intention. The relationship between intention and behaviour was not seen in
study two. Researchers hypothesized that the lack of relationship between intention and
19
behaviour was because of the time lapse between the onset of the study (pregnancy) to the time
of behavioural assessment (postnatal period). The time lapse between measurements of intention
and behaviour was in agreement with Jaccard (1975) who stated that a major factor affecting the
intention-behaviour relationship was the actual time interval between the measures of intention
and behaviour. In this sense, intention could not predict future behaviour because the
circumstances were completely different. In both studies, relationships were found between
attitudes and intentions, however no relationship was observed between subjective norms and
intentions.
Courneya, Nigg, and Estabrook (1998) explored the relationships among the TPB, SCM,
and exercise behaviour in 131 older adults in a three-year period. The SCM is a construct of the
Transtheoretical model, which reflects the temporal dimension of health behaviour change. The
SCM highlights the dynamic nature of health behaviour change and demarcates when
meaningful change has occurred (Courneya & Bobick, 2000). Baseline data were collected in
1993 and follow-up data in 1996. SCM was used to assess the participants’ stage at the
beginning of the study and at follow-up. Analysis showed that the TPB constructs were a
significant predictor of exercise stage, intention mediated the effects of TPB constructs on
exercise stage, and exercise behaviour was best predicted by intention rather than stage
(Courneya, et al.). Together, the TPB and SCM predicted 29% of the variance in current exercise
behaviour.
In 2007, Dean et al. conducted research using adults 55 and older who were classified as
strength trainers, strength-aerobic trainers, aerobic trainers and non-trainers. Intention was able
to explain 46% of the variance in behaviour, while perceived behavioural control and subjective
norms were the strongest predictors of intention explaining 37% of strength training intention.
20
Significant differences were found between strength trainers (including strength-aerobic trainers)
and aerobic and non-trainers with regards to perceived behavioural control. The participants with
no previous experience in strength training perceived less control over their ability and perceived
it to be more difficult compared to those who participated in strength training already.
Significant differences were apparent between non-trainers, strength, and strength aerobic
trainers. Non-trainers had lower perceptions of social expectations and social support. The
difference between social expectations and social support is supported by demographic inquiry
regarding friends’ participation in strength training. Non-trainers had fewer friends who
participated in strength training compared to the two strength-training groups (Dean et al.).
Godin and Kok (1996) reviewed TPB studies in a meta-analysis in the behavioural health
field to verify the efficiency of the theory to explain and predict health-related behaviours. They
found that the overall correlation between intention and attitude, subjective norm and perceived
behavioural control was .46, .34, and .46 respectively. With regard to exercising alone, the
correlation between intention and attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioural control
was .51, .30, and .50 respectively (Godin & Kok). Intention had the strongest relationship to
actual behaviour compared to perceived behavioural control with correlations of .52 for intention
and .41 for PBC. The results of this study were collected solely from the health-related behaviour
domain. Intention remained the most influential variable in the studies analyzed. Consequently,
health-related behaviours remain within one’s personal motivation (Godin & Kok). The
researchers suggest that the TPB can include additional predictors if they are able to predict a
significant proportion of the variance in intention on top of the theory’s current predictors (Godin
& Kok).
21
Using the TPB to understand why exercise stage change has occurred might be beneficial
to integrate the concepts from TTM to understand how individuals change their exercise stage.
The TPB is a practical framework for understanding the important cognitions related to stages of
change (Courneya, 1995). No single theory can account for all of the complexities of behaviour
change due to the focus on parsimony that negates human intricacies. Integrating constructs
might lead to a more comprehensive model to predict exercise intention and behaviour. Using
theories to determine the predictive characteristics of constructs gives way to intervention that
can be participant oriented. Knowing what stage the participant is at, can lead to an intervention
that will enhance self-control in the behavioural health field.
It seems that researchers are not clear on whether intention, stage, and behaviour need to
be included in the same model, or if they are redundant (Courneya, Nigg, & Estabrooks, 1998).
Some researchers believe that the stage of change model is a combination of intention and
behaviour (Marcus et al., 1994). By this definition, the first two stages of change are defined by
intention and the last three are related to behavioural change (Marcus et al.). Interpreting the
SCM in this manner is in contrast to previous research in that the first two stages are defined and
operationalized as “seriously considering” or “seriously thinking” as opposed to “intending” to
change (DiClemente et al., 1991; Marcus & Owen, 1992; Marcus, Rakowski et al., 1992;
Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983). Intending implies a different psychological construct when
compared to seriously thinking or considering. Prochaska and Marcus (1994) noted that the only
stage that includes intentional and behavioural criteria is the preparation stage. The last two
stages of the SCM, action and maintenance, are distinguished by the time required to perform the
behaviour at an appropriate level. Despite or perhaps because of these clarifications the
incorporation of the SCM with the TPB may result in a clearer explanation of behaviour from
22
study results. Investigating the participant’s stage would help explain if active individuals view
their attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC differently than those who are not as physically active.
By continuing research focusing on the baby boom generation, specific interventions that
are geared towards concerns of this specific cohort could be designed. Of those who join exercise
programs, 50% are shown to drop out within the first year (Marshall & Biddle, 2001). A critical
assumption of the TTM is that those who do not participate in physical activity will not begin to
if served with a traditional action-oriented prevention program. Health promotion needs to shift
from an action paradigm to a stage paradigm (Prochaska & Velicer, 1997). If baby boomers
seem deterred from activity, attempting to move from contemplation to action might not produce
significant results. Based on the results, this logic applies because individuals not thinking about
participating in physical activity will not be influenced by an intervention developed for those
who are already active. Better understanding of the depth of thinking that goes into this
population’s decisions about being active or not would be beneficial in developing exercise
interventions.
Baby Boomers, Physical Activity, TPB, and the SCM
Overall, from reviewing the literature, it is evident that limited research has been
conducted regarding baby boomers and their intentions and behaviours towards physical activity.
The majority of TPB studies focus on university aged students, older adults, or the population as
a whole. Incorporating the SCM will help determine baby boomers’ perceived involvement in
physical activity or stage of change while focusing on the TPB constructs.
The TPB is a comprehensive model that predicts exercise behaviour. It is expected that
application of the model in this study will help explain the current exercise behaviour of baby
23
boomers and that the motivational stages identified may be applied in a subsequent intervention
study to promote regular and frequent exercise by baby boomers.
Purpose
The main purpose of this study was to examine baby boomer’s attitudes, subjective
norms, perceived behavioural control, behavioural beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs
toward physical activity. By using the constructs and beliefs of the TPB, the researcher hoped to
gain a better understanding of the baby boom generation’s intentions to participate in physical
activity. As well, this study examined the relationship between the TPB and exercise behaviour
by comparing the METs participants reported based on frequency of moderate and vigorous
physical activity to the TPB questionnaire results. The Stages of Change Model (SCM) was
compared to exercise behaviour and the TPB constructs in order to see if a relationship existed
between these models. Another purpose of this study was to understand if there were any
differences between gender and the older and younger baby boomers with regard to intention and
behaviour.
Hypotheses
It was hypothesized that:
•
No differences would be seen between the younger and older baby boomers’ participation in
physical activity based on the SCM, nor would there be any difference between gender and
stage of change.
•
Those in action and maintenance would have higher scores on the independent variables
(attitudes toward the behaviour, subjective norms and PBC constructs) compared to those in
precontemplation, contemplation and preparation stages.
24
•
Attitudes and PBC would be the stronger predictors of intention to be physically active in
baby boomers compared to subjective norms.
Pilot Study
Hoegy and Taylor (2011) completed preliminary data analysis to determine if using a
theoretical inquiry approach to assess the baby boom generation was appropriate. The results
from the pilot led the researchers to believe that the TPB is an appropriate model for moderately
predicting exercise intention in baby boomers focusing on attitude toward the behaviour and
perceived behavioural control. Fifty-five baby boomers were recruited and participated in the
study. Seventy percent of participants said they were in the maintenance stage compared to
research stating only 50% of baby boomers are physically active (Statscan, 2011). Sixty-seven
percent of participants were female. Sixty-nine percent of participants were either married or
common law, 18% were separated or divorced, 7.3% were widow/widower and 5.5% were single.
Seventy-six percent had achieved higher education through post-secondary education and 24%
completed high school.
Correlations between intention and the TPB constructs, attitude, subjective norms and
PBC were .53, .33, and .54 respectively. The correlation between behaviour and intention
was .54. Using regression analysis to determine the predictability of the TPB constructs for
intention, it was found that attitude was the strongest predictor followed by perceived
behavioural control. The amount of variance predicted by the constructs on intention was 46.3%.
Overall, behaviour was predicted by intention alone at 27.6% of the variance explained. Results
suggest that wanting to participate in physical activity was under the participants’ volitional
control. The information presented here indicates that research and promotion of physical
activity through interventions that focus on changing attitudes toward physical activity would be
25
the most beneficial. The TPB has proven to be moderately effective in predicting exercise
behaviour throughout the life span. This study helps explain the predictive power of the TPB. No
changes were made to the research protocol for the main study, therefore, the data collected in
the Pilot analysis was incorporated in the final study. Figure 2 below illustrates the results of the
predicted variance explained on intention and behaviour in baby boomers.
Figure 2. TPB Results of the Pilot Study
(Adapted from Ajzen, 2002)
26
Method
Participants and Procedures
Participant recruitment attempted to include 200 individuals born between 1946 and 1964.
After recruitment, 170 baby boomers (including the 55 from the pilot study) agreed to participate
in the study. The researcher contacted local businesses in Thunder Bay and Brussels, Ontario,
gained consent to distribute information posters at the facilities and to set up an information
session where customers completed questionnaires on site. Eligible participants included those
who had no known health complications that would prevent them from participating in physical
activity. All eligible participants were provided an information letter (Appendix A) and a consent
form (Appendix B) before participating in the study. Once consent was obtained, the researcher
distributed the questionnaires to participants. All participants were made aware through both the
information letter and consent form that their data would be used for research purposes only, that
they were volunteers and that at any time they had the option of refusing to answer any questions
and of withdrawing from the study.
Once consent was obtained, participants completed three self-administered questionnaires
in this order: Stages of Change (Appendix C; Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983), the TPB
(Appendix D; Ajzen, 1985), and the Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (GLTEQ;
Appendix E; Godin & Shephard, 1997). If a participant did not have enough time to complete the
questionnaire at the facility, the participant returned the questionnaires back to the researcher in
an envelope that had prepaid postage. If the participant completed the questionnaires on site at
the designated facility, he or she returned the questionnaires back to the researcher.
27
Instrumentation
Stages of change. The Stages of Change questionnaire was used to establish the stage of
motivational readiness of the participants (Prochaska & DiClemente, 1983). The stages of
change questionnaire defined what moderate physical activity and vigorous physical activity are
and the participants selected one of the options that best described their level of physical activity.
Stages ranged from pre-contemplation to maintenance. Courneya (1995) reported a two week
test-retest correlation of r= 0.79 for this measure (n=148), and concurrent validity has been
demonstrated with the Seven Day Physical Activity Recall Questionnaire (Marcus & Simkin,
1993). In this study, stage of change was used to assess exercise behaviour and provide insight
into the question of the relationship between exercise intention and at what stage they classify
themselves.
TPB questionnaire. Demographic information was collected using part A of the TPB
questionnaire. The TPB questionnaire is adapted from previous research (Brenes et al., 1998;
Courneya, 1995; Courneya, Nigg, & Estabrook, 1980; Godin & Kok, 1996; Rhodes, Courneya,
& Hayduk, 2002, Dean et al., 2007), and is used to assess the intent and behavioural change of
the baby boom generation. The focus of this specific inquiry is on the intentions of individuals to
participate in regular physical activity based on Likert scale questions of the following constructs:
attitude toward the behaviour, subjective norms, perceived behavioural control, behavioural
beliefs, normative beliefs, and control beliefs.
Attitude toward the behaviour. Attitude was measured using a 7-point scale suggested by
Ajzen and Fishbein (1980). Both instrumental (useless to useful, harmful to beneficial, foolish to
wise, bad to good) and affective (unenjoyable to enjoyable, boring to interesting, unpleasant to
pleasant, stressful to relaxing) components of attitude were assessed using adjectives commonly
28
used in the exercise domain (Courneya & Bobick, 2000; Courneya, Friedenreich, Arthur &
Bobick, 1999). The statement that precedes the adjectives is “My participation in regular
physical activity is/would be”.
Subjective norm. Subjective norm was measured by 3 items similar to those suggested by
Ajzen and Fishbein (1980) and were used in previous research (Courneya & Bobick, 2000).
Subjective norm was measured on a 7-point Likert scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to
7 (strongly agree). Questions included: “Most people who are important to me think I should
engage in regular physical activity”, “Most people who are important to me would/do support
my participation in regular physical activity”, and lastly, “Generally speaking, I want to do what
most people who are important to me think I should do”.
Perceived behavioural control. Perceived behavioural control was measured using 3
items similar to those used by Ajzen and Madden (1986) and Courneya and Bobick (2000). Items
included; “How much control do you have over whether or not you engage in regular physical
activity?” (1=no control at all to 7=complete control), “Overall, for me to engage in regular
physical activity would be…” (1=extremely difficult to 7=extremely easy), “If I chose, I could
participate in regular physical activity any time I wanted to…” (1=Strongly disagree to
7=strongly agree).
Intention. Intention was measured using three items commonly used in the exercise
domain (Courneya, 1994; Couneya & Bobick, 2000). “I intend to engage in physical activity
with the following number of times in the next four weeks”. This question was based on a 7point Likert scale from 1 (equal to 0 to 4 times) and 7 (equal to 25 times or more). The second
question was “I intend to engage in physical activity with the following regularity over the next
four weeks”, (1=not at all to 7=everyday). Lastly, intention was investigated using the question,
29
“I intend to engage in physical activity at least 12 times in the next four weeks”, (1=definitely
not to 7=definitely).
Secondary beliefs. The TPB questionnaire included three secondary beliefs; behavioural,
normative, and control. Similar to the main constructs, the questions are based on a 7-point
Likert scale. Behavioural beliefs were measured using 19 questions focusing on physical activity
helping the participants’ improve fitness, health, energy level, mood, weight, etc. Normative
beliefs were measured with 8 questions focusing on the participant’s beliefs whether friends and
family members’ personal input would affect his or her participation in physical activity. Control
beliefs were measured by 30 scale questions focusing on the participant’s beliefs and his or her
level of confidence in performing physical activity.
Exercise Behaviour. Exercise behaviour was assessed using the Godin Leisure Time
Exercise Questionnaire (GLTEQ; Appendix E). The participant was asked to complete a selfexplanatory, brief four-item query of usual leisure-time exercise habits (Godin & Shephard,
1997). The first question asked participants to state the number of times per week they
participated in strenuous, moderate and mild physical activity for more than 15 minutes. The
second question asked them how often they worked up a sweat in one week; often, sometimes,
and never/rarely were the three choices. The GLTEQ has been previously validated as a leisure
time physical activity questionnaire (Godin & Shephard, 1985).
Statistical Analyses
Data analysis was conducted using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) 18.0.
All tests conducted used statistical significance at p < 0.05 with a two-tailed significance.
Descriptive statistics on measures including gender, age, marital status, and education were
30
recorded. Correlations between intention and the TPB constructs, as well as behaviour and
intention, and exercise stage were investigated.
Statistical stepwise regression analysis was used to analyze the TPB model. Intention was
regressed on the direct measures of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural
control. The second regression equation used the main and secondary constructs to predict
intention. Intention and perceived behavioural control were used to predict exercise behaviour in
the baby boomer generation.
31
Results
Sample Characteristics
The sample population consisted of 100 female and 70 male baby boomers ranging in age
from 46 to 66 (M = 55.63; SD 5.319). The majority of participants were married/common law
(n=140), while seven were single, five were widowed, and eighteen were separated or divorced.
Education status illustrated that 62.7% of participants completed post-secondary education, 36.7%
completed high school and one participant commented on not completing high school.
Participants were selected from a rural location in Southwestern Ontario (Huron, Perth, and
Bruce County) and a more urban area in Northwestern Ontario (Thunder Bay and surrounding
area) with 92 and 78 participants respectively. With an 85% return rate, participants were very
willing to participate in data collection.
The responses to the SCM are illustrated in Table 1. The majority of participants
considered themselves to be in the maintenance stage (I participate in regular physical activity
and have done so for more than six months; 62.9%), however 22.4% of the participants were in
the preparation stage (I am physically active once in a while, but not regularly).
Table 1. Frequency of Participants Stage of Change Pre-Contemplation
Contemplation
Preparation
Action
Maintenance
Total
Frequency
1
12
38
12
107
170
Percent
0.6
7.1
22.4
7.1
62.9
100
Table 2 illustrates the grouping of the participants by age category. Equal variance was
assumed across all age categories.
32
Table 2. Baby Boom Generation Age Grouping
46-50
51-55
56-60
61-66
Total
Frequency
32
57
40
41
170
Percent
18.8
33.8
23.5
24.1
100.0
Homogeneity of Demographics in Relation to Intention and Behaviour
Testing for homogeneity of the sample, there were no significant differences seen
between the younger (46-55 years old) and the older boomers (56-66 years old) with intention
(t(168)=.013, p>0.05) and behaviour (t(168)=-1.021, p>0.05). When comparing rural and urban
locations, no statistical differences were seen between participants’ intentions using independent
samples testing (t(168)= 0.013, p>0.05). Comparison of behaviour using a non-parametric MannWhitney U test revealed there was no significant difference on physical activity behaviour
between urban (Md = 31.21, n = 78) and rural locations (Md = 31.13, n = 92, U = 3278, z = .972,
p > 0.005, r = .07).
When comparing the relationship between marital status and intention, there was no
significant difference between married/common-law, separated/divorced, widow/widower, or
single (F (3,166) = 0.053, p > 0.05). Using the non-parametric independent samples Kruskall
Wallis test due to lack of homogeneity on behavioural beliefs, results revealed no statistical
difference between behaviour and marital status, (X2(3, n = 170 = 4.747, p > 0.05). No relationship
was seen between the level of education and gender with regard to intention or behaviour to be
physically active.
33
Participation in Physical Activity
Physical activity is based on mild, moderate, and strenuous levels. Mild physical activity
included fishing, archery, bowling, horseshoes, golf, and other activities where an individual
would exert a similar amount of effort. Moderate examples are, but not limited to, fast walking,
baseball, tennis, volleyball, easy swimming, alpine skiing, and popular and folk dancing.
Strenuous activities include, but are not limited to, running, jogging, hockey, football, soccer,
squash, roller blading, vigorous swimming, and vigorous long distance biking. The mean rate of
participation in mild (minimal effort) physical activity was 3.6 days/week (n =170), where 19.4%
stated they did not participate in mild activity at all. The mean rate of moderate (not exhausting)
physical activity was 3.5 days/week (n = 170) and 21.2% stated they did not participate in
moderate physical activity. The mean rate of strenuous (heart beats rapidly) physical activity was
1.52 days/week (n = 170) and 55.3% of baby boomers stated they did not participate in strenuous
physical activity. Averages are based on days/week and the number of participants participating
at that level. Figure 3 illustrates the number of participants participating in mild, moderate, and
strenuous physical activity. Examples of each level of physical activity were given on the
questionnaire.
37
maintenance stage of change with regard to how many times in one week they work up a sweat.
Participants in the maintenance stage sweat often or sometimes in a week compared to
preparation (p < 0.001) and contemplation (p < 0.001) stage of change which were commonly
seen in the ‘sometimes’ and ‘never/rarely’ working up a sweat category.
Differences Between Gender and Age on the SCM
An independent samples t-test was used to determine if there was a significant difference
between gender on the SCM. No significant differences were found between the male and female
participants based on what stage they considered themselves to be in (t (168) = -.043, p > 0.05). A
one-way ANOVA was used to determine if there were any differences between age and the SCM.
No significant differences were found between the stage of change they considered themselves to
be in and the age of the participants, (F (3, 166) = .683, p > 0.05).
Differences Between Gender and Age on the Main Constructs of the TPB
Independent samples t-tests were conducted to assess if differences existed on gender and
the main constructs of the TPB. No significant differences were found between the main
constructs and gender. Independent samples t tests were conducted to assess if differences
existed between age and the main constructs (attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC). When
looking at older (55+) versus younger baby boomers, significant differences were found between
age and subjective norm (t (168) = -2.856, p <0.005) and PBC (t (168) = -3.332, p <0.001). Breaking
the age groupings down into 4 groups (Table 3), significant differences were seen using a oneway ANOVA between subjective norm (F (3, 166) = 3.616, p < 0.05) and PBC (F (3, 166) = 4.323, p
< 0.05). Scheffe post hoc analysis revealed that participants aged 51 to 55 years differed from
those 56 to 60 years old subjective norms (p < 0.05). Regarding PBC, participants aged 45 to 50
38
years differed from participants aged 56 to 60 years (p < 0.05). Table 3 illustrates the mean
scores for the main TPB constructs based on age.
Table 3. Main TPB Construct Means Based on Age Group (Years)
Age Groups
Attitudes
Subjective Norm
PBC
46-50
6.3
5.6
5.3
51-55
6.0
5.5
5.5
56-60
6.3
6.1
6.1
61-66
6.3
5.8
5.8
Regarding subjective norm, the participants aged 51 to 55 years had the lowest scores
compared to the other three age groups. A significant difference was seen between them and the
participants aged 56 to 60, who had scored the highest on the subjective norm scale. The
question on which the participants aged 56 to 60 had greater a social expectation was ‘Most
people who are important to me would/do support my participation in regular physical activity.
Regarding PBC, those aged 56 to 60 years demonstrated stronger perceived control with ‘If I
chose to, I could participate in physical activity anytime I wanted to’ compared to those aged 46
to 50 years. The 56 to 60 year olds scored higher on their PBC scale compared to all the other
groups, but significantly higher than the 45 to 50 years olds.
Differences Between Gender and Age on the Secondary Constructs of the TPB
Independent samples t-test were conducted to assess if differences existed between
gender and the secondary constructs (behavioural, normative, and control beliefs) of the TPB.
Significant differences were found between behavioural beliefs and gender. Behavioural beliefs
violated assumptions of homogeneity of the sample and the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U
test revealed a significant difference in the behavioural beliefs of males (Md = 6.3158, n=70) and
females (Md = 6.7368, n = 100, U = 4396.5, z = 2.861, p < 0.005, r = .22).
39
Differences between SCM and TPB Constructs
Multiple tests were conducted to assess if there were differences between the SCM and
the main constructs of the TPB. Table 4 states the means, standard deviations, ANOVA F
statistic and effect size using Eta-squared.
Table 4. Mean, Standard Deviations, ANOVA Results, and Effect Sizes for TPB Constructs by
Stage of Change
Stage of Change
Constructs
C
P
A
M
F (3,166)
Etan =13
n = 38
n = 12
n = 107
squared
Intention
52.71*** 0.49
M
3.03
3.67
5.69
5.84
SD
1.51
1.28
0.92
1.01
Attitude
13.15*** 0.19
M
5.22
5.80
6.54
6.42
SD
1.01
1.11
0.54
0.64
Perceived
11.79*** 0.18
Behavioural Control
M
4.62
5.17
5.78
6.00
SD
1.18
1.13
1.02
0.86
Subjective Norm
7.48***
0.12
M
4.95
5.34
5.83
6.01
SD
1.78
1.13
1.03
0.85
b
Behavioural Beliefs
13.03*** 0.19
M
5.89
5.96
6.52
6.57
SD
0.79
0.78
0.49
0.50
Control Beliefs
15.90*** 0.22
M
4.06
4.62
5.50
5.48
SD
0.81
0.85
0.72
0.95
Normative Beliefs
6.49***
0.10
M
4.91
5.00
5.21
5.65
SD
0.99
0.82
1.13
0.91
Note 1. All scales range from 1 to 7. ANOVA = analysis of variance; TPB = Theory of Planned Behaviour; C =
contemplation; P = preparation; A = action; M = maintenance, n = number of participants
*** = p < 0.001).
b
Behavioural Beliefs Violated Assumptions of Homogeneity
Significant differences were found between the stage of change and the intention to be
physically activity. Assumption of homogeneity of variance was violated; using an independent
samples Kruskall Wallis test revealed a statistically significant difference in intention and across
the stage of change categories (X2 (3, n = 170) = 76.051, p < 0.0001). The action and maintenance
40
stages of change recorded higher median scores (Md = 5.7, Md = 6.0 respectively) than
contemplation and preparation (Md = 2.7, Md = 3.7 respectively). The participants in the action
or maintenance stage had more intention to be physically active than the participants in the
contemplation and preparation stages. When observing the effect size (Cohen, 1969), a medium
effect size was seen with intention, where almost 50% of the variance in participants’ stage of
change is due to their intention to perform physical activity. However, a small effect size was
seen when comparing control beliefs to the SCM where control beliefs accounted for 22% of the
variance between the stages, which is more than any of the other constructs.
Significant differences were found between the stages of change on attitude (F(3, 166) =
13.154, p <0.0001). Scheffe post hoc analysis indicated the differences were seen between
contemplation and the two physically active stages of change, action (p < 0.001) and
maintenance (p < 0.0001). Also, there was a statistical difference on attitude between the
preparation and maintenance stage of change (0.001). Results indicate that participants who
considered themselves in an active stage of change produced higher scores on the attitude scale
than those who were not physically active (in the contemplation and preparation stage of change).
A significant difference was found on the TPB construct subjective norm between the
stages of change (F(3, 166) = 7.477, p < 0.0001). Scheffe post hoc analysis indicated that the
differences were seen between both contemplation and preparation and the physical activity
grouping variable, maintenance (p < 0.005 and p < 0.006 respectively). Results indicate that the
participants in the contemplation and preparation stage perceived less social expectation to be
physically active compared to the maintenance stage participants.
A significant difference was found on the TPB construct PBC and the stages of change
(F(3, 166) = 11.788, p < 0.0001). Scheffe post hoc analysis revealed that differences were seen
41
between contemplation and the action and maintenance stages (p < 0.05, p < 0.0001 respectively).
Also, there was a significant difference between the preparation stage and the maintenance stage
(p < 0.0001). Results indicate that those in the action and maintenance stage perceive greater
control over their participation in physical activity.
No significant differences were seen between the action and maintenance stage on the
main constructs and the contemplation and preparation stage based on the main constructs. The
findings from this statistical analysis are consistent with the hypothesis that the less active groups
(contemplation and preparation) would differ significantly from those who were active (action
and maintenance) on the TPB constructs.
Reliability
Cronbach’s alpha statistics were calculated to assess the internal reliability of the TPB
scales used in this study. The scales for each construct were internally consistent with alphas
ranging from 0.677 to 0.94. Consistency levels and descriptive statistics of the variables used in
the study are reported in table 5.
Table 5. Reliability, Mean, and Standard Deviations of the TPB Constructs
Cronbach’s α
Mean
Intention
0.866
5.13
Attitudes
0.906
6.20
Subjective Norms
0.682
5.77
Perceived Behavioural Control
0.677
5.66
Behavioural Beliefs
0.940
6.38
Normative Beliefs
0.824
5.42
Control Beliefs
0.934
5.20
SD
1.54
0.88
1.05
0.66
0.96
1.06
1.02
Bivariate Correlations
Pearson Product-Moment Correlations between the variables of the TPB and exercise
behaviour are presented in Table 6. The relationship between physical activity behaviour and
intention was investigated. There was a strong, positive correlation between the two variables.
42
Intention had moderately positive correlations with the TPB main and secondary constructs
excluding control beliefs. Control beliefs and intention had a strong, positive relationship. The
main constructs of the TPB when compared to their secondary constructs had a moderately
positive correlation. This is expected because the main constructs are based on the secondary
constructs, therefore a stronger relationship should exist between the variables.
Table 6. Pearson Product-Moment Correlations Between Measures of the TPB Constructs
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1 Behaviour
.546** .175* .269** .294** .295** .331** .345**
2 Overall Intention
.440** .361** .454** .426** .373** .505**
3 Attitude
.373** .204** .507** .363** .382**
4 Subjective Norms
.220** .460** .627** .264**
5 Perceived Control
.271** .232** .484**
6 Behavioural Beliefs
.510** .363**
7 Normative Beliefs
.217**
8 Control Beliefs
Note 1. * = p<0.05, **= p<0.01
Regression Analysis
To understand the independent contribution of the TPB construct variables to the
variance in intention and behaviour, a series of statistical stepwise regression analyses were
completed. The first analysis was performed to determine if the TPB was a useful model for
predicting exercise intention in the baby boom population. Using stepwise method regression,
the three main constructs of the TPB were entered to explain the variance in intention. Results
revealed that perceived behavioural control was the strongest predictor of intention (beta = .355),
although attitude and subjective norm were also significant predictors (beta = .304 and .170
respectively). Total R2 adjusted variance of intention that was explained was 35.6%,
(F(3,166)=30.635, p<0.0001). The results of this regression analysis are consistent with the
hypothesis that PBC and attitude would explain more variance when compared to subjective
43
norm. Figure 7 illustrates the amount of variance explained by the main constructs of the TPB on
physical activity intentions.
Figure 7. Amount of Variance Explained in Intention from TPB Main Constructs
Adapted from Ajzen (2002)
The second analysis included the secondary constructs and explained more overall
variance of physical activity intention (Figure 8). TPB main constructs and secondary constructs
(behavioural, normative, and control beliefs) were added using stepwise regression analysis.
Subjective norm, and behavioural beliefs did not add significance to the equation and were
removed. The adjusted R2 was 39.8%, which explained 3% more variance when the secondary
constructs were included, (F(4,165)= 28.987, p < 0.001). Attitude, PBC, normative beliefs, and
control beliefs were all significant predictors. Figure 8 illustrates the amount of variance
explained by the main and secondary constructs of the TPB on physical activity intention.
45
Discussion
Physical Activity Participation Rates in the Baby Boom Generation
The primary goal of this study was to explore the relationship between the TPB, SCM,
and the effects on exercise behaviour and intention. To understand the relationships, it is
important to understand the population being investigated. First, the SCM illustrated the level of
physical activity in the baby boom population. Over 62% of the baby boomers in the study
reported being physically active for 6 months or longer, compared to Statistics Canada census
data where less than 50% claimed to take part in leisure time physical activity (Statistics Canada,
2012). According to a meta-analytic review by Marshall and Biddle (2001), it is typical to see
individuals 55 years of age or older in the maintenance stage. Compared to other countries,
Canadian samples reported more cases in the maintenance stage (45%), whereas the USA
reported the lowest number of cases (31%). In the current study, individuals between the ages of
45 and 55 reported similar results when compared to the 55 plus category.
The Canadian Physical Activity Guidelines (CPAG, 2011) state that individuals need to
accumulate 150 minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity per week in bouts of 10
minutes or more. The Godin Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire (GLTEQ) focuses on
strenuous, moderate, and mild physical activity levels across an average week. The majority of
participants reported being in the maintenance stage with regard to the SCM. However, when
looking at participation levels with the GLTEQ, 55% of participants reported they have never
performed any form of strenuous physical activity in an average week, and approximately 83%
reported participating in strenuous physical activity 3 days or less. When asked the frequency of
how often they participated in moderate physical activity 55.9% stated 3 times or less during a
typical week.
46
These results are troubling because it is known that moderate and strenuous levels of
physical activity produce optimal healthy lifestyle results, including a reduced risk of cancer,
heart disease, stroke, diabetes and other diseases and disabilities (CSEP, 2011). Previous findings
revealed that while being categorized in the maintenance stage is favourable, the majority of
participants were actually not as active as they claimed to be. The lack of participation in
strenuous and moderate activity is only seen through the behavioural analysis (GLTEQ), using
the SCM alone would not provide accurate results of participants’ physical activity levels.
Incorporating both the SCM and the GLTEQ helped the researchers understand the participants’
perceived stage of change, and their corresponding actual mild, moderate, and strenuous physical
activity. The SCM is used often in the behavioural health sciences field, commonly with the
Canadian Society of Exercise Physiologists (CSEP).
The purpose of the GLTEQ was to further examine the level of physical activity
participation in the baby boomer population based on their metabolic rates. The scale is based on
the average metabolic equivalent of the task (METs). The examples for mild activity on the
GLTEQ were not seen to offer substantial physical health benefits from earlier research by
Godin and Shephard (1985), and therefore were removed from the METs equation. A cut point
of 24 units was obtained using moderate and strenuous activity. Substantial benefits were seen
with 24 units or higher, compared to individuals who had 23 units or less and were considered
insufficiently active (Godin & Shephard). In the current study, with the level set at 24 units,
approximately 45% of participants did not maintain the sufficient level and 15.8% of the total
population did not engage in physical activity at the moderate or strenuous level at all. By
encouraging baby boomers to maintain optimal levels of moderate and strenuous physical
47
activity, it could help reduce health care costs in the future (Katzmarzyk, Gledhill, & Shephard,
2000).
Research conducted by Garcia Bengoechea, Spence, and McGannon (2005) offered a
more comprehensive model that included the mild physical activity variable. A cut off was
established where a total value of 35 units for women and 38 units for men was considered
substantially active when including the mild activity level (Jacobs, Ainsworth, Hartman, and
Leon, 1993). Jacobs et al. concluded that the values of 35 and 38 were equivalent to 300-400
MET-minute per day, which is equivalent to a weekly expenditure of 2000 kcals. This value is
associated with common health benefits such as a decrease in risk of heart disease, stroke and
diabetes. The results of the current study found that 46% of males and 51% of females had
reached the substantially active phase at 38 and 35 METs respectively. This information relates
back to census research stating that approximately 50% of baby boomers are currently physically
active (StatsCan, 2011). Participants would be able to expend more calories based on the amount
of physical activity they are doing and by increasing their intensity. Strenuous and moderate
physical activities expend more calories than mild activity. If this knowledge barrier were made
more obvious to the aging population (baby boomers), perhaps they would be more inclined to
participate in physical activity.
Gender, Age, and the SCM
A study investigating participants’ stage of change was completed by 15 member states
of the European Union in 1997. Results revealed that younger participants (15-24 year olds)
were more likely to be in the maintenance stage compared to their older adult counterparts (65
years or older) (Kearney, de Graaf, Damkjaer, & Magnus Engstrom, 1999). Focusing on the
baby boomers, the current study found no differences between age and gender based on the SCM,
48
which is consistent with the hypothesis. Older and younger boomers can be classified in the same
group when comparing their stage of change. Also, when comparing men and women, similar
findings were reported regarding the stage they consider themselves to be in. No significant
difference was seen between the male and female participants. Booth et al. (1990) found no
significant difference when investigating gender differences and their stage of change.
Gender, Age, and the TPB Constructs
Past research using the TPB found no statistical significance between gender and the
main constructs of the TPB (Nigg, Lippke, & Maddock, 2009; Rhodes, Blanchard, & Blacklock,
2008; Rhodes, MacDonald, & McKay, 2006), and similar findings occurred in the present study.
However, the current study found significant differences between males and females on the
secondary construct of behavioural beliefs. Females scored higher on the overall behavioural
belief scores. Between 64 to 80% of females strongly agreed with the behavioural beliefs,
whereas only 30% to 70% of males strongly agreed with the behavioural beliefs. Women felt that
improving their health, fitness, mood, energy level, and preventing the risk of falls was more
important to them than their male counterparts. If women were more influenced by internal
factors of physical activity (improving health, fitness, energy level) then gearing an intervention
specific to their needs would be beneficial.
Differences between the age groups on the TPB main constructs were seen between the
younger baby boomers, 51 to 55 years old and the older boomers, 56 to 60 years old on
subjective norm. Comparing younger participants to older participants, younger people have a
lower association to subjective norm. Motivational factors for younger people evolve around
factors such as enjoyment (Salmon, Owen, Crawford, Bauman, & Sallis, 2003). The impact of
enjoyment could apply to this age grouping as well, since walking is an affordable, social, and
49
preferred activity among older adults (Paterson & Warburton, 2010). Statistical differences were
seen between the young boomers (45 to 50 years age-category) and the older boomers (56 to 60
years age-category) on PBC. The older baby boomer group perceived more control over their
physical activity intentions than their younger counterparts. The older adults might feel they have
more time, therefore control, over when they can be physically active.
The Baby Boom Generation, the SCM, and the Main Constructs of the TPB
Statistical differences were found in intention to be physically active between the
contemplation and preparation stage and the action and maintenance stages of change. These
results are consistent with the hypothesis stating those in the action and maintenance stage of
change participants would differ from the precontemplation, contemplation and preparation
stages of change participants on the main constructs of the TPB. The two groups who were
already active (action and maintenance) had higher intentions to perform physical activity
compared to the contemplation and preparation stages. These results suggest that those who are
already active intend to participate in physical activity more than individuals who do not
participate on a regular basis. This finding is important when related to boomers’ own ideas
about aging and physical activity. Helping those who are inactive become more physically active
will help reduce their risks for disease and disability in the future.
Investigating the effect a participant’s stage of change had on attitude resulted in
significant findings. Statistical differences were seen between contemplation and the action and
maintenance stages of change. Those who are already participating in physical activity are more
likely to have positive attitudes towards the behaviour. Individuals in the action and maintenance
stages view activity to be positive, harmless, beneficial, wise, enjoyable, pleasant, good, relaxing,
50
interesting, and useful compared to those in contemplation who do not share the same beliefs that
physical activity is more enjoyable than harmful.
Significant differences were found on the TPB construct subjective norm and the stages
of change. Differences were between maintenance and the two less active groups, contemplation
and preparation. Participants in the contemplation and preparation stage had lower perceptions of
social expectation compared to the maintenance stage. Maintenance stage participants feel they
have more support from friends and family to be physically active compared to their
contemplator and preparer counterparts.
Consistent with the hypothesis stating that individuals in the less active stages,
precontemplation, contemplation, and preparation would have lower scores on the TPB
constructs, the contemplators and preparers were significantly different than the active groups in
the SCM (action and maintenance stages), on PBC. Individuals in the action and maintenance
stage felt they had more control over their physical activity actions compared to contemplators.
Action and maintenance groups felt they could participate in physical activity when they wanted
to but contemplators and preparers did not see it so much as their own choice. These findings
comparing the constructs of the TPB to SCM are similar to Courneya (1995), who found that
contemplators differentiated from actors and maintainers. However, he found a difference
between contemplators and preparers, which in this study did not exist. The small sample size
and the size difference between the two groups could have affected the significance in this study.
Contemplators and preparers in this group seemed to have similar perceptions to physical
activity and the scores for the TPB main and secondary constructs were similar.
51
Predicting Baby Boomer Physical Activity Intentions
Study results support applying the TPB to physical activity interventions in the baby
boom generation. Statistical stepwise regression analysis was used to assess the relationship
among variables (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Findings were consistent with studies of younger
and older adults that predicted behaviour using the TPB (Dean, Farrell, Kelley, Taylor, &
Rhodes, 2007; Godin & Kok, 1996). Similar to Godin and Kok’s meta-analytic review of TPB
studies, correlations of physical activity intention and the TPB yielded similar results (.51, .30,
and .50 for attitudes, subjective norm and PBC respectively) when compared to the findings of
this research study. Attitude and PBC were closely correlated to intention while subjective norms
had a smaller correlation.
The meta-analysis conducted by McEachan, Conner, Taylor, and Lawton (2011)
suggested that physical activity is better predicted by the TPB compared to other health
behaviours (23.9% exercise behaviour variance explained compared to safer sex and abstinence
between 13.8% and 15.3%). Regression analysis revealed that attitudes, subjective norm, and
PBC were significant predictors of intention, accounting for 35.6% variance. These results are
unique to this study, since no other TPB research has focused on this population alone. Having
attitudes, subjective norm, and PBC as significant predictors of intention is not common within
the behavioural health field. Subjective norm is not usually seen as a significant predictor of
intention, or when it does contribute, its weight is lower than attitude and PBC (Godin &
Kok,1996). Armitage and Conner (2001) suggest that this weakness is due to single measure
analysis of the construct. When multiple-item measures are used instead, subjective norm
increases in its predictability. Similar results were found in Dean et al., (2007), where subjective
norm was a significant predictor of strength training intention in the older adult population.
52
Focusing on subjective norms in the older adult population might be beneficial because during
this stage of life, more emphasis is put on social engagement and the importance of peer support.
Interventions directed at the secondary constructs might in turn produce corresponding
changes to the main TPB constructs and these changes may influence intention in the desired
direction (Ajzen, 2006). These changes in intention however, might not produce positive
interventions if an individual is incapable of carrying out these intentions. Implementing
intentions (forming a specific plan detailing when, where, and how physical activity will be
performed) can help bridge the gap between intention and behaviour and help individuals carry
out their intended action.
Predicting Baby Boomer Physical Activity Behaviour
In the present study, intention was the main predictor of physical activity behaviour, and
was significantly correlated to behaviour at .546, whereas the correlation between PBC and
behaviour was only .294. Similar to Godin and Kok (1996), the averaged correlations for
exercise studies were .50 for intention, however PBC correlated more in the meta-analysis than
in the current study (r = .41). To our knowledge, this is the first study that has focused on the
baby boom population alone, therefore findings may be unique and further research would be
required to confirm them.
Regression analysis revealed that intention was the strongest and only predictor of
physical activity behaviour, accounting for 29.4% of the variance. The results of this study are
similar to that of Godin and Kok (1996), who found in their meta-analysis that intention
accounted for 36% of variance in exercise behaviour. As well, Armitage and Conner (2001)
meta-analysis focusing on 185 TPB studies up to the end of 1997 found that intention and PBC
were able to explain 27% of overall behaviour. Out of the 11 exercise behaviour studies included
53
in Godin and Kok’s meta-analysis, 6 studies did not find PBC to be a significant predictor of
behaviour, and those that did found PBC to add on average 8% of the explained exercise
behaviour variance. In the current study PBC was not found to be a significant predictor of
physical activity behaviour (Beta .058, p > 0.05). Possible explanations include two proposed
conditions (Ajzen & Timko, 1986; Bozionelos & Bennett, 1999). First, the participants could
relate past physical activity behaviour that has already been accomplished to self-reporting
activity. Second, the participants might not have taken into consideration future activities where
they might not have control over their own physical activity behaviour. That is, their successful
past performance could give them a sense of control when performing future behaviours (Ajzen,
1988; Kashima, Gallois, & McCamish, 1993). Changing physical activity behaviour needs to
take into consideration factors beyond an individual’s control, and their PBC must be realistic if
intervention strategies targeting baby boomers are to be effective.
Conclusion
The results from this study suggest that the TPB is a viable framework for understanding a baby
boomer’s intention and willingness to perform physical activity. The results based on age, gender,
and the SCM are consistent with the hypothesis in that no difference was seen on the SCM when
compared to gender or age. Results support the hypothesis that the participants in the action and
maintenance phase scored higher on the TPB constructs compared to the participants in the
contemplation and preparation stage. Action and maintenance participants had stronger attitudes,
subjective norms, and PBC values compared to the contemplators and preparers. The TPB
regression analysis results were similar to the hypothesis in that attitudes and PBC were the
strongest predictors compared to subjective norm. However subjective norm formed a significant
relationship with intention, which is not always seen regarding physical activity.
54
In conclusion, this research study can aid future researchers in understanding and
promoting physical activity initiatives in the baby boom population by implementing
interventions based on the significant predictors of intention. With the SCM categorizing the
participants into a stage based on physical activity participation, intervention studies can be
designed to specifically focus on the stage and the TPB constructs that predicted intention.
Contemplators are considering a behavioural change, but have yet to implement one on their own.
Interventions targeting contemplators could focus on control and efficacy related beliefs
(Courneya, 1995). Participants in the preparation stage need to incorporate regular physical
activity in their lives on a regular basis. They understand the importance and have positive
feelings towards activity, yet are unable to develop a system where physical activity becomes
part of daily life. Interventions can focus on the differences between preparers and the action and
maintenance stages (Courneya). Focusing on the difference, and becoming aware of the changes
that need to occur, studies can be based on these results.
With approximately one-half of baby boomers physically inactive, the need for healthcare
initiatives to increase physical activity levels is pertinent. With the baby boom population on the
cusp of older adulthood, creating healthy habits now will help them enjoy their older adulthood
experience. The regression analysis results revealed that PBC was the main predictor of intention
when using the main constructs alone. Motivating baby boomers to gain control over their
physical activity behaviour and decrease the lack of control they feel by promoting the benefits
of activity is key in intervention strategies. Focusing intervention strategies on the secondary
construct of control beliefs to help alleviate barriers that baby boomers face and when
participating in physical activity is a similar route. Guiding them in overcoming the barriers they
perceive by breaking activity into smaller intervals, or providing time management sessions
55
which focus on making physical activity part of everyday living are two possible strategies.
Canadian physical activity guidelines suggest being active for 150 minutes per week to reap the
health benefits (CSEP, 2011). This can be completed in bouts of 10 minutes or more. Educating
precontemplators and contemplators on the ease of performing 10 minutes of physical activity
(taking the stairs, walking the dog, going for a walk during a lunch break) might encourage them
to become more active. Baby boomers’ have already redefined the aging process. Continuing
pro-active participation in physical activity while transitioning into older adulthood is the next
step.
Future Considerations
Although there are theoretically meaningful findings in the present study, some changes
can be made for future designs. In addition to using the SCM, the incorporation of a complete
physical activity diary might help differentiate activity/stages in a more comprehensive way.
Intensity of physical activity behaviour was addressed in this study (mild, moderate, and
strenuous levels), however duration was not specifically looked at. All activities were based on
15-minute intervals, and not what the participant would normally perform. Inclusion of a
questionnaire reporting on intensity and duration of every activity would help researchers
determine the actual amount of time participants were active. The sample in this study could be
considered more active than the average baby boomer population. Additional studies should
attempt to tap into the inactive group more, as well as those already participating in physical
activity.
56
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Appendix A – Information Letter
67
Motivating the Baby Boom Generation: An Application of the Theory of Planned
Behaviour
Dear Potential Participant,
I would appreciate your participation in the above research study. My name is Laurin Hoegy and
I am a graduate student in Kinesiology at Lakehead University. The purpose of this research is to
investigate your intention to engage in physical activity and your actual engagement in physical
activity. The number of individuals greater than 65 years of age in 2031 will increase from 14%
to 23% of the population. You as a baby boomer are a part of this growing population. Physical
activity is a natural way to maintain a healthy lifestyle, yet researchers have found that more than
one-half of boomers are sedentary. Limited research has been done on either intentions of this
group to exercise or its actual involvement in physical activity. Not only is it important to
implement physical activity programs, but also to understand what kinds of problems would
motivate you and your generation to be physically active.
If you were born between 1946 and 1964, are able to participate in physical activity, and are
interested in helping understand the behaviours and intentions of baby boomers and physical
activity you are eligible to take part in this study. You must be willing to complete a Stages of
Change Questionnaire assessing your motivational readiness to participate in physical activity.
You will also be asked to complete a questionnaire based on the Theory of Planned Behaviour
assessing your physical activity intentions and behaviours. Lastly, a Godin Leisure Time
Exercise Questionnaire will be provided assessing your past physical activity behaviour. Overall,
this study will take 15-20 minutes of your time.
Once the data has been collected, the researcher may wish to contact you for further information
regarding your reflection on the questionnaires and the ease of answering the questions.
68
Your participation in this study is voluntary and you may refuse to participate in any part of the
study, decline to answer questions, or withdraw from the study at any time. All information
provided will remain confidential. Your name will not be published in any documentation. Data
will be coded and no names will appear in any reporting of results.
This research has been approved by the Lakehead University Research Ethics Board. If you have
any questions or concerns regarding the ethics of this project, please contact the Board at (807)343-8283 or [email protected].
Thank you for your time and cooperation,
Sincerely,
Laurin Hoegy
Phone (807)-344-4254
E-mail – [email protected]
Dr. Jane Taylor
Phone - (807)-343-8572
E-mail – [email protected]
69
Appendix B – Consent Form
70
Motivating the Baby Boom Generation: An Application of the Theory of Planned
Behaviour
I
have read and understand the information letter and
agree to participate in this study that will help explore the regular physical activity intentions and
behaviours of the baby boomers. This study is being conducted by Laurin Hoegy, a Masters
Student in the School of Kinesiology at Lakehead University under the supervision of Dr. Jane
Taylor.
I understand there is limited risk to this study, and that this information will be used to further a
study in the area of baby boomers and their intentions and behaviours to exercise.
I understand I will be asked to complete three questionnaires including a stages of change, theory
of planned behaviour and a past physical activity questionnaire. I may also provide further
consent to be contacted once I have completed the questionnaires to answer questions regarding
how long it took me to complete, the ease of answering questions and if I returned the
questionnaires via mail, it was a suitable option.
I fully understand that my participation in this study is completely voluntary, that I may refuse to
answer any questions that I do not wish to answer and that I may withdraw from the study at any
time. I understand that the information I provide will be confidential and the results will be
stored at Lakehead University for 5 years with Dr. Jane Taylor. I understand the research
findings can be made available to me upon request, and I, as an individual, will remain
anonymous in any publication/presentation of the research findings.
Signature of Participant
Date
Signature of Witness
Date
I am willing to be contacted after returning the questionnaires to provide further information
regarding the questionnaires, including how I felt it reflected physical activity behaviour of the
baby boom generation.
□
YES
Phone #
□
NO
E-mail
71
Appendix C - SCM
72
QUESTIONNAIRE #1
STAGES OF CHANGE MODEL
Physical activity can include such activities as walking, cycling, swimming, climbing the stairs,
dancing, active gardening, walking to work, aerobics, sports, etc. Regular physical activity is 30
minutes of moderate activity accumulated over the day, almost every day, OR … vigorous
activity done at least three times per week for 20 minutes each time.
1. Here are a number of statements describing various levels of physical activity. Please select
the one which most closely describes your own level
(Please tick
one)
I am not physically active and I do not plan on becoming so in the next six months
□
I am not physically active, but I have been thinking about becoming so in the next six months
□
I am physically active once in a while, but not regularly
□
I am currently physically active, but have only begun doing so with in the last six months
□
I participate in regular physical activity and have done so for more than six months
□
2. (Answer if not currently active)
I was physically active in the past, but not now
□YES □NO
73
Appendix D – Demographics and TPB
74
QUESTIONNAIRE #2
Physical Activity Questionnaire
Thank you for your participation in this study. All information presented in this questionnaire is
extremely valuable. Questions asked will involve those related to your attitudes and beliefs
toward regular physical activity
Physical Activity defined by The World Health Organization
Physical activity is any bodily movement requiring the use of energy. Engaging in 30
minutes of moderate physical activity everyday (walking, cycling, dancing)
Please refer to this definition when responding to the following questions.
For each question, please circle the appropriate word or number as it applies to you.
Please feel free to add additional comments you feel are appropriate
75
Physical Activity Questionnaire
Part A: Demographics
Please check the appropriate answer.
1. Gender
□Male
□Female
2. Age
3. Marital Status
□
Currently Married/Common Law
□
Single
□
□
Separated or divorced
Widow or widower
4. Education
□
Completed secondary
(high school)
□
Post Secondary Education
Occupation:
76
Part B: Attitudes and Beliefs toward Physical Activity
Please circle the most appropriate response for each statement
5. My participation in regular physical activity is/would be
Useless
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Useful
Harmful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Beneficial
Foolish
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Wise
Bad
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Good
Unenjoyable
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Enjoyable
Boring
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Interesting
Unpleasant
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Pleasant
Stressful
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Relaxing
6. Most people who are important to me think I should engage in physical activity
Strongly
Disagree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
7. Most people who are important to me would/do support my participation in regular physical
activity
Strongly
Disagree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
8. Generally speaking, I want to do what most people who are important to me think I should do
Strongly
Disagree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
9. How much control do you have over whether or not you engage in regular physical activity?
No
control
at all
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Complete
control
77
10. Overall, for me to engage in regular physical activity would be:
Extremely
Difficult
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Extremely
Easy
11. If I chose to, I could participate in regular physical activity any time I wanted to
Strongly
Disagree
1
2
3
4
5
12. I intend to engage in physical activity at least
6
7
Strongly
Agree
times in the next four weeks
13. I intend to engage in physical activity the following number of times in the next four weeks
(please circle one)
0-4
5-8
9-12
13-16
17-20
21-24
25+
14. I intend to engage in physical activity with the following regularity in the next four weeks
Not at All
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Everyday
15. I intend to engage in physical activity at least 12 times in the next four weeks
Definitely
Not
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Definitely
I believe regular physical activity can/could help me to:
16. Improve my health
Strongly
1
Disagree
2
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
17. Improve my fitness
Strongly
1
Disagree
2
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
18. Increase my energy level
Strongly
1
2
Disagree
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
19. Improve my mood
Strongly
1
Disagree
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
2
78
20. Lose/control my weight
Strongly
1
2
Disagree
3
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
21. Improve/maintain my ability to perform daily tasks
Strongly
1
2
3
4
Disagree
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
22. Improve/maintain my confidence to do daily tasks
Strongly
1
2
3
4
Disagree
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
23. Prevent falls or decrease the severity of falls
Strongly
1
2
3
4
Disagree
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
24. Relieve stress/tension
Strongly
1
2
Disagree
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
26. Improving my health is important to me
Strongly
1
2
3
Disagree
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
27. Improving my fitness is important to me
Strongly
1
2
3
Disagree
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
28. Increasing my energy level is important to me
Strongly
1
2
3
4
Disagree
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
29. Improving my mood is important to me
Strongly
1
2
3
Disagree
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
30. Improving my muscle strength and tone is important to me
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
Disagree
6
7
Strongly
Agree
31. Losing/controlling my weight is important to me
Strongly
1
2
3
4
Disagree
6
7
Strongly
Agree
3
4
25. Other:
4
5
79
32. Maintaining my ability to perform daily tasks is important to me
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
6
Disagree
7
Strongly
Agree
33. Increasing/maintaining my confidence to do daily tasks is important to me
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
34. Preventing falls or decreasing the severity of falls is important to me
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
6
Disagree
7
Strongly
Agree
35. Relieving stress/tension is important to me
Strongly
1
2
3
4
Disagree
7
Strongly
Agree
5
6
36. Generally speaking, I want to do what my spouse/partner thinks I should do
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
37. Generally speaking, I want to do what my children think I should do
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
6
Disagree
7
Strongly
Agree
38. Generally speaking, I want to do what my friends think I should do
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
6
Disagree
7
Strongly
Agree
39. Generally speaking, I want to do what my doctor thinks I should do
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
6
Disagree
7
Strongly
Agree
40. My spouse/partner/other would/does support my participation in regular physical activity
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Disagree
Agree
41. My children/family would/do support my participation in regular physical activity
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
42. My friends would/do support my participation in regular physical activity
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
80
43. My doctor thinks I should participate in regular physical activity
Strongly
1
2
3
4
5
6
Disagree
7
Strongly
Agree
For me, factors that make participation in regular physical activity difficult include:
44. Transportation to facilities
Strongly
1
2
Disagree
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
45. Getting equipment
Strongly
1
Disagree
2
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
46. Health problems/fitness
Strongly
1
2
Disagree
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
47. Lack of motivation
Strongly
1
Disagree
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
48. Too busy/other things to do
Strongly
1
2
Disagree
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
49. Too expensive
Strongly
1
Disagree
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
50. Don’t know what exercises to do
Strongly
1
2
3
Disagree
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
51. Afraid of injury or over-exertion
Strongly
1
2
3
Disagree
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
52. Lack of interest
Strongly
1
Disagree
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
2
2
2
3
53. Little support from friends and/or family
Strongly
1
2
3
Disagree
81
54. Too old
Strongly
Disagree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
55. Fatigue/lack of energy
Strongly
1
2
Disagree
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
56. Weather
Strongly
Disagree
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
57. Care giving responsibilities
Strongly
1
2
Disagree
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
58. Depression
Strongly
Disagree
3
4
5
6
7
Strongly
Agree
1
1
2
2
59. Other
I am confident that I could do regular physical activity even if:
60. I couldn’t get to a facility
Not very
1
2
Confident
3
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
61. I didn’t have any equipment
Not very
1
2
Confident
3
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
64. I was busy and had other things to do
Not very
1
2
3
Confident
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
65. I didn’t have enough money
Not very
1
2
Confident
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
62. I had health problems or became ill
Not very
1
2
3
Confident
63. I felt unmotivated
Not very
1
2
3
Confident
3
82
66. I didn’t know what exercises to do
Not very
1
2
3
Confident
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
67. I was afraid of over exertion
Not very
1
2
Confident
3
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
68. I lacked interest
Not very
1
Confident
3
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
69. I had little support from friends and/or family
Not very
1
2
3
4
Confident
5
6
7
Very
Confident
70. I felt too old
Not very
Confident
1
2
2
3
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
71. I felt tired or lacked energy
Not very
1
2
Confident
3
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
72. The weather was bad
Not very
1
Confident
3
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
73. I had care- giving responsibilities
Not very
1
2
3
Confident
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
74. I felt depressed
Not very
1
Confident
4
5
6
7
Very
Confident
2
2
3
83
Appendix E – GLTEQ
84
QUESTIONNAIRE #3
Godin Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire
1. During a typical 7-Day period (a week), how many times on average do you do the following
kinds of exercise for more than 15 minutes during your free time (write on each line the
appropriate number).
Times per Week
a) STRENUOUS EXERCISE
(HEART BEATS RAPIDLY)
(e.g., running, jogging, hockey, football, soccer,
squash, basketball, cross country skiing, judo,
roller skating, vigorous swimming,
vigorous long distance bicycling)
b) MODERATE EXERCISE
(NOT EXHAUSTING)
(e.g., fast walking, baseball, tennis, easy bicycling,
volleyball, badminton, easy swimming, alpine skiing,
popular and folk dancing)
c) MILD EXERCISE
(MINIMAL EFFORT)
(e.g., yoga, archery, fishing from river bank, bowling,
horseshoes, golf, snow-mobiling, easy walking)
__________
__________
__________
2. During a typical 7-Day period (a week), in your leisure time, how often do you engage in any
regular activity long enough to work up a sweat (heart beats rapidly)? (Please circle appropriate
one)
OFTEN
SOMETIMES
NEVER/RARELY