TheInternationalMalcolmX
FromCrossCulturalSolidarity.com
ByLynnBurnett
Duringthelastyearofhislife,MalcolmXspentfivemonthsinAfricaandtheMiddle
East,andalmostanothermonthinEurope.InAfrica,hebuiltpowerfulrelationships
withanti-colonialresistanceleadersandthepresidentsofnewnationsemerging
fromcolonialism.IntheMiddleEast,presidentsandkingsrecognizedMalcolmas
theemergingleaderofIslamintheUnitedStates,andgavehimlavishsupport.In
Europe,MalcolmXbuiltrelationshipswiththeyoungergenerationsofAfrican,
Asian,andMiddleEasternleaderswhowerepreparingfortheirfutureleadership
rolesthroughtheirstudiesatOxfordandothereliteuniversities.
ThestoryoftheinternationalMalcolmXculminateswithMalcolm’sactivities
abroadduringthelastyearofhislife,andexploreswhyMalcolmthoughtthese
travelswerenecessaryfortheblackliberationstruggleintheUnitedStates.
However,therootsofMalcolm’sinternationalismbeganbeforehisbirth:theroots
lieinhismother’sheritage,withthepoliticalorganizationhisparentsdedicated
theirlivesto,andwiththevaluesandvisionsMalcolm’sparentsraisedtheir
childrenwith.
MarcusGarveyandtheUnitedNegroImprovementAssociation
Malcolm’smother,LouiseLangdon,wasalightskinnedAfro-Caribbeanwomanfrom
thesmallislandofGrenada.AttheageofseventeenshemovedtoMontreal,Canada,
duringWorldWarI.Montrealwasaday’sdrivefromHarlem,NewYork,wheretens
ofthousandsofotherAfro-Caribbeansmigratedatthistime.InHarlem,they
contributedtotheformationofapoliticallyradicalcommunitythatsoonbecame
knownastheblackcapitaloftheUnitedStates.
Afro-CaribbeanmenandwomenoftenexperiencedseriousracismintheUnited
Statesforthefirsttimeintheirlives.Suchtreatmentstunnedandinfuriatedthem.
ManyofthemostmilitantblackvoicesfromthisperiodcamefromAfro-Caribbeans,
mostfamously,fromMarcusGarvey.GarveypreachedthatAfricanAmericans,AfroCaribbeans,andothermembersoftheAfricandiasporaneededtostopthinkingof
themselvesasasmallminoritysurroundedbyoverpoweringwhiteforces.Instead,
theyneededtothinkofthemselvesasmembersofthemassiveAfricanandAfrican
diasporicpopulation,which,ifunited,couldgaincompletefreedomfromwhite
domination.BecauseAsiaalsosufferedfromEuropeancolonialism,Garveywent
evenfurther,advocatingaunitedAsiaworkingalongsideaunitedAfricainthe
globalbattleagainstwhitesupremacy.
Achievingcompletefreedom,Garveytaught,requiredthetotalseparationofblacks
fromwhites.Thisrequiredself-sufficiency.Ideally,nopeopleofAfricanancestry
wouldrelyonwhitesforanything.Theyneededtocreatetheirownbusinesses,
farms,banks,schools,andallotherinstitutions.Overtime,theywouldgrowstrong
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enoughtobeginbuildinganewnationforthemselvesbackinAfrica,makingtheir
separationcomplete.InanerawhentheKuKluxKlanwouldsoonboastfour
millionmembers,thisvisionofabsoluteseparationseemednecessarytomany
AfricanAmericans.Toturnthevisionintoareality,GarveyfoundedtheUnited
NegroImprovementAssociation,whichquicklycreatedchaptersincitiesacrossthe
UnitedStatesandthroughouttheAfricandiaspora.
ThiswasthevisionthatMalcolmX’smotherhaddedicatedherheartandsoulto
whenshemovedtoMontreal.ItwasthroughtheUnitedNegroImprovement
AssociationthatshemetEarlLittle,whobecameherhusbandandMalcolm’sfather.
ABeautifulandTragicFamily
EarlLittlewasaskilledcarpenterfromGeorgia,wheremoreblackswerelynched
thananystateexceptMississippi.Hisskillsplacedhimineconomiccompetition
withwhites,placinghiminconstantdanger.Tall,dark,muscular,andproud,Earl
Littlewasnotthekindofmanwhoallowedhimselftobeintimidated,nomatter
whattherisks.However,afterreceivinganumberofviolentthreats,heheaded
north…toMontreal,whereheembracedthevisionofMarcusGarveyandbegan
workingalongsideLouiseLangdontomakeGarvey’svisionareality.
LouiseLangdonandEarlLittle,drawntogetherbyasharedvision,weremarried
twoyearslater.Itwas1919,theyearoftheRedSummer,whenraceriotsindozens
ofcitieskilledhundredsofblackpeopleandmanyAfricanAmericanscreatedthe
typeofself-defensesocietiesMalcolmXwouldlateradvocate.LouiseandEarl’s
fiercededicationtoGarvey’svision,combinedwithLouise’sexcellentwritingskills
andEarl’sabilitytospeakfearlesslyandeloquently,madethemexcellentcandidates
forspreadingGarvey’smessagetomoredangerouspartsofthecountrywherethe
movementwasstillunknown.Theyoungcouplewasaskedtostartachapterof
Garvey’smovementinNebraska–astatewithforty-fivethousandKuKluxKlan
members.Thegoalwastosupportablackcommunitythatfacedconstantterror,
butbecauseofthatterror,fewblackpeopleinNebraskawerewillingtojoin
Garvey’smovement.ManyfearedthatMalcolm’sparentswoulddonothingbut
bringviolencetotheircommunities.
WhileLouisewaspregnantwithMalcolminthewinterof1925,theKuKluxKlan
visitedtheirhousetoaskforherhusband.Luckily,hewasaway,travellingon
speakingengagementsashissonwouldlaterdo.TheKlanshatteredthewindows
oftheirhouseandleft.AsMalcolmlaterwrote,“theyrodeoff,theirtorchesflaring,
assuddenlyastheyhadcome.”ThefamilymovedtoIndiana,buttheKuKluxKlan
soonforcedthemtomoveon.MovingtoMichigan,theirhousewasbombed.The
firedepartmentneverarrived,anddetectivesrefusedtoinvestigatethecase.
Malcolmwasfiveyearsold.
Farfromcrushingtheirspirits,theterrortheyfacedinspiredLouiseandEarlLittle
toworkevenharderforblackliberation.Bythetimeofthebombing,Malcolm’s
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fatherhadbeguntakinghissontoUnitedNegroImprovementAssociationmeetings.
ThesemeetingsmadeagreatimpressionontheyoungMalcolm,wholaterwrote
that‘Themeetingalwaysclosedwithmyfathersayingseveraltimesandthepeople
chantingafterhim,‘Up,youmightyrace,youcanaccomplishwhatyouwill!’”
MarcusGarvey’svisionsofblackfreedomgovernedthehousehold.Thechildren
learnedhowtocareforthemselvessothattheywouldnotlearntorelyonthe
unreliablewhiteworld,andwouldgrowuptoabletocontributetoblack
independence.Malcolm’solderbrotherWilfredrecalledthat“Ourmotherusedto
takeusoutintothewoodsandshowusdifferentherbsandtelluswhattheycould
cure.”Eachchildwasgivenaplotofgardentocareforandlearnedtogrowtheir
ownfood.ThehouseholdwasfilledwithavarietyofblackAmericanandCaribbean
newspapers,andthechildrenwereregularlytutoredaboutcurrenteventsandthe
historyofAfricaandtheAfricandiaspora.
Thisresilientfamily,however,wassoonbroken.Onenight,Malcolm’sfather
“slipped”onthetrolleytracksandwascrushedbyatrain.Hisdeathwasalmost
certainlyamurder.Wilfred,theoldestson,beganhuntinginordertofeedthe
familythathadgrowntoeightchildren,andHilda,Malcolm’sten-year-oldsisterand
theoldestdaughter,begantakingcareoftheyoungerchildrenwhiletheirmother
worked.However,noamountofhardworkwasenoughtocovertheirbasicneeds,
andthechildrensometimesbecamedizzyfrommalnourishment.
Louisecontinuedtogatherthehungrychildrenaroundthestoveeachevening,
teachingthemFrenchandtellingthemstoriesoftheirancestry.Butwithinafew
yearsthesinglemotherwitheighthungrychildrenwaspushedpastherbreaking
point.Shebegantalkingtoherself.Onedaythepolicefoundherwalkingbarefoot
throughthesnow,unsureofwhoshewas.Shewasdeclaredinsaneandwas
institutionalizedforthenexttwenty-fouryears.Welfareofficialsplacedthe
childrenindifferenthomes.Theoncestrongfamilyhadbeenbroken.
TheNationofIslam
AtMalcolm’snewschool,heexcelledacademically,emergingatthetopofhisclass.
Butwhenhetoldhisteacherhe’dliketobecomealawyertohelphismom,the
teachersaid,“Alawyer–that’snorealisticgoalforanigger.”Malcolmlosthis
interestinschoolandwasexpelledattheageoffourteen.Drawntobigcitylife,jazz
music,anddancing,hesoonmadehiswaytoHarlem,andquicklyenteredthe
criminalunderworldtomakeendsmeet.Attheageoftwenty,Malcolmwas
arrestedforburglary.Hewouldspendsixyearsinprison,andemergea
transformedman.
Whilehewasinprison,Malcolm’sbrothersandsistersbeganfollowingareligious
organizationcalledtheNationofIslam.TheNationwasfoundedbyamysterious
figurenamedW.D.Fard,whoarrivedintheblackcommunitiesofDetroitin1930.
ClaimingtobeanArabicman,FardtravelledfromdoortodoorintheAfrican
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Americancommunitysellingsilksandotheritems.Fardexplainedtohiscustomers
thatthesilkshesoldwerethesamefabricstheywouldhavewornintheiroriginal
homeland,wherehewasfrom:theIslamicholylandofMecca.
AfricanAmericansbegantogatheraroundFardtohearmoreabouttheiroriginal
homeland.ManyoftheseAfricanAmericanshadrecentlylefttheSouthduringthe
GreatMigration,leavingbehindtheircommunities,churches,andprofessionswith
highhopesofabetterlifeintheNorth.Instead,theyfoundthemselvesforcedinto
ghettosfilledwithapervasivesenseofhopelessness.Fardarrivedduringthe
especiallydifficulttimesoftheGreatDepression,andhisstorieshelpedhopeless
AfricanAmericansreinventthemselvesanddiscoverasenseofpride.
HetoldthemthattheirlanguagehadbeenArabic,andthattheirtruereligionwas
Islam.Heexplainedthatwhitepeoplehadinventedtheterm“Negro”tohidethe
truesacredidentityofAfricanAmericans,whoweredescendantsoftheblackTribe
ofShabazz,whichhadbeenenslavedandtakenfromMecca.BecausetheTribeof
ShabazzwasbothblackandfromMecca–which,asapartoftheMiddleEast,was
partofAsia–FardtaughtthatAfricanAmericanswerethedescendantsofAfroAsians.
Soon,manyAfricanAmericansinDetroitweretakingFard’sadvice,abandoning
whatFardtoldthemweretheirslavenames,eatinginthewayhesaidtheir
ancestorsate,andpracticingtheiroriginalreligionofIslam.AsFard’spopularity
grew,hebeganspeakingtoaudiencesofMarcusGarvey’sUnitedNegro
ImprovementAssociation–thesameorganizationthatMalcolm’sparentshad
dedicatedtheirlivesto.TheU.S.governmenthadrecentlydeportedGarvey,andhis
organizationwasstrugglingtosurvivewithouthim.AsGarvey’sUnitedNegro
ImprovementAssociationfellapart,manyofitsmembersfoundhopeinthe
organizationfoundedbyW.D.Fard:TheNationofIslam.
LikeGarvey,theNationpreachedtheseparationofblacksandwhites.LikeGarvey,
theNationbelievedthatthisseparationrequiredAfricanAmericanstobeselfsufficientandeventuallytonotrelyonwhitesinanyway.LikeGarvey,whotalked
aboutAfro-Asianunityagainstwhitesupremacy,theNationalsotaughtastrong
Afro-Asianconnection,builtintotheveryancestryofAfricanAmericans.However,
therewerealsomajordifferencesbetweenthetwogroups:whereasGarveytaught
thatwhitesandblacksshouldseparatebecausetheyweresimplytoodifferentto
evergetalong,theNationofIslamtaughtthatwhitepeoplewereactuallydevils.
AndwhereasGarveytaughtthatpoliticalactionwasnecessaryforblackliberation,
theNationofIslamtaughtthatAfricanAmericansshouldtotallyseparate
themselvesfromthepoliticalsystem,which,havingbeencreatedbywhitedevils,
wouldneversupportthem.
DespitethedifferencesbetweenMarcusGarveyandtheNationofIslam,Malcolm’s
brothersandsistersweredrawntotheneworganization,whichseemedsimilarto
thevaluestheywereraisedwith.TheytriedtoconvertMalcolmtotheNationwhile
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hewasinprison.WhentheytoldhimthattheNationofIslamtaughtthatwhite
peoplepossessedanevil,devilnature,Malcolmthoughttheideawasridiculous.But
whenhereflectedonhisfamily’sownexperiences,andwhenhethoughtofthe
historyofhowEuropeanscolonizedandenslavedpeoplewherevertheywent,
Malcolmcametobelievethatwhatatfirstseemedridiculousmightactuallybe
accurate.Inprison,Malcolmwasseriouslystudyinghistory,andthemorehe
studied,themorehestartedtobelievethattheNationofIslammightbecorrect.
Malcolmwantedtolearnmore.W.D.Fardhadmysteriouslydisappearedlong
beforetheconversionofMalcolm’sfamily,andtheNationofIslamwasnowledby
Fard’stopdisciple,ElijahMuhammad.MuhammadclaimedthatFardhadbeena
humanincarnationofAllah,andthathe,Muhammad,continuedtoreceivemessages
directlyfromGod.Fromprison,MalcolmwassoonwritingtoElijahMuhammadon
adailybasis,andcametobelievethatElijahpossessedsuchgreatwisdomthathe
trulywasadivinebeingindirectcommunicationwithAllah.WhenMalcolmwas
releasedfromjail,Muhammadbegantopersonallytrainhim,andMalcolmquickly
emergedasamajorleaderintheNationofIslam.
TheAfro-AsianConference
BythetimetheMontgomeryBusBoycottturnedMartinLutherKingintoamajor
civilrightsleaderin1955,Malcolmhadalreadyfoundeddozensoftemplesforthe
NationofIslamandwastheleaderoftheNation’stempleinHarlem.Duringthat
year,aneventoverseascapturedhisattention,inspiredhimtothinkmore
internationally,andbeganthelongprocessthatledhimtofinallybreakwiththe
NationofIslamnineyearslater.
In1955twenty-nineemergingAfricanandAsiannationsgatheredtodiscuss
unifyingwithoneanotherattheBandungConference–alsoknownastheAfroAsianConference-heldinIndonesia.Manyofthesenationswerecurrentlyatwar
withtheircolonialrulers.Somehadrecentlygainedindependence,butalthough
free,realizedhoweasyitwouldbeforpowerfulcountriesandcorporationsto
continuetocontroltheirresourcesandtousetheirpopulationsascheaplabor.The
nationsgatheredattheAfro-AsianConferencemettodiscusshow,although
individuallyweak,theycouldgainstrengththroughunifyingandsupportingone
another.
AsthegreatMalcolmXscholarManningMarablewrites,“Malcolmclosely
monitoredtheseevents,whichtohimfulfilledthedivineprophecyforetellingthe
declineandfallofEuropeanandU.S.power.”TheAfro-AsianConferencemayhave
remindedMalcolmofGarvey’steachingthatAfro-Asianunitycouldovercomeglobal
whitesupremacy.Theeventcausedhimtoseriouslyconsiderthepotentialfor
AfricanAmericanparticipationininternationalalliances.Marablewritesthatafter
theAfro-AsianConference,Malcolm’s“sermonsmadeincreasedreferencesto
eventsinAsia,Africa,andotherThirdWorldregions,andheemphasizedthekinship
blackAmericanshadwithnon-Westerndarkhumanity.”However,becausethe
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NationofIslamtaughtthatAfricanAmericansshouldnotconcernthemselveswith
politics,Malcolmhadtobecarefulaboutexpressingtheseideas.
TheFirstJourneyAbroad,andtheFirstDoubts
In1958,ElijahMuhammadsentMalcolmonatriptotheMiddleEasttobuildties
betweentheNationofIslamandtheMuslimworld.AlthoughMalcolmwastreated
withrespect,IslamicleadersintheMiddleEastgavetheNationofIslamonly
lukewarmsupport.PlansweremadeforElijahMuhammadtovisittheholycityof
Meccaandtakethehajj,andafullscholarshipwaslatergiventooneofElijah’ssons
tostudyatamajorIslamicuniversity.However,theseweremerelyrespectful
gestures.TheIslamicworldwasnotinclinedtobuildstrongconnectionswiththe
NationofIslam.
ThetripforcedMalcolmtorealizethatmanyoftheteachingsoftheNationofIslam
wereseenasincorrectorevensacrilegiousbytherestoftheIslamicworld.
Malcolmwastoldthatteachingthatwhitepeopleweredevilswasblasphemy,and
thatIslamwasareligionofuniversalbrotherhoodthatdidnotbelieveinracial
differences.Onthistrip,Malcolmalsorealizedthat,accordingtotraditionalIslam,it
washereticalforElijahMuhammadtoclaimthathewasAllah’smessenger.
MalcolmsaidnothingofthesedoubtswhenhereturnedtotheUnitedStates.He
wrotenothingoftheminhisAutobiography.Heremainedacompletelyhumble
servanttoElijahMuhammadforanotherhalfadecade.ButMalcolmslowlymade
changes.Insteadofsayingthatwhitepeopleliterallyweredevils,hebegantosay
thattheyactedlikedevils.Malcolmnowfeltitwasimportanttospeaknotonlyto
blackpeople,buttoallpeople.Hebeganspeakingatcolleges,andby1960had
emergedasapopularspeakeramongstcollegestudentsofallraces.
ItwasduringthistimethatmembersoftheNationofIslambegancriticizing
Malcolm.FiveyearsbeforetheNationassassinatedhim,manyfollowersofElijah
MuhammadwerealreadyconcernedthatMalcolmwasmovingawayfromElijah’s
teachings.BythetimeMalcolmbeganwritinghisAutobiographyin1963,these
tensionshadgrownworse.Malcolmwasdeeplytroubledbythefactthatimportant
figuresintheNationofIslamdoubtedhisloyalty,andoriginallyhopedtousethe
Autobiographytoprovehisloyalty.Thefirstchapters,writtenduringthistime,
portrayMalcolmasanuneducated,hardenedcriminal,whichwasuntrue.Scholars
nowbelievethatMalcolmXexaggeratedhisignoranceandhiscriminalpastinorder
toemphasizethepowerthattheNationofIslamhadtosaveeventhelowliestof
peoples.
AlthoughMalcolm’sAutobiographybeganwiththisgestureofloyalty,itwouldnot
endthatway.Hisloyaltywasabouttobepushedpastitslimit.
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LeavingtheNationofIslam
In1964MalcolmdiscoveredthatElijahMuhammadhadbeensleepingwithand
impregnatinghisyoungsecretaries.Malcolmhadheardtheserumorsforalong
time,butassomeonewhobelievedthatElijahMuhammadwasadivinebeing,he
simplycouldn’tbelievethiswastrue.Astherumorsspread,however,Malcolm
knewthatpeoplewouldbegintoaskhimquestions,andheneededtoknowhowto
respond.Thiscausedhimtoinvestigatetherumorspersonally.Whenhefound
themtobetrue,Malcolm’sfaithinElijahMuhammadwasshattered.
MalcolmofficiallylefttheNationofIslamonMarch8,1964.Hedidnotcriticizethe
NationorexposethesexualmisconductofElijahMuhammad.Instead,hetoldthe
pressthatasaministerwiththeNation,hewasnotallowedtobecomeinvolvedin
thecivilrightsmovementinthewaythathewishedto.“It’sgoingtobedifferent
now,”hesaid.“I’mgoingtojoininthefightwhereverNegroesaskformyhelp.”
However,powerfulfigureswithintheNationbelievedthatMalcolmhadspreadthe
rumorsaboutElijahMuhammadhimself,sothathecouldsplittheNationapart,
formhisowngroup,andelevatehimselfasaleader.Althoughtheyconsidered
retaliation,thethreattoMalcolm’slifeatthispointwasnotnearlyasseriousasit
wouldsoonbecome.
Malcolm’sdeparturefromtheNationofIslamlefthimconfusedanddepressed.
Luckily,heknewexactlywhathisnewpathwouldbe.HehaddoubtedtheNation’s
teachingsforyearsandwasreadytoembracetraditionalIslam.Malcolm
immediatelyfoundedanewIslamicorganization,calledMuslimMosque
Incorporated,whichwouldteachtraditionalIslamtoblackAmericansandallow
themtobecomepartoftheglobalIslamiccommunity.Inordertospirituallyrenew
himselfandgainrecognitionasaleaderoftraditionalIslam,MalcolmXtravelledto
theMiddleEastforthesecondtime.HewouldvisittheholycityofMecca,andtake
thehajj.
TheHajj
WhenMalcolmarrivedinSaudiArabia,hediscoveredthathewouldnotbeallowed
toentertheholycityofMeccabeforeheattendedtheHajjCourt.Becausethe
teachingsoftheNationofIslamwereconsideredheretical,Malcolmhadtoproveto
thecourtthathehadabandonedtheNationandembracedtraditionalIslam.
Malcolmwasprepared:hehadbegunstudyingtraditionalIslamicteachingswiththe
leadingscholarofIslamintheUnitedStates,Dr.MahmoudShawarbi.Shawarbi
believedthatMalcolmhadthepotentialtoemergeasagreatleaderofIslaminthe
UnitedStates,andbelievingthis,providedMalcolmwithcontactstotheroyalfamily
ofSaudiArabia.Withthebackingoftheroyalfamily,thejudgequicklyrecorded
Malcolm’snameintheHolyRegisterofTrueMuslims,givingMalcolmaccessto
Mecca.HehadnowbeenformallyacknowledgedasamemberoftheglobalIslamic
community.Beforeleaving,thejudgetoldMalcolm,“Ihopeyouwillbecomeagreat
preacherofIslaminAmerica.”
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DuringMalcolm’sfirstvisittotheMiddleEastin1958,hehadbeentoldthatIslam
viewedallofhumanityasonefamily,withnoracialdivisions.Now,ashe
participatedinthehajjin1964,hewitnessedthissinglehumanfamilywithhisown
eyes,andexperienceditwithhisownheart.InMalcolm’swords,hemetwhiteson
thehajjwho“weremoregenuinelybrotherlythananyoneelsehadeverbeen[to
me.]”HewrotetoAlexHayley,whowashelpinghimwritetheAutobiography,that
“Ibegantoperceivethat‘whiteman,’ascommonlyused,meanscomplexiononly
secondarily;primarilyitdescribesattitudesandactions.”Islam,Malcolmwrote,had
thepowertoremovethatnegative“white”attitudefromthepersonwithwhiteskin
color.
FromMecca,MalcolmwrotehometohisfollowersatthenewlyestablishedMuslim
MosqueIncorporated,tellingthemthatwhathehadwitnessedwassoprofoundthat
ithad“forcedmetorearrangemuchofmyownthoughtpattern,andtotossaside
someofmypreviousconclusions.”Hetoldthem,“Ihaveeatenfromthesameplate,
drankfromthesameglass,sleptonthesamebedorrug,whileprayingtothesame
God…withfellowMuslimswhoseskinswasthewhitestofwhite,whoseeyesthe
bluestofblue…[for]thefirsttimeinmylife…Ididn’tseethemas‘white’men.”
MalcolmnowenvisionedspreadingIslamtoAmericansofallraces.Hewrotetohis
followersthathecouldimaginethenextgenerationofwhiteyouthadoptingIslam
andovercomingthelonglegacyofwhiteracism.Peopleofcolorinparticularwould
benefitfrombecomingpartofaglobalcommunityof750millionIslamicpeople,
manyofwhohadalsosufferedfromwhitesupremacy,andcouldbepotentialallies.
AmongtheExpatriatesinGhana
BeforereturningtotheUnitedStates,MalcolmXvisitedGhana.In1957,Ghanahad
becomethefirstsub-Saharan,blackAfricannationtogainitsindependence.Many
AfricanAmericansgrewhopefulthatAfrica,freefromcolonialrule,wouldonce
againbecomeaproudland.ThepresidentofGhana,KwameNkrumah,invitedblack
AmericanstojourneytoGhanatohelpbuildthenewAfrica.Overthreehundred
joined,includingMayaAngelouandRichardWright,twoofthegreatestAfrican
Americannovelists;PauliMurray,oneofthefirstblackAmericanactiviststoput
Gandhi’steachingsintoaction;andJulianMayfield,whohadbeenforcedintoexile
aftercreatingarmedself-defensesocietiestofighttheKuKluxKlan.
ThemostimportantAfricanAmericanexpatriatetoGhanawasW.E.B.DuBois
himself–thegreatestblackintellectualoftheera.AlthoughscornedintheUnited
Statesasacommunist,DuBoiswasaninternationalhero,knownastheFatherof
Pan-Africanismandhailedastheleaderofglobalunityagainstwhitesupremacy.
PresidentKwameNkrumahwasagreatadmirerofDuBois,andwassoclosetoDu
Bois’swife,ShirleyGraham,thathecalledher“mother.”AlthoughDuBoishaddied
shortlybeforeMalcolmarrivedinGhana,ShirleyGrahamtookMalcolmunderher
wing,andintroducedhimtoPresidentNkrumah.LikeW.E.B.DuBoisandShirley
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Graham,thepresidentofGhanabelievedthatanysingleAfricannation,emerging
fromcolonialism,wouldbeweakandeasilyexploited.Africanunitywasnecessary
forAfricansuccess.WhileMalcolmhadbeenraisedwithavisionofAfricanunity,
theseleadersinGhanaprovidedMalcolmwithanewideaofwhatAfricaneededto
unifyagainst:theeconomicsystemofcapitalism.
InGhana,Malcolmfoundhimselfinacommunityofanti-capitalistrevolutionaries
whobelievedthatthenatureofcapitalismwastoexploithelplessindividuals,
communities,andevenentirenationsinordertomakeaneconomicprofitandgain
power.Theybelievedthatwithoutacombinationofunityandsocialistlawsto
preventtheaccumulationofwealthinthehandsofthefew,itwouldbeeasyfor
largecorporationstogaincontroloftheresourcesofAfrica.Ifthishappened,the
continentwouldsimplymovefromanoldcolonialism,inwhichAfricawas
controlledbyEuropeangovernmentsandmilitaryforces,toanewcolonialism,in
whichAfricawascontrolledbymassiveforeigncorporations,oftenwiththe
unspokensupportofEuropeortheUnitedStates.TherevolutionariesinGhana
believedthatjustasracismhadjustifiedtheoldcolonialism,thatitwouldjustify
whattheynowcalledneocolonialism:thecapitalistexploitationofAfricans,Asians,
andLatinAmericans.
InthewordsofhistorianManningMarable,whenMalcolmreturnedtotheUnited
States,“Forthefirsttime,hepubliclymadetheconnectionbetweenracial
oppressionandcapitalism,saying,‘It’simpossibleforawhitepersontobelievein
capitalismandnotbelieveinracism.’”WhatMalcolmmeantwasthatbecause
capitalismreliedonexploitation,andbecauseexploitationoftenreliedonracism,
thatwhoeverpromotedcapitalismalsopromotedracism…whethertheydidso
consciouslyornot.
ThisnewperspectiveledMalcolmtoclaim,inhisownwords,that“The[capitalist]
systeminthiscountrycannotproducefreedomforanAfro-American.”Thiswas
exactlytheoppositeofwhathehadpreviouslybelieved:influencedbyMarcus
Garvey’sandElijahMuhammad’steachings,Malcolmhadbelievedthatblack
liberationdependedonblackcapitalism–onthedevelopmentofblackbusinesses
andinstitutions.InGhana,Malcolmbegantothinkthatpeopleofcolorcouldnot
gaintheirfreedomthroughparticipatingmoreeffectivelyinaneconomicsystem
that,inMalcolm’sview,literallydependedonracialexploitation.
WhileinGhana,Malcolm’sperspectivesonracealsocontinuedtochange.InGhana,
AfricanrevolutionariesworkedalongsideEuropean,Asian,andLatinAmerican
revolutionaries,allfightingagainstneocolonialismandforaunitedAfrica.Someof
KwameNkrumah’smosttrustedadvisorswerewhitepeople.Therevolutionaries
whoMalcolmsoadmiredconsideredhispreviousanti-whitebeliefstobepolitically
immature.Whatmatteredtothemwasnotracebutasharedvisionanda
willingnesstofightforit.WhereasinMecca,Malcolmhadwitnessedtheracially
unifyingpowerofreligion,inGhana,hewitnessedtheraciallyunifyingpowerof
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sharedpoliticalbeliefs.InMeccahehadprayedwithwhites;inGhana,hesawthe
possibilityoffightingforfreedomalongsidethem.
Malcolm’stimeinGhanaalsohelpedhimevolvehisunderstandingofgender.For
hisentireadultlife,hehadbelievedintheNationofIslam’steachingthatwomen
weresubordinatetomen,andthattheirrolewasprimarilytoraisechildrenand
takecareofthehome.InGhana,Malcolmfoundhimselfinanenvironmentwhere
someofthemostrespectedleadershipfigureswererevolutionarywomen,suchas
ShirleyGraham,whowasregularlyvisitedbyrevolutionariesanddignitariesfrom
acrosstheworld,andwhomadeanefforttomentorMalcolm.Whenhereturnedto
theUnitedStates,Malcolmmadesurethatwomenhadleadershippositionsinthe
politicalorganizationhefounded.HewouldwritetohisexpatriatefriendinGhana,
MayaAngelou,askingherifshewouldjoinhiscause.Sheaccepted…butMalcolm’s
lifewouldnotlastlongenoughforAngeloutoworkalongsidehim.
TheOrganizationofAfro-AmericanUnity
MalcolmreturnedfromhismonthabroadonMay21st,1964.Witheightmonthsleft
tolive,hewenttoworkcreatinganewimageforhimselfasamajorleaderbothof
civilrightsandofIslam.Toaccomplishthis,hedownplayedhiscontroversialanticapitalistperspectives,andelevatedthestoryofhowhisjourneytoMeccahad
changedhisviewsonwhitesandprovidedhimwithavisionofuniversal
brotherhood.
Beforedepartingforhismonthabroad,Malcolmhadalreadyestablishedhisown
religiousorganization,MuslimMosqueIncorporated.Henowwenttowork
buildinganewpoliticalorganization:theOrganizationofAfro-AmericanUnity.The
namewasinspiredbythethirty-twoAfricannationsthathadfoundedthe
OrganizationofAfricanUnityayearearliertopreventthespreadofneocolonialism.
ThepurposeofMalcolm’sOrganizationofAfro-AmericanUnitywastounifythe
manycivilrightsgroupsengagedintheblackliberationstruggleintheUnitedStates
–tobuildwhatMalcolmcalledablackunitedfront.Malcolmthenplannedtolink
theblackunitedfrontintheUnitedStates,totheunitedfrontofAfricannations
againstneocolonialism.
Beforegoingpublicwithhisneworganization,Malcolmgatheredwith
representativesfromthemajorcivilrightsgroupstodiscussbuildingtheblack
unitedfront.MartinLutherKingwasinjail,butarepresentativewassenttospeak
onhisbehalf.Malcolmproposedthatitwastimetointernationalizetheblack
Americanfreedomstruggleandtobringhumanrightsabusesagainstblackpeople
intheUnitedStatestotheUnitedNations.Thegroup,includingKing’s
representative,agreed.
Theiragreementwaslikelybasedonthefactthatcivilrightslawswereoftenpassed
butnotenforced,whichcausedtheseleaderstoincreasinglydoubtthesincerityof
theU.S.government.SomewerestartingtoagreewithMalcolmthatthepassageof
10
lawswithnoenforcementmechanismswasapurposefullydeceitfulstrategytofool
theworldintothinkingtheU.S.wastakingactionwhenitwasn’t.Bythetime
Malcolmgatheredtheseleaderstogether,thegroundbreakingSupremeCourt
decisionBrownvs.BoardofEducationhadexistedlargelyunenforcedforanentire
decade.Duringthattime,blackpovertyhadworsened,anditappearedthatthe
fightagainstpovertythatlayaheadwouldbefarmoredifficultthanthefightagainst
desegregation.Forthesereasons,ashistorianManningMarablewrites,civilrights
leadersgaveMalcolmthetask“ofcontactingthosegovernmentsinAfricaandthe
MiddleEastthatmightbeexpectedtoendorsetheinitiative[ofbringingU.S.human
rightsabusesbeforetheUN.]Hissubsequentactivitiesabroadinthesecondhalfof
1964wereanattempttoimplementthisstrategy.”
BeforereturningtoAfricaandtheMiddleEast,Malcolmmadeafatefuldecision.He
hadcometobelievethattheNationofIslamwasharmingAfricanAmericansand
preventingthespreadoftrueIslamintheUnitedStates.Malcolmnowsoughtto
destroytheNationofIslam.Awarethathewasplacinghislifeindanger,hemade
severalmajortalkshowappearancesandtoldthestoryofthesexualmisconductof
ElijahMuhammad.HethenreturnedtoAfricaandtheMiddleEast–thistime,not
foronemonth,butforfive.Hisfivemonthsabroadprobablyallowedhimtolivefive
monthslonger.
Malcolm’sFiveMonthsAbroad
Malcolm’sepiphanyatMeccaandhiscommitmenttothestruggleagainst
neocolonialismmadehimaheroinAfricaandtheMiddleEast.ArrivinginCairo,the
Egyptiangovernmentplacedhiminaluxurysuiteasaguestofthestate.Histravel
expensesfortheentirefivemonthswerepaidforbytheSupremeCouncilonIslamic
Affairs,whichheldamassivereceptionforMalcolm,andawardedhisnew
organizationtwentyscholarshipstoAl-AzharUniversity–oneofthegreatest
centersofIslamiclearningintheworld.Withthetwentyscholarships,Malcolm
couldprovidetheleadersofhisnewMuslimMosqueIncorporatedwiththebest
Islamiceducationpossible.Perhapsevenmoreimportantly,thesescholarships
wouldmeanthatMalcolmwouldhavetwentyofhismosttrustedpeoplelivingdeep
intheheartoftheMiddleEast,wheretheycouldbuilddiplomatictiesandstrong
connectionstotheworldofIslam.Themessagewasclear:theSupremeCouncilon
IslamicAffairswantedtoestablishMalcolmXastheleaderofIslamintheUnited
States.
FromEgypt,MalcolmtravelledtoSaudiArabia.AsinEgypt,hewasaguestofthe
statewithallexpensespaidfor.Here,MalcolmXwasnamedtheWorldIslamic
League’srepresentativeintheUnitedStates.TheLeaguegrantedMalcolm’sMuslim
MosqueIncorporatedfifteenscholarshipstotheIslamicUniversityofMedina,the
secondholiestcityinIslam.MalcolmalsometwithSaudiofficialstodiscussthe
fundingofamosquetobebuiltinHarlem.
11
InCairo,MalcolmattendedtheOrganizationofAfricanUnityconferenceandurged
AfricanleaderstogototheUnitedNationsandaccusetheU.S.ofhumanrights
abuses.MalcolmarguedthatiftheywerewillingtogobeforetheUnitedNations
anddescribetheracistpracticesofwhitesinSouthAfricaashumanrightsabuses,
theyshouldbewillingtodothesamefortheUnitedStates.WhilemanyAfrican
leadersprivatelyagreed,theOrganizationofAfricanUnityrejectedMalcolm’s
proposal.CondemningSouthAfricawasonething;condemningthemostpowerful
nationontheplanetwasanother.TheemergingAfricannationscouldnotrisk
turningtheUnitedStatesintoanenemy.
Ofcourse,Malcolmdidn’tgiveupeasily.BelievingthathecouldconvinceAfrican
leadersifhecouldtalkwiththeminmoreprivatesettings,Malcolmspentmonths
travellingacrossAfrica.Inmid-October,hefinallyfoundsuccess:followingaspeech
beforetheKenyanparliament,theparliamentvotedtosupportMalcolm’shuman
rightsproposal.ThiswasallMalcolmneeded.Ifonlyoneleaderfromonenation
accusedtheUnitedStatesofhumanrightsabusesattheUnitedNations,theUnited
Nationsasawholecouldbeforcedtotakeupthedebate.Malcolmhadtakena
majorsteptowardsinternationalizingthecivilrightsmovement.
EachstepMalcolmtook,however,placedhislifeingreaterdanger.Hissteps
forwardasanIslamicleadercausedtheNationofIslamtobelievethatMalcolmwas
nowtrulyinapositiontodestroythem.HisstepsforwardinaccusingtheUnited
StatesofhumanrightsabusesmadetheU.S.governmentviewMalcolmasanenemy
ofthestate.WhenmembersoftheNationofIslamassassinatedMalcolm,police
forcesknewinadvance.Whenthatdaycame,thepolicewhowereusuallystationed
atMalcolm’seventswereabsent.
InEngland
InDecemberof1964,MalcolmXwasinEngland,speakingbeforethemost
prestigiousdebatingsocietyintheworld:theOxfordUnion.Hehadchosentospeak
toanEnglishaudienceforspecificreasons.DespitethechangesMalcolmhadgone
through,themediaintheUnitedStatescontinuedtoportrayhimasaviolent,racist
extremist,whichmadeitdifficultforMalcolmtorecruitmembersandraisemoney
forhisneworganizations.InthewordsofhistorianStephenTuck,theOxfordUnion
debateappealedtoMalcolm“fortheprestigeandlegitimacyitwouldconferonhim
andhiscause.”UnliketheU.S.media,whichairedonlythemostcontroversial
portionsofMalcolm’sspeeches,theBBCpromisedtoairtheentirespeechlive.
RemakinghisimagewasonlypartofMalcolm’sreasonforgoingtoEngland.The
futureleadersofEngland’sex-coloniesweretrainedateliteuniversitiessuchas
Oxford,andMalcolmsoughttobuildrelationshipswiththesefutureleadersof
AfricaandAsia,whocouldpotentiallybecomefuturealliesinthestruggleagainst
neocolonialism.Malcolmalsosoughttobuildrelationshipswiththecommonpeople
whohadmovedtoEnglandfromtheoldcolonies.WhereasMalcolmviewedthe
futureleadersstudyingatOxfordaspotentialalliesfightingneocolonialismbackin
12
theirhomelands,heviewedtheex-colonizedpeoplelivingwithinEngland–and
Franceaswell–asapotential“internalresistanceforce”thatcouldfight
neocolonialismfromtheinside.
MalcolmadmiredthewaythatAfricans,Afro-Caribbeans,andAsiansworked
togetherinEnglandtosolvethecommonproblemofracism.Returninghome,he
toldhisfollowersthattheycouldaccomplishmuchmoreifallpeopleofcolor
workedtogether.AlthoughMalcolmdidnotallowwhitestojoinhisOrganizationof
Afro-AmericanUnityoutofhisbeliefthatwhitesoftencametodominatethe
organizationstheyjoined,theorganizationwelcomedallpeopleofcolor.Malcolm
woulddieinthearmsofoneofitsJapanesemembers,YuriKochiyama,whose
familyhadbeenforcedintointernmentcampsduringWorldWarIIandwho
workedwithatomicbombsurvivors.
Lessthantwoweeksbeforehisdeath,MalcolmreturnedtoEngland.Daysbefore
speakingattheLondonSchoolofEconomics,hefellsickwiththeflu.Thesickness,
however,wasablessingindisguise.Malcolmhadbeenthroughmanychangesin
thepastyear,andthesicknessgavehimmuchneededspaceforreflection.Hehad
recentlysecuredthereleaseofhismother,whohadbeeninstitutionalizedfor
twenty-fouryears.WhenhisAfro-CaribbeanfriendJanCarewcametovisithim,it
becameanopportunityforMalcolmtoreflectonhisownAfro-Caribbeanancestry.
MalcolmtoldJan,“Aftermyfatherwasmurdered,shehadninemouthstofeed,and
shehadtodoitallbyherself.It’sonlynowthatIcanunderstandwhataterriblelife
shelived.Weallhadtopitchin,butshedidmostofthetoiling…nightandday,day
andnight…IusedtodaydreamthatwhenIgrewupI’dbecomealawyerandgive
herallthethingssheneverhad.AndnowIrealize,too,thatseeingherslavingday
afterday,Ibegantohatethesystemthatmadeherlifeoneofendlessdrudgery.”
JanaskedMalcolmifitwastruethathehadinfactchanged,andMalcolmreplied,
“No.I’moneandthesameperson,thesonofamotherandfatherwhoweredevoted
Garveyitesalltheirlives.Thesonofafatherwhowasmurderedandamotherwho
wasmentallycrucifiedbyracists.I’mcarryingontheworktheystarted,justasmy
childrenwillcarryonmyworkwhenI’mgone.Beforetheycartedmymotheroffto
amentalhospitalandtoreourfamilyapart,shekepttellingusthatwithoutan
educationwe’dbelikepeopleblindfoldedinaforestpockmarkedwithquicksand.I
strayedfromthoseteachingsofhersforyears,butIcameback,didn’tI?”
Malcolmhadcomebacktohismother’steachings.Inaway.Henolongerbelieved
inMarcusGarvey’sblackseparatism.HenolongerbelievedinGarvey’snotionthat
thatthedevelopmentofblackcapitalismwouldleadtoblackliberation.Butatthe
timeofhisdeathMalcolmwasbeginningtobuildthesortofblackunitedfronthis
parentshadraisedhimtobelievein.Hewasbeginningtobuildabridgebetweena
unifiedblackAmericaandaunifiedAfrica,ashisparentshaddreamedof.And
throughIslam,MalcolmwasevenlayingthehopefulfoundationsfortheAfro-Asian
solidaritythatMarcusGarveytaughtwouldovercomeglobalwhitesupremacy,and
13
thecolonialismandneocolonialismitsupported.Malcolm’sparentswouldhave
beenveryproudoftheirson.
Bibliography
Ambar,Saladin.MalcolmXatOxfordUnion:RacialPoliticsinaGlobalEra.New
York:OxfordUniversityPress,2014.
Angelou,Maya.AllGod’sChildrenNeedTravellingShoes.NewYork:RandomHouse,
1986.
Carew,Jan.GhostsinOurBlood:WithMalcolmXinAfrica,England,andthe
Caribbean.Westport,CT:LaurenceHill,1994.
Gaines,Kevin.AfricanAmericansinGhana:BlackExpatriatesandtheCivilRightsEra.
ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2007.
Marable,Manning.MalcolmX:ALifeofReinvention.NewYork:Viking,2011.
Sales,WilliamW.,Jr.FromCivilRightstoBlackLiberation:MalcolmXandthe
OrganizationofAfro-AmericanUnity.Boston,SouthEnd,1994.
Sherwood,Marika.MalcolmX:VisitsAbroad:April1964–February1965.
Hollywood:TsehaiPublishers,2011.
Tuck,Stephen.TheNightMalcolmXSpokeattheOxfordUnion:ATransatlanticStory
ofAntiracistProtest.Oakland:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2014.
Turner,RichardBrent.IslamintheAfricanAmericanExperience.Bloomington:
IndianaUniversityPress,1997.
X,Malcolm,andAlexHayley.TheAutobiographyofMalcolmX.NewYork:
Ballantine,1999.
14
Questions
MarcusGarveyandtheUnitedNegroImprovementAssociation
1. ThinkingAboutMovementandMigration:WhydidtheAfro-Caribbeanswho
migratedtoHarlembecomesomeofthemostradicalmembersofHarlem’s
blackcommunity?
2. ThinkingAboutStrategy:HowdidMarcusGarveythinkthatpeopleofAfrican
ancestrycouldgainfreedomfromwhitedomination?Whydidhebelievethat
peopleofAfricanandAsianancestryshouldunite?
3. ThinkingAbouttheNationalContext:WhatwasgoingonintheUnitedStates
duringMarcusGarvey’stimethatledmanyAfricanAmericanstobelievethat
freedomwouldonlycomewhenblackstotallyseparatedfromwhites?
ABeautifulandTragicFamily
4. ImagineYouWereThere:ImagineyouwerepresentataUnitedNegro
ImprovementAssociationmeetingwithMalcolm’sfatherandmother,Earl
LittleandLouiseLangdon.Youarealldiscussingthepossibledifficultieswith
carryingthroughMarcusGarvey’splans.Whatdifficultieswouldyou
mention,andhowwouldyousuggestovercomingthem?
5. ThinkingAboutStrategy:WhydidMalcolm’sparentsteachtheirchildrento
growtheirownfoodandtolearnaboutthehealingpowersofdifferent
plants?Whatdidthishavetodowithblackliberation?
TheNationofIslam
6. ThinkingAboutSimilarityandDifference:Inwhatwaysweretheideasof
MarcusGarveyandtheNationofIslamsimilar?Inwhatwayswerethey
different?
7. ThinkingAboutChangingPerspectives:HowdidMalcolmfirstreacttothe
NationofIslam’sbeliefthatwhitepeoplewere“devils,”andwhydidhis
thoughtschange?
TheAfro-AsianConference
8. ThinkingAboutGlobalConnections:WhywasMalcolmXinspiredbytheAfroAsianConference?Whydidhefeelthatthiseventontheothersideofthe
worldwasrelevanttoAfricanAmericans?
TheFirstJourneyAbroad,andtheFirstDoubts
15
9. ThinkingAboutChangingPerspectives:HowandwhydidMalcolmX’sviews
begintochangeafterhisfirstjourneytotheMiddleEast?
10. ThinkingAboutPublicPresentation:HowdidMalcolmportrayhimselfinthe
firstchaptersofhisAutobiography,andwhy?Whatcanthisteachusabout
thechallengesofusingsourcesinhistory?
TheHajj
11. ThinkingAboutChangingPerspectives:How,andwhy,didMalcolm’sviewson
whiteschangewhenhetooktheHajj?
AmongTheExpatriatesinGhana
12. ThinkingAboutMultiplePerspectives:Describethedifferentperspectiveson
capitalismheldbyMarcusGarveyontheonehand,andtheanti-capitalist
revolutionariesinGhanawhoMalcolmXcametoagreewith.
13. ThinkingAboutChangingPerspectives:How,andwhy,didMalcolm’sviewson
racecontinuetochangewhileinGhana?
14. ThinkingAboutChangingPerspectives:How,andwhy,didMalcolm’sviewson
womenchangewhileinGhana?
TheOrganizationofAfro-AmericanUnity
15. ThinkingAboutPublicPresentation:WhenMalcolmreturnedfromGhana,
howdidheportrayhimselftotheAmericanpublic,andwhy?Whydidhe
choosetodownplaycertainpartsofhisthinking,whilehighlightingothers?
16. ThinkingAboutStrategy:DescribethestrategyofMalcolmX’sOrganizationof
Afro-AmericanUnity.
17. ThinkingAboutStrategy:Whydidmanycivilrightsleadersagreewith
MalcolmXthatitwastimeforAfricanAmericanstoturntotheUnited
Nationsforhelp?
Malcolm’sFiveMonthsAbroad
18. ThinkingAboutStrategy:WhydidMalcolmXthinkitwasimportanttobuild
tiestoIslamicleadersintheMiddleEast,ontheonehand;andAfrican
leaders,ontheother?
19. ThinkingAboutRepercussions:HowdidMalcolmX’sactivitiesabroadplace
himindanger,andwhy?
16
InEngland
20. ThinkingAboutPublicPresentation:WhywasMalcolmXstrugglingtoportray
himselftotheAmericanpublic,andwhydidhethinkingthatdebatingatthe
OxfordUnionwouldhelp?
21. ThinkingAboutStrategy:WhydidMalcolmXthinkitwasimportanttobuild
relationshipswithcolonizedpeoplelivingwithincountrieslikeEnglandand
France?
17