Introduction to Psychology
and Methods of Research
Psychology is both a science and
profession
http://www.ferrum.edu/majors/psy
chology.jpg
Defining Psychology
Psychology comes from the root words
______, which means mind, and the word
_____, meaning knowledge or study.
However, because the mind can’t be
______ directly, psychology is now defined
as the scientific study or discipline that
studies behavior and mental processes.
Behavior- refers to overt behaviors
(observable actions and responses) or
covert behaviors (are private, internal
activities, such as thinking, remembering,
and other mental events).
A Brief History of Psychology
Psychology began centuries ago as a branch of philosophy, the
study of knowledge, reality, and human nature. The ancient Greek
philosophers who had the most profound influence on psychological
thinking were Socrates (469 – 399B.C.), Plato (428-348B.C.), and
Aristotle (384-332B.C.).
Aristotle argued that the pursuit of knowledge should be based on
experience with the world around us, not on pure thought or
reasoning.
Psychology did not begin to emerge as a scientific discipline; until
the late nineteenth century. One of the first scientists to study
psychological processes was the German physiologist Gustav
Theodor Fechner (1801-1887). Fechner studied psychophyics.
However, the founding of psychology as an independent science is
usually credited to a German scientist, Wilhelm Wundt, because in
1879 in Leipzig, Germany, he set up the first psychological
laboratory to study conscious experience. Therefore, he is referred
to as being the father of psychology.
Structuralism
Wundt’s used what is called introspection or looking
inward, careful self-examination and reporting of one’s
conscious experience-what you are perceiving, feeling,
thinking, or sensing at this exact moment as you are looking
at this screen. What are you feeling/thinking at this
moment?
Wundt’s ideas were carried to the U.S. by Edward
Titchener. Titchener called Wundt’s ideas structuralism
because they dealt with the structure of mental life; breaking
down mental experiences into their component parts.
The founder of American psychology is generally accredited
to William James. James founded Functionalism, which
studies how behavior helps individuals adapt to the demands
placed on them in their environment; how their behavior
helps them/you to survive and adapt (A’ing this class); what
are the functions that underlie your mental processes-why do
you do what you do???
Behaviorism
Following functionalism in the early 1900s is Behaviorism. The
founder of Behaviorism is the American psychologist John
Watson(1878-1958). Watson argued that psychology should limit
itself to the study of overt, observable behavior. He believed that
the environment molds the behavior of humans and other animals.
B.F. Skinner argued that behavior is shaped by rewards and
punishments, the environmental consequences that follow specific
responses.
Following Behaviorism was Gestalt Psychology. Gestalt
Psychology said that your brain structures your perceptions of the
world in terms of meaningful patterns or wholes. It was founded by
Max Wertheimer. He studied thinking, learning, and perception in
whole units, not by analyzing experiences into parts.
Psychoanalytic Psychology- Was developed by an Austrian doctor
named Sigmund Freud. Freud believed that mental life is like an
iceberg; only a small part is exposed to view. The area of the mind
that lies outside of personal awareness he called- the unconscious.
The Unconscious
According to Freud, your behavior is deeply influenced by
your unconscious, which is the repository of primitive sexual
and aggressive drives or instincts and of the wishes,
impulses, and urges that arise from those drives. or instincts.
Freud believed that early childhood experiences play a
determining role in shaping your personalities and behavior.
He believed that abnormal behavior patterns are rooted in
unconscious conflicts originating in childhood, e.g. fears and
phobias.
Freud also theorized that many unconscious thoughts are
threatening; hence, they are repressed (held out of
awareness). But sometimes, he believed , they are revealed
by dreams, emotions, or slips of the tongue. Freud also
believed that all thoughts, emotions, and actions are
determined. Freud believed that childhood does affect adult
personality- the child is father/mother to the man/woman.
Contemporary Perspectives in
Psychology
The Behavioral Perspective- Focuses on what is
observable as well as the role of learning in
behavior. Currently, many psychologists, have
adopted a learning-based model called socialcognitive theory. Practitioners of this model
believe that behavior is shaped not only by
environmental factors, such as rewards and
punishments, but also by cognitive factors, such
as the value placed on different objects or goals
and expectancies about the outcomes of behavior,
e.g., if I do x, will y follow?
Behavior therapy
Behavior therapy involves the
systematic application of learning
principles that are grounded in the
behaviorist tradition of Watson and
Skinner; to acquire more adaptive
behaviors to overcome psychological
problems.
The Psychodynamic
Perspective/Psychoanalysis
Most of all, Freud is known for creating
psychoanalysis, the first talking therapy.
Freudian psychotherapy explores
unconscious conflicts and emotional
problems.
Humanistic Perspective: Believed that
psychology should focus on conscious
experiences, even if those experiences are
subjective and cannot be directly observed
and scientifically measured.
.
Humanistic Psychology
Humanism is a view that focuses on
understanding subjective human
experience. Humanistic psychologists are
interested in human problems, potentials,
and ideals.
Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow, and other
humanists rejected the Freudian idea that
we are ruled by unconscious forces;
Determinism=the idea that behavior is
determined by forces beyond our control.
The humanists stress free will, the ability to
make voluntary choices.
The Physiological Perspective
This perspective focuses on the
relationship between biological processes
and behavior, including the roles of
heredity, hormones, and the nervous
system.
Evolutionary Psychology focuses on the
role of evolutionary processes involved in
shaping behavior, including aggression,
mating behavior, and altruistic behavior.
The Cognitive Perspective
Psychologists who adopt this perspective,
study the mental processes by which we
acquire knowledge- how we learn, form
concepts, solve problems, make decisions,
and use language.
The Sociocultural Perspective:
Psychologists that prescribe to this
perspective examine how behavior and
attitudes are shaped by the social and
cultural influences to which people are
exposed.
The Increasing Diversity of
Contemporary Society
Hispanic Americans and African Americans
constitute the nation’s largest ethnic minority
groups, each accounting for about 13% of the
population. Native Americans constitute about
1%. Hispanic Americans and Asian Americans
are the two fastest growing population groups in
the United States.
Asian Americans are also the most diverse U.S.
population group, encompassing people of
Chinese, Filipino, Indian, Korean, Cambodian,
Vietnamese, Japanese, and other Asian
backgrounds.
Psychologists: Who they are and
What they do/Research Specialties
Developmental psychologists- study the course of
human growth and development, form conception
to the death or cradle to the grave.
Learning theorists- study how and why learning
occurs in humans and animals.
Personality theorist- study personality traits,
motivation, and individual differences.
Cognitive psychologists- are interested in thinking.
Cultural psychologists- study the ways in which
culture affects human behavior.
Psychologists: Who they are and
What they do.
Question - When you think of a psychologist, what
thoughts comes to your mind?
Psychology is a diverse profession because of the
large number of areas in the field and because of
the many different roles psychologists perform.
Some psychologist conduct basic research –
research focus on acquiring knowledge even if
such knowledge has no direct practical
application; vs applied research – research that
attempts to find solutions to specific problems.
Positive Psychology- is the study of human
strengths, virtues, and optimal behavior, not our
flaws. Founded by Martin Seligman
Specialty Areas of Psychology
A psychologist is a person highly trained in the methods,
factual knowledge, and theories of psychology. All
psychologists study behavior and mental processes, but they
pursue this knowledge in different ways, in different settings,
and from different perspectives.
Clinical psychologists treat psychological problems or do
research on therapies and mental disorders. In contrast,
counseling psychologists tend to address milder problems,
such as poor adjustment at work or school.
A psychiatrist is a medical doctor who treats mental
disorders.
Ethics- The psychologist’s professional code stresses (1)
high levels of competence, integrity, and responsibility; (2)
respect for people’s rights to privacy, dignity, confidentiality,
and personal freedom; and (3) protection of the client’s
welfare.
Major Specialty Areas
Be familiar with Concept chart 1.2.
Know the “Nature of Specialty” for the: (1) Clinical
psycologists; (2) School psychologist; (3)
Developmental Psychologists; (4)
Industrial/Organizational psychologists; (5)Health
psychologist; (6) Neuropsychologists; (7)
Geropsychologists; and (8) Sport psychologists.
Professional Psychology: Becoming More Diverse Christine Ladd-Franklin; Mary Whiton Calkins;
Margaret Floy Washburn; Gilbert Haven Jones;
Francis Sumner; J. Henry Alston; Kenneth Clark;
and Richard Suinn.
Appreciating Social and Cultural
Differences
The Impact of Culture- Most of what we think, feel, and do is
influenced in one way or another by the social and cultural
worlds in which we live.
Cultural Relativity- Is the notion that behavior must be judged
relative to the values of the culture in which it occurs; which
can greatly affect the diagnosis of mental disorders.
A Broader View of Diversity- cultural differences, age,
ethnicity, gender, religion, disability, and sexual orientation
all affect the social norms that guide behavior. Social norms
are rules that define acceptable and expected behavior for
members of various groups. All too often, the unstated
standard for judging what is average, normal, or correct is
the behavior of white, middle-class males. To fully
understand human behavior, psychologists need to know
how people differ, as well as the ways in which we are all
alike.
Research Methods in Psychology
Psychologists are trained to be skeptical of claims and arguments
that are not grounded in evidence; they use the empirical
approach. Meaning, their information is based on evidence
gathered from experiments and careful observation.
The Objectives of Science: To Describe, Explain, Predict, and
Control.
Description – An accurate and clear description is a cornerstone of
science; it is typically based on making a detailed record of
behavioral observations.
Inferences are not descriptions but are conclusions drawn from
observations.
Explanation - Usually means we understand and can state the
causes of a behavior. Psychologists seek to explain events by
developing theories that lead to predictions that can be tested
through research and careful observation.
The Objectives of Science
Prediction – Refers to one’s ability to
forecast behavior accurately.
Psychologists draw on their theoretical
understanding of events to make
predictions about future occurrences.
Control – Means to alter conditions that
influence behavior in predictable ways; to
help you gain greater mastery and control
over your own life.
The Scientific Method
The scientific method is based on careful
collection of evidence, accurate description and
measurement, precise definition, controlled
observation, and repeatable results. In its ideal
form the scientific method has six elements: (1)
Making observations; (2) Defining a problem; (3)
Proposing a hypothesis; (4) Gathering
evidence/testing the hypothesis; (5) Publishing
results; and (6) Theory building. This author
mentions 4 general steps: (1) Developing a
research question, (2) framing the research
question in the form of a hypothesis, (3) gathering
evidence to test the hypothesis; and (4) drawing
conclusions about the hypothesis.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a predicted outcome of an
experiment or an educated guess about
the relationship between variables; a
precise prediction about the outcomes of
an experiment.
Variables are factors or measures that vary
within an experiment or among individuals.
Statistical significance - refers to a finding
that is unlikely to have been due to chance
or random fluctuations.
Research Methods: How We Learn
What We Know
The Case Study Method: Is an in-depth study of one or more
individuals.
Random Sampling: A method of sampling in which each
individual in the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
Naturalistic observation allows us to study behavior that
hasn’t been tampered with by outside influences. A major
problem is the observer effect, which refers to changes in a
subject’s behavior caused by an awareness of being
observed. Observer bias is a related problem in which
observers see what they expect to see or record only
selected details.
The Correlational Method – A research method that
examines relationships between variables.
Correlation Coefficients
Correlation Coefficient is the strength and direction of a
relationship. The numbering falls somewhere between
+1.00 and -1.00. If the number is zero or close to zero, the
association between two measures is weak or nonexistent.
A positive correlation shows that increases in one measure
are matched by increases in the other. In a negative
correlation, increases in the first measure are associated
with decreases in the second. Correlational studies help us
discover relationships and make predictions. However,
correlation does not demonstrate causation. Just because
two things appear to be related does not mean that
causation exists. Also, just because one thing appears to
cause another does not confirm that it does.
The Experimental Method
A variable is any condition that can change and
that might affect the outcome of the experiment.
Identifying causes and effects in an experiment
involves three types of variables:
Independent variables- are conditions altered or
varied by the experimenter, who sets their size,
amount, or value. IV’s are suspected causes for
differences in behavior.
Dependent variables- measure the results of the
experiment. They reveal the effects that
independent variables have on behavior.
Extraneous variables- are conditions that a
researcher wishes to prevent from affecting the
outcome of the experiment.
Experimental Method
The experimental group consists of subjects exposed to the
independent variable. Members of the control group are
exposed to all conditions except the independent variable.
Single-blind studies - Are studies in which research
participants are kept uninformed about whether they are
receiving the experimental drug or a placebo.
Double-blind studies – Are studies in which both participants
and experimenters are kept uninformed about which
participants receive the active drug and which receive the
placebo.
Informed consent – Is an agreement to participate in a study
following disclosure of information about the purposes and
nature of the study and its potential risks and benefits.
Placebo Effects
The placebo effect is the changes in behavior cause by
belief that one has taken a drug.
Self-fulfilling prophecy- is a prediction that prompts people to
act in ways that make the prediction come true.
Representative sample- A small, randomly selected part of a
larger population that accurately reflects characteristics of
the whole population. Population – is an entire group of
belonging to a particular category.
Uncritical acceptance- Is the tendency to believe generally
positive or flattering descriptions of oneself.
Becoming a Critical Thinker
1. Question everything – Keep an open mind and
weigh the evidence upon which claims are made
2. Clarify what you mean
3. Avoid oversimplifying – Being angry 24/7 is
genetics.
Avoid overgeneralizing – All college students will
make more money than high school students.
Don’t confuse correlation with causation
Consider the assumptions upon which claims are
based, e.g., persons who are developmentally
disabled, do not make good employees.
Becoming a Critical Thinker
Examine sources of claims,
Question the evidence upon which claims
are based, e.g., having a college degree
affords more opportunity in the job market
than a high school degree,
Consider alternative was of explaining
claims, e.g., Having Dwyane Wade
sneakers will cause you to be a better
basketball player.
The End
STUDY
STUDY
STUDY