CHAPTER-IV
TIRUVALLUR IN lgTHAND 2oTH CENTURIES
Tirwvallur under the British rule
The British
over Tiruvdur starts from days of carnatic war. In 1744, Morse becarnc
the Governor of East India Company at Chennai. Dupleix, the French Governor at Pondicherry
had written to Morse earlier that peace should be preserved between the two navies in the Indian
Ocean, But the English squadron had already been dispatched to India; and it actually reached
Madras in August 1745. Nawab Anwar-ud-din was alarmed at the prospect of a war between
Madm and Pondicherry and he wrote to Morse to forbid hostilities with the French, to which he
replied that he would not be the fust to disobey the command. The Nawab himself subsequently
came to San Thome and received the English very cordially. The English fleet might have easily
attacked and captured Pondicheny but it did not do so, Meanwhile De La Bourdonnais, an
intrepid soldier and Governor of Bourban, came to the rescue of Dupleix with a fleet. Hc fought
an indecisive engagement with the English fleet on the coast. The English fleet hovered for
sometime in the neighbourhood of Madras and then sailed away to Bengal, leaving the English
settlement in Madras in lurch. Dupleix and De La Bourdannais succeeded in occupying Madras
and the city was under the French control till August 1749, when it was restored to the British as
per the pee Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Soon after the French occupation of Madras, Nawab
Anwa-ddh resolved to make good his claim to the city, by force and sent his son Maphuz
Khan, to mize the surrounding country. In October 1746, when the Nawab troops cul off thc
garrison's wata supply, a French force sallied out of the Fort and attacked the enemy.The result
e at Adam in November 1746 in which the Nawab's m y was defeated. This easy
victory of the French over the numerous army of the Nawab madc a great impression on the
was a W
p o p w mind of tbe strength of European artillery and discipline. This battle reverted the
of the Nawab and the French Governor and transferred the prestige and the morale
113
horn the Muhammadans to the European settlers'.
On the 28 April 1758, Lally landed at Pondicheq and took office as Governor-General
of tbe ~renchpossessions in India. As soon as he landed, he attacked the Fort Sf. David. The
Govem~at Madras wanted to strengthen Madras and resolved to call in every available man to
aid in the r e s i s ~which
, had detemined to make.In pursuance of this Karunguli, Chingleput,
~ m c h e c p mtogether with Kaveripakkarn and Arcot were f d l y evacuated. The French were
very sow at work plundering the rich villages Salavakkarn and Kancheepuram. Before
advancing on Arcof Lally had reached the country lying south of Palar, (The Madurantakam
taluk) and had visited in person the forts of Allampara and Karunguli.The timely arrival of
troops from England helped the Government of Madras to re-occupy Chingleput, Lally now
began to c o n c d n t e his forces on Karunguli, Salavakkam and Kancheepuram. Lally arrived at
Chingleput on the 4 December 1758. On his way to Madras, he attacked Poonamallee and drove
Errsign Crowley, who commanded the fort. Colonel Murphy was deputed by Lally to reduce
P o o d l a e . Crowley at first refused to surrender. Finally, he abandoned the fort at dead of
night, marched towards Madras and joined the garrison at Fort $1. George with his five
companies of troop*. Lally entered the Black Town unopposed. Major Breton was supporting
him with 100 men. The English were thrown into confusion and they retired to the Fort, having
lost their men and material,
In 1760, M
y md Coote were bidding against each other for the services of
3000
M a r a h under Irmis Khan. The French offered ready money and secured the services of the
Maraha The two armies then marched down the river Palar on different sides. Coote was
watching the movements by means of his cavalry. Lally entered Kancheepuram before Coote
who was t w d y - 0 miles
~ off fromthat place. Coote at once set out for Kancheepuram but he
'. C
-
1
3
.
S
. A History
~ of the City of Madras, Madras, 193 I, p. 162.
~ ~ , Q l i n s k p e t M u a l173-74;
,p
d v s d sometime after Lally had departed, A b d y of 1000 Marathas were at this time
plundarine dl the country about Vandalur and Poonarnallee and began to reduce the camp of the
The major mislake cornmiled by Lally when, by dividing and weakening his forces, he
lost Wadhash and K m g u l i was secretly acknowledged by himself and had seriously affected
his &gem Bussy advised him to stop the siege. But, Lally did not wait and he suspected Bussy
of &signs against his reputation. He marched for Wandiwash leaving Bussy at Thiruvorriyur to
&t
k English. Lally, having failed to recover Wandiwash, sending his heavy baggage to
KaruPguli for greater safety. Coote then marched towards the fort of Wandjwash and occupied.
a charge of French cavalry against Coote's horses. In the end, the Frnech fled3.
Mly
h W l e d above, during the struggle between the British and the French for the mastery
over the Camtic, Chingleput and Tiruvallur regions were the scene of constant fighting. Though
the British fought against the French for protecting their own interest, they called it that they did
it on behalf of Nawab Muhammed Ali. Hence, for the services rendered to the Nawab and his
father in th wars, Muhammed Ali granted the present Chengalpat~u(Chingleput) and Tiruvallur
districts m 'Jahir' to the British in 17604.This grant of Jahir was confirmed by the Emperor Shah
A h
at
Delhi in 1763. Though acquired, he British leased these districts to the Nawab
until 1780. M
e
n the 'Jahir' changed hands from the Arcot Nawab
to
the British, the latter
wnhtsd for many years by a sustained and effective opposition to their attempt to control the
activities and taxation of thc 2241 villages in the area. 'he area of the 'Jahir' was about
2500 sqdo, which included Chingleput, Kancherpuram, Poonarnallee, Tiruvallur and
adjoining villages. In Deccn~her1785 a senior official in Madras received a petition from thc
of Poonamallcc seeking redressal of certain grievances. There was also an
-i
uunmbetion' yainst the company's administration engineered by Elavappa Mudali of
P
e and Oppa Mudali of Mangadu. They could direct their district oficials to settle the
1'
1
4
-
Wpp.I#-88;
A M u a l of the administration ofMadras Presidency, 1878, vol. 11, p.86.
115
disputes with the Wants amicably. Hence what is inferred from the records is that the
society began to resist the British administration right from the beginning, though if not under
the banner of ' h d o m mde'.The end of the 19th century saw the birth of the Indian
National Congress. Madras sent its representatives to the inaugural session of the Indian National
Congress held on 28 December 1885 in Bombay. The first resolution was moved by G.
S u b r h m y a Iytr, a unique honour, as well deserving, considering his part in the formation of
the organisation5. On rttuming h m Bombay, P. Anandacharlu, P. Rangaiya Naidu, G.
Subrahmmya Iyer and others organised the provincial unit of the Congress in ~ a d r a s Thus,
~.
began the involvement of Madras in all India politics in right carnest and this lead continued
thereafter.
t of broadcasting for the fmt time the seeds of nationalism in our State belonged
The d
to Mrs. Annie
Besant. Within a year of the declaration of the First World War, she started in
Madras, as the Government themselves put it, "a red hot agitation for Home Rule - Self
Government or Swaraj - which smn began to spread like wild fire from district to district7.
Everywhere in the town of Tiruvallur and in the neighbouring villages speeches were delivered,
pamphlets were issrred, demonstrations were staged by the people in favour of swaraj. In August
1920, Gandhiji himself came on a propaganda tour to the soulh and ddivered a number of
speeches in Madras, Tiruvallur and other districts of 'hmilnadu. In these speeches, he
emphasised the non-cooperation, signified the force of truth or the force of soul, that its
acceptance involved the rejection of all physical violence as well as the implementation of all
policie laid down by the Congress such as the resignation of titles, the boycott of Legislative
Councils and foreign goods, national education, temperance, labour unions, e t ~ The
. ~ call of
Gandhiji resulted in he hartals and public meelings in Tiruvallur district.
5
.
D.Sadsvisan, Birth Place of India National Congress - Journal of Madras University, vol. LVI No.2, July 1984.
. T. Rab+ Tamil Nadu Congress rule in Freedom Movement, 1939 - 1947, Madras Christian College, 1987
(uapublisbd M.PQlild i p s d o n ) ;
6
. B.S.
1
Studiss in Madras Administration, Vol. I, Madras, 1960, p.6;
-rl
. Tn pol-m
and khilart movements in ,he Madras Presidency, confidential Report of Madras
Go~1920-21;
I
1
k the Year 1917, greatly influenced by S. Srinivasa Aiyangar, Bala Gangadhat Tilak
116
and h i e Beant, Thitu-Vi-Ka entered into politics, His great contribution to nationalism dates
back
to 1920.
He actively took part in the 'Non-Cooperation Movement' and organised
d e m d o n f~t . g d the Rowlet Act. In 1926, he was elected as the President of Tamilnadu
Congress Committee. As a promotor of social reconstruction, he worked for the upliftment of
women and founded the labour movement in 1918 in association with B.P. wadi&'
The Civil DisobedienceMovement was started again in 1932, Gandhiji visited Tamilnadu
and toured d districts where he was treated 'like
a ~od"'.
In the meantime, the British
Parliment passed the Government of India Act of 1935, which granted provincial autonomy.
The Act came into force on 1 April 1937. Elections were held in the Madras Presidency. In this
election campaign, no leader attracted kger audience and none produced greater impression
than Jawabarlal Nehru, who arrived Madras on 5 October 1936, and undertook a tour of
TamiWu. In Tiruvallur district, he was welcomed with great enthusiasm.
In the election held as per the provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935, the
Congress came out successful in 159 Assembly Constituencies out of 214. The Jutice Party
won 16 scats. The Congress Ministry was fonned with C. Rajagopalachari as the Premier. Later,
the Second World War broke out. The Congress Ministry resigned in order to protest against the
war policy of the government,
The Congress Committee passed a Resolution in its Wardha session on July 6, 1942,
to
drive the British out of our country. The 'Quit India' movement gained momentum in
Tmilnadu d K.kmmj, then President of the Tarnilnadu Congress Committee campaigned
all over the state.
9
. P.Ramamowthy, The heedom struggle and Dravidian Movement, Oriental Longman, Madras, 1987, p.75;
10
. W &&ofthe
gwammanZ 1943;
events of the civil disobedience Movement Aug - DEC,1942, Secret Report of the
More
117
250 active volunteers and freedom fighters belonging to the Chingleput
and T h d l u r districts active part in Individual Satyagraha, Salt Sathyagraha, foreign cloth
baycoti, toddy and snack shop picketing, Civil Disobedience Movement and 'Quit India'
~ovement." In Tiruvdlw, Mangilal Sowcs and his brother Madan Mohanraj, who held a
meeting in defiance of the prohibitory orders of the District Magistrate were arrested.
B.V.Mallikajum, the Joint Secretory of Tiiuvallur Taluk Congress Committee organised
meetings in Tiruvallur and informed the people h u t the pitiable condition of India under he
British rule d compellsd them to participate in the freedom struggle. He appointed
P. S. Wdaishnan the Secretory of Tiruvallur Satyagraha Committee and made arrangement
for the parlicipation of large number of people in Satyagraha Movement. When the call was
given by Gandhi for Civil Disobedient Movement and Quit India Movement, large number of
people h m Tiruvdlur willingly participated. J. Durajsamy, 1',V. Govindarajulu, S. Madhan
Mohan Raj, M.V. Ramachandran, K.Rarnanujam, M.Munirathinam, SSrinivasan and host of
other people organid strike but they were arrested and put in jail.
Mangilal Chowkar, Govindarajula Chettiar, J.Duraisamy Pillai, M.Ganesan and
S.Ramachandran formed m organisation called 'Nannwi Kazhagam' at Chetty Street in
Tivallur. The purpose of this organisation was to educate the common people about the evils of
British rule and also to kindle the national feeling among the people through organising meetings
and enacting dramas. They invited national leaders like K.Kamaraj, M.Bakthavachalarn,
T h i r u . V . K a l y ~ E.V.Ramasamy
~,
Naicker, C,N, Annadurai etc. to Tiruvallur and
orgaised public meetings at Kalaicbangam grounds near l'iruvdur Bus stand. Thousands of
people in and around Tiruvallur participated in these mcctings, which kindled the national
feeling among the common people. Even the students showed keen interest in boycotting British
goods d mcipting in Satyagraha movement, Mr.Arunachalam, the Headmaster of Gaudie
School gave punishment to his students Radhakrishnm, Raghavan and K
in the m
e
e
h of M&ma
w for participating
Gandhi at Merina Beach in Chennai. Selling photos of Subash
C h a n h 00%was prohibited by the government. But the students of R.B.C.C.HighSchool
. Who's who, k
I1
h n f@mof lndia (Tamil Nadu), Vol. 1, Government of Tamil Nadu, pp. 3 - 37;
secretly sold thw photos to the public. Such students were suspended from the school by
118
Mr.Bdasubmiyam. In this way students were prepared for any agitation
the H-ter
against the Government by this organisation.
To s
~ the dfeeling of nationalism among the common people, the Nanneri Kazhagam
like
o r g m i d many
Samyuktha, Veera Abimanyu, Nakkiran, Valai yapathi,
S i l a p p a t h b , Manimekali, Buddhar Karunai (Buddha's grace), Veera Pandia Kattbornman,
Raja Desingh,
Lakshmi Bai etc. All these dramas were staged in a big Kalaichanga ground
covered more than 2 acres of land near Bus Stand. Thousands of common people witnessed these
dramas every week. These dramas deepend the honour of the Hindus and provided them with a
sense of self-respect and confidence, which inspired national patriotism among them. It certainly
helped in building up national consciousness. People of various walks of life joined together in
Nanneri Kazhagam and orgnised these meetings and dramas. Among them K.L.Srinivasan,
Sdai,Sagadeva MWw,Mosur Chengalvaraya Iyer, Raghunathan, M,O,Sarnpath Kumar,
Paramasivam, Pungatbur Ganesa Mudaliar, Ramasarny Reddiar, Venkatararna Iyer,
Ekkadu.Parhawathi Mudaliar, Poovai Kalyanasundara Mudaliar, Govinhamy Naidu,
J.Venugop1, R,Mariapp, M.S .Thjrunavukkarasu Chettiar, Poondi .Ranganatha Mudaliar,
T h o W a i Subramaniya Mudaliar, Kakkalore Kamachandmn, P.Rajendran and Annamalai
Udaiyar are important members of this organisation. They met frequently and discussed about
various plans fox the spread of national feeling among common people. They visited villages,
educated village p p l e about the past glories of India and helped strengthening national
sentiments among them.
As chronicled above, it is clear that Tiruvallur played its role effectively in the 'Quit
India' Movement. The movement remained active in Madras and in other districts only for a few
month, roughly from August to November 1942. Thereafter, it gradually, died down". The
political atmosphere in the country, however, continued to remain dark and sullen when with the
". M.V-iya
1969, p. 79.
and M. Panabirarn, (Ed). "Local Self Governrncnt in India", AIlicd Publishm, Bombay,
detention of Congre~sleaders in Jail and the unhelpful atfitude shown by the Viceroys Lord
119
~dithgowand Lord Wavell.
Gandhiji was released in May 1944. From 1945 however, the sky began
to clear. The
formation of hbo~
G~vmunentin England, the arrival of first of the Parliamentary delegation
and then of the Cabinet Mission to hammer out new Constitution for India - all these led to a
succession of political changes. India attained Independence and the dawn of freedom was
greeted in Thallur with great rejoicing. The Independence Day was celebrated with great
enthusiasm alike in the city and Tiruvdlur.
Growth of Municipal Government in Tamil nadu
Municipal administration in Tamil Nadu may be said to have commenced with the
introduction of the improvements in Towns Act. (Act of India XXVI of 1850) This act
authorid the Government to introduce Municipal Administration in any town in which the
inhabitants were desirous of making better provision for "Consmcting, repairing, cleaning,
lighting or waking any public streets, roads, drains or tanks or for the prevention of nuisance or
for improving the tow in my manner*'.Dut this act was never enforced.
The next step was the passing of the towns improvement act (X of 1865) by which
Municipalities were constituted. Funds compulsorily raised under this act was a[ first utilized to
meet the charges of maintaining police in towns, but later on, it was extended to cover
construction, repairing, and cleaning drains, forming and repairing of roads, kccping the roads
and streets
cleaning the tanlcs and doing such things as may be necessary for the preservation
of the public health, By the Town improvement Act of 1871, additional functions were given to
Munici@itics namely maintenance of Hospitals, Dispensaries, Schools, Binh and Death
R e g i i o I I 4Vaccination. The term of office of the members was raised to 3 years. The
di*
Collector was appointed as the President of the Municipal Council.
vice-president was appointed by the Government. Provision was made for the
120
election of the eo~n~llm
by the tax payers. Another provision was made for the appointment of
Offim the Government to supervise the working of the act. The expansion of the
~ u n i c i p dsystem h e e n 1871 and 1881 was slow and unsteady. The Madras Government
lnsp*
appointed a Committee consisting of officials and non officials which after an elaborate
investigation suggested a h e s of recommendations. On the basis of these recommendations and
after considering the resolution of the Central Government, the Government of Madras issued the
District Municipalities Act of 1884 which constitutes an important landmark in the history of
Municipal development in provinces. The act permitted the election of 3/r of the Municipal
councillors by the tax payers and fixed the minimum number of members of each Mmunicipal
council as 12. It abolished the older practice of appointing Collectors as ex officio Presidents.
Eacb Municipality was to have its own Chairman nominated by the Government or eleced by the
wucillors from among themselves. The District Collector was entrusted with the powers of
supervision and control over the activities of the council and the Government was entitled to
suspend any resolution passed by Municipal councillors, The constitution of Municipalities
practically d e d unchanged from 1884 to 1920, but several suggestions were made
to
modify the coastitutioa Accordingly, Government of Madras passed a bill, which became the
District Municipalities Act of 1920.This act contains the following provisions :-
1. The councilors were normally given perfect freedom in the choice of their chairman. 2, The
emergency powen entrusted to the revenue divisional officer were withdrawn. 3. The right to
vote was given to all tax-payers including women, 4. Any voter was entitled to be a candidate for
election. 5. Normally ~ u n c i l were
s given a free hand in regard to the budgets1'.
The act of 1920 was amended in 1930 which abolished the system of nominations md
provided d o n of seats for minority communities by a system of election by all the voters
in each ward. Another amendment to the act of 1920 was effected in 1933, which made the
Government to appoint paid Commissioner an Executive Officer. Finally by the amendment act
of 1938, & ~
I3
-
~
e provided
n that
t all adult literates could vote in Municipal elections. The
Tbe Tumil Nub District Municipajities Act, 1920.
&1~emmen4m appoint paid Commissioner an Executive Officer. Finally by the amendment
I21
act of 1938, the ~ v ~ e provided
n t that all adult literates could vote in Municipal elections.
he Madras District Municipalities Act V of 1920 is the act, which assumes major importance
regarding the c0nstiMion and functions of the Municipalities in Tamilnadu. It comprises of 6
parts, which
divided into two chapters and contain 370 sections. Since the date of its
enactmat, the act has undergone legislative changes more than 80 times. The amendments that
have becn brou* forth so far have not introduced any radical change in the main act, except the
mmding act XV of 1933,which made provision for thc appointment of a full timc executive
authority.
According to this act, many townships in Tamilnadu became Municipalities. Since 1942,
most of the inhabitants of Tiruvallur locality compelled the Government to make Tiruvallur
Pmchayat B o d into a Municipality. M. Bakthavachalam, Ex-Chief Minister of Tamilnadu gave
solid support to the people for the fulfillment of this demand, Accordingly the Government of
Madras, from this day of independence on 15.8.1947 wanted to make this town, a Municipality
and requested public opiion. AIl leading people like advocates, politicians and business people
d d e d that Thvallur is a chief town connected by railway station, bus route and having a
revenue divisional office, taluk office and a police station with Inspector of Police was fit to
become a Municipality. The Government of Madras in their order declared that Tinrvallur, a
Pmchayat Board in Chingleput district to become Third Grade Municipality from 1.4.1948 as
pa Madras District Municipalities Act of 1920'~.After Independence, the growth of this town is
so fast and be population increased three folds. In the ycar 195 1, the total population of this
town was 18,847,
and in the year 2001 it was 45,517. The mounting population of new
residential ~ l o n i e and
s trapping up of new industries, shops, temples, educational institutions
etc., made the Gov-ent
13
to upgradc this town as a Second Grade ~ u n i c i ~ a l i t ~ " .
. The Tamil Hadu District Municipalities Act, 1920.
I4
. G.O. No.137,hal Administration, dt. 78.1.1948;
I3
.
G.O.Wo, 609,Lod Administration,dl. 31.3.1948;
T L ~ ~ town
I E
mtned the Municipal map of the Madras State from that of a
122
p d y t . After it became a Municipality, steps were taken to conduct elections so that the
hqyncould elect a representative body of their own16. The Thvallur Municipality consisted
of entire revenue villages of Tiruvallur, Ayeveli Agaram, Pungarhur, Permbahm and Periyal
Kuppam. The total area was 3222.24 acres or 10.65 Sq. Km. with cultivable lands of 1299,68
a
m of wet I d s and 582.33-acresof dry lands. The Municipal Organisation consisted of four
important bodies namely Electorate, Council, Chairman and omm missioner 17,
At the time of formation of Municipality, Tiruvallur consisted of 12 wards. The first
Municipal election was held in May 1949 to elect 16 Members for 16 Seats out of 12 Wards of
Municipality. There were contest in 11 Seats and in the remaining 5 seats were elected
unoppod, It is very encouraging to note that 69,7% of thc voters cast their votes and elected
their I
d bodies, Tbe Government of Tamilaadu dissolved all Municipal Councils in Tamilnadu
with effect from 30.6.76 and such Tiruvallur Municipality was also dissolved. When
Government ordered to increase the number of wards, Tiruvallur Municipality was divided into
20 wards with reservations to scheduled casles 2 and women one seat1'. But elections codd not
be held all over TamiIaadu and in 1983 new ruIes were framed by the Government for the
election of Municipal Chairmm directly by the people. During that period Tiruvallur
Municipality was divided into 24 wards and the post of Chairman was reserved for a scheduled
caste
member. Since the new revision of seats was challenged in the court of law, the
G o v m e n t of T ~ l n a d uordered for old pattern of seats. So elections were conducted in the
old p
w for 20 wards and ody 20 councilors were elected. The reservation of Chairman post
for sch&d
also subsequently removed and made as an open ~ o m ~ e t i t i a nD' ~u h. g
the e l d m of 1996, the Tiruvdur Municipality was divided into 27 wards with reservation to
scheduled caste 2 and women 7 seais.
. G.O.No,651, LDcal Administration, dt. 9,5.1983,
16
".
Note on Municipd Administrtion, 1982, p.3 ;
''
,RRam&dm, A&in&atim
Unimity of Madras),p.34;
''.A
w j w
of Thrruvallur Munlcrpalrry, 1948-86(Unpublished M.Phil,Dissertalion,
of ~iruvallurMunicipality. 198b87+ph2;
123
~oundhThe
~ ~ u n cconsisting
fi
of the councillors took office at 1.6.1949 after the
election and E.V.SomasundarW the special officer of the Municipality performed the function
of the Council. The councilors elected chairman and vice-chairman from among themselves to
cany out the hhktration. They elaborately discussed all matters and passed laws for the
improvement aod lo provide amenities to the people. In 1996 elections were held on party basis,
but subsequently party politics reflected in council election too. Party politics entered into
c~unc'im e w which resulted in the widespread disturbances in the meetings and the council
hall was locked and the ~ u n c i l o abelonging to both parties DMK and ADMK members fought
until tht intervention by police, Howhever these councilors formed various Committees like
Lighting Committee, Appointment Committee, Tax Payers Committee etc., for the benefit of the
people of Tiruvallur.
Powers and Fnnctions of Chairman: The municipal chairman convenes the meeting of the
council and e m s all the duties and exercises all the powers specially imposed or conferred
on him under the Tamil:Nadu district Municipalities Act 1920.
He has 111 right to go through all municipal records and office correspondence. Any
c o e w l c e between the executive authority and the
government should be sent through him
and he is bound to transit such correspondence, The chairman is a member of evry committee of
the council d he can delegate his functions to the vice chainnan in his absence. The council is
rested with the power of municipal administration, but any function assigned to the chairman or
executive authority could not IE exercised by the counci1. A councillor may call the attention of
the executive authority, to my neglect in the execution of municipal work or to any waste or any
municipal property or to the needs of any locality and he may suggest any improvement which
may be desirable,
has the right to move resolutions and inlerprellate the chairman on matters
concerned with municipal administration.
On the basis of these powers, the Municipal Chairman played a pivotal role in the
Municipal Administration. The overall dcvelopmcnt largely depended on the Municipal
Chairman. The first chairman K.Raghunathm and succceding chairmen P. S. Radhakrishnan, Ma
~bdulRahiman, K. M. W b u Chetty and M, Sundar Raj contributed much for the
1 24
betterment of this twm.All the correspondence from and to the government are made only
through the c h & m
and besides presiding over the council meetings, they personally
supmisad aI1municipl activities like drainage system,drinking water scheme, bus stand, street
lighting, roah etc. Apart from elected representatives, Special Officers m e appointed by the
Govemmwt. After the dissolution of dl Municipal councils from 1976 to 1986~'md these
Special Of5cers executed many important schemes of Tiruvallur Municipality.
Commhiontr~:Tht Commissioner occupied a very important position in the Municipal
Council. He was the representative of government in the council for proper administration. He
was well aware of the Government guidelines and rules and it was his duty to enlighten the
council members h u t thcse rules and helps the Council to prepare her own byelaws without
violating the rights, attends the council meetings, enlightens the chairman and members and also
to answer q d o n s , mrdinates the work of several wings of the Municipal Administration and
f d l y acts as the chief executive of the ~unici~ality".
He supervises the work of all employees,
prepares the budget, manges for council meeting at the end of each year, prepares the
Administration Report, supervises different departments like Municipal Health Officer,
Municipal Engineer, Town Planning Officer, Civil and Electrical Engineer, Municipal Surveyor
etc. Thus his work was the executive control over entire administration and to
provide proper
coordination among all departments, Unfortunately, there are frcquent changes of persons in this
post, which affststhe routine functioning of (he Municipality. It may be true that longer stay of
an official in a particular place and position may lead to c o v t practices but at the me time
fqmttransfers my upset the administration."
10
21.
.G,O. M m .No, 1541391me,n5,dt. 27.6.1976;
R.R m h n d r m , Op,cf,p.34;
lbid., p,36;
Mdn functions of TimvaUur Municipality: ' h e main functions of the Tiruvallur
the maintenance of public roads, streets, lanes, culverts, and cause ways,
Municipdity
reading m
o parks
~ and gadens, playgrounds, recreation centres, public halls, hospitals,
dispensaries, street lights, water supply, drainage, and aIso maintenaining records connecting
birth and death of the population, providing elementary education to the children and cleaning
the streets, drains and scavaging.
Bus Stand: There is a well-provided bus sbnd existing in Tiruvallur. As this is a pilgrimage
center, hundreds of devotees are visiting every day and during festive occasions this number
increases into many folds, Further many ofici Js choose Tiruvallur a better place to settle due to
good water, cheap house rent, good educational institutions, cheap cost of living etc., and so the
flow of people to Thvallur is increasing day after day. The existing bus stand fulfilled the
dmmds of the people to a great extent. The revenue from the bus stand was rupees 63,339
during 1986-87 and it increased more than 500% i,e, Rs.3,38,421 during the year 2000-01.
No doubt, the revenue through this source is increasing steadly every year due to the size
of population and availability of basic necessities and that in turn acts as a catalyst to the increase
in the revenue of Tiwallur Municipality. This income was well utilised by the Municipality for
the ~ n s t d o of
n 11 shops and a hotel2' in the bus stand, another 16 shopsz5were constructed
during 1993 ad this bus stand was improved and renovated in the year 1997-981b.
Water Supply: Another source of revenue to the Municipality was drinking water supply for
which few schemes were undertaken in the earlier decades but still scarcity of drinking water is
felt by thc people. The income from this source is Rs.66000 in the year 1986-87 and this
1
. G.O.No. 1229189, Municipa! date 14.3.89, P.16;
,'
lh
G.0, No,f W3/R2
Municipal
,
date 26.7.93, P.IS;
.Adminidm
of Tjvallur Municipality, 1998-99, P.34;
increassd lo h.506885 d e 2000-01". The number of public taps and house tap
connections incrtased m
y folds during these years.
126
Daily Market: T'flvallur Municipality is having a good daily market with 30 shops and also
many temporary vendors. Provisions, vegetables, fruits, textiles and all ofier commodities are
available in this market. People from various nearby villages coming daily to this market along
with fresh vegetables and fruits, which are grown in their lands. So Tiruvallur people are
forbslatt enough to get fie& vegetables cheaply, The revenue horn this market to the
municipality is Rs.15316in the year1986-87 and this increased to Rs.2,06,703during 2000-01~~.
In the year 1996-97 the Periyakuppam Jawaharlal Nehru Road Daily Market
has been
mvated.t9
The trees belonging to Tiruvallur Municipality found in various parts of its jurisdiction
and left for h e s t every year, Every year Municipality is auctioning these trees under the
diredon of Government of Tamifnadu and getting income and it is Rs,1 1,860 in the year
200&01M. The Municipality is dso receiving income from Pay and Use lavatory. The lavatory
that was constructed in the year 1998-99 near the bus stand compound at the cost of
~9.4,12,800~~
has received p a t appreciation from the public. For the convenience of the laymen
on the sheet, the T i d l u r Municipality has set up public lavatory and had advised them to use
the same in a hygitnic manoer. There are more 4,200 lavatories in the individual houses and they
are cleaned by the Municipality employees in regular internal and also whenever any problem
arose in the sewage system. In 2000-01 the Municipality gave subsidies to number of poor and
middle class people to m t r u c t lavatories in their houses,
21
.
Ibid., 1986.2001, Wntcr Supply Section, P.19;
''.G.O.No. 3806Ll001, P.14;
.' G.O.NO.3006)961R2, Municipal date 17.8.97, P.14;
3b
,
11
,
Adminimtion Repm of Tiruvallur Municipality, 1996-2001, P.18:
aid.,1996-97, P.15;
In order to ensure proper functioningof hygienic measures the authorities making
127
regular visit to the wious parts of Tiruvallur town. They also supervise the performance of
service in regard to the clean maintenance of garbage remover. In order to check the health of the
citizens of Tiruvallw one doctor, one pharmacist and two attenders are recruitd. With the
q m i i i o n of health
hygienic depment, good water supply with cholorine content has
..
been discharged through water tunnels and pipes.
.
merit
I
.
..
y
. .
. ln order to check out
s
the spread of plague epidemic, a special precaution aid has been provided in the public health,
and hygienic centers. Further the Ayurvedic clinic of Tiruvallur Municipality's health centre and
one of the Government health campaign collectively launches health campaign in municipality.
Thallur Municipality has taken steps to bring the town under zero garbage
programme. In the event Municipality has started segregation of garbage and door-to-door
collection in ward 14 and this has been extended to another 3 wards recently, A new action plan
envisages the collection of garbage places including 23 kalyana mandapams, 5 cinema theatres,
two markets aud one bus stand. Besides the abovc said spccific places, garbage being collected
daily fromthe main streets and alternately from oher places. Expcctcd garbage collection from
the market and residential areas was about 22 Mctric Tons per day but the actual collection was
only 19 Metric Tons and the collection delails are:
Detaih of vehidw No. of vehicles
2, Mini L m y
Capacitv
No,of trips Collection of garbage
2 m.tons
2 trips
4 m.tons
1.Sm.tons
3 trips
9 m.tons
2 m.tons
3 trips
6 m.tons
Difficulties being experienced to collect the garbage accumulated due to non-
128
availability of vehicles. Thenforerecently a Mini Lorry of tipper type was purchased to collect
the shortfall. Presently garbage being collected Erom the narrow lanes to main streets,
For wide publicity of this programme and also to create awareness, human chain was
propammed on 204-2002 at 4.00 pin with the Collector of Tiruvallur Municipal Council with
their rnembrs, the Rwenue Divisional officer, Tasilder, Public Relational officer,Chief
Edwtional officer, PWD officer,children of various educational institutes, volunteers of Arivoli
besides Municipal, CDS group were the other participants. This programme was a
success by voices of the public, Motivation of the public was being achieved by issuing hand-
bills to all people utiUsiing the service associations, volunteers to cover entire town.Further
action w taken to extend segregation of garbage in all the wards.
Municipd Schools: Tiruvallur municipality rniitainhg 8 schools that comprises 5 middle
schools and 3 elementay schools,The five middle schools are North Raja Street Middle School,
KnM,N.Brothers Middle School, Rajaji Road Middle School, Lakshmipuram Middle School Poonga Nagar and Periyakuppam Middle Schools. The three elementary schools are Mohammed
Ali Street Elementary School, Kambar Streel Elementary School and N.G,O. Colony Elementary
School. The total number of studenb studying in these schools are 2493, among them bays are
1234 and giris are 1259. Until 1990 these schools werc managed by Municipality and afterwards
they are contxolled by the Government of Tamilnadu. There was no Higher Secondary School
before the year 1999-2000,TheGovernment of l'amilnadu upgraded the Rajaji Road Middle
School into Higher Secondary School and as the result of such a step taken by the Government a
large m b e r of students from economically backward class joined the Government Higher
Secondary School, discontinuing from thc private schools.
K M N Brothers Middle Schools, Sathyamoorthy Road. This school was housed in a tiled
how in iathyamoorthy road and it was an elementary school having uplo 5' class.The number
of studcrib entolled in the school was very less at the time of independence and increased year
year. So thne was need for a big building which was constructed by the panchayat
129
namely Mr. Thambu chettair, in 1963 at the cost of Rs. 1 1,000.
Rajaji Middle S~hu-01.Rough m
y elementary and middle schools were existed in Tiruvallur,
the need for an Higher secondary school was felt by the resident of Tiruvallur. One of the noble
hearted
R.M. gave 1 h
' acres of land, opposite to municipal ofice in Rajaji purarn for
he ionof the Higher Secondary School. Immediately Government sanctioned Rs,
1,00,000to co-t
a compound wall for the school. For the construction of buildings and
fUrther class rooms, Mrs. Jayanthi Natarajan, MLC, contnbuted Rs.5,00,000,C. S. Mani, MLA,
gave Rs.5,00,000 and Krishasamy M.P., gave Rs,3,00,000,Apart from them the residence of
Tiruvallur conlributed h.2,00,000for the construction of the Class rooms and it was carrjed out
successfully.
Roal: Tiruvallur is well connected with many cities like Chennai, Tirupathi, Tiruttani,
Kancheepuram etc,The Tuuvdlur Municipality spending a lot of money for the development of
these rods. In the 2000-01, the Municipality spenl Rs.5,67,689for the improvement of these
road!?. Apart h m this, spending of electricity formed another main expenditure of Tiruvallur
Municipality. At present, there are nearly 13 12 street tube lights which is more than 500%
i n c m when compared with the year 1986-87. The burden of electric bills increasing year after
year but overall dtvelopment in the street light service and their maintenance is well
appreciableM.
Government Welfare Schemes : In the year 1982 Chief Minister's Health Food Scheme came
into effectwhich provided noon meal to the children from thc age of 2 up to 4. The Municipality
appointed I1 oganisers and 22 coordinators to carry out this scheme3'.Under this scheme 1010
children and 252 old people were provided noon mcd every day. In 1983 this scheme was
" ,A
M
~
Rtwm of Tjruvallw Municipality, Engineer~ngSection, 1986-2001;
34
.
3J
.G.0, No,213,dt. 3.9.82, Chief Minister's Health Food Scheme, P.75;
hid.,M a i p m a n ~Section, 1997-98;
130
merged with
burden of
d e n t s Midday Meal Scheme. As a result of this, the expenditure
government in-ed
bra@ under
and all students of this age p u p between 5- 14 were
scheme. This scheme came under the control of urban development and Local
Self
D e ~ m e nint 1982. Tiruvdlur Municipality successfully carried this scheme
by appointing many officialsin all schools and 1444 people were benefited.36The Tiruvallur
Municipality w i n g many welfare schemes under the advice and assistance of the Government
of Tamildu like
Moovaloor Rama amirtham Memorial Marriage Assistance Scheme by
which b.5000 is given to pMlr women for marriage purpose and a sum of Rs.1,50,000 was
''
given to 15 women in the year 2000-0 1 and
Dr.Muthulakshmi Reddy Memorial Maternal Aid
Scheme by which pregnant women below the povedy line are given maternal aid every year.
Tiruvallur Municipahty has totally three Maternity Hospitals and Children maintenance centers.
Every day large number of people are getting medical ireatment from these centers and their
expenses are born by the Municipality. In the year 1997-98 Municipality spent a sum of
Rs.3,48,234for the construction of maternity hospital buildings and spending about Rs.1,00,000
every year for h e medical treatment of the poor people.
Drainage System :It is unfortunate that Tiruvallur town did not possess closed drainage system.
The existing open drainage system had many defects li kc during rainy seasons the rain water
normally floods in the &ets and this water is cletued by using sucker machines and also the
pos~ibilityof mixing the drainage water with drinking water which causes diseases. In the year
1997-98 the dramage tunnel for 1.47 K,M, in length was laid at the cost oCKs.5,42,000. Further
for laying more tunnels in various parts of 'I'iruvallur, Government sanctioned Rs.5,00,000and a
tunnel at the length of 2.15 K.M.was laid during 1998-99 at the cost of RS.12,66,000.~~
Hoapi&b :In order to ensure proper functioning of hy gienic measures,Municipality appointed
Health Imptors and supervised proper removal of garbage, good water supply with chlorine
content, discharge of drainage water in water tunnels etc. The garbage collected by the cleaning
!4
.GO. No.1379,dt. 29-91, Noon Meal Scheme, P.57;
3'1
. A d m W w Report of Tiruvallur Municipality, 2000-01, P.12;
employee is taken to the m a h j e r i fertilim godow where this garbage is used for
manufacturing bio-fntilizers. In order to prevent the spread of epidemic diseases such as
13 I
malaria, typhoid, dysmW dc., that spread through mosquitoes are regularly checked by the
health department employees. For better functioning of this department, a new building for the
balth and hygienic center has been constructed with Government grant of Rs.4,50,000on
1.4.2000d
There is a Government hospital existing in Tiruvallur, where modem Allopathic system
According to Local Funds Act of 187 1 the responsibility of maintaining
of medicine was ud0
hospids and dispensaries was done by Municipilities, In 1899, a Iwal hospital was started in
Tiruvdur, this hospital evinced special attention to the health needs of the people of Tiruvallur.
Municipality hospital in Tiruvallur was established in 1948. It was equipped with E,C.G, X-ray,
Plant and Laboratory. It had 3 Doctors and 3 Nurses. An Urban Family Welfare Centre was
attached to this hospital, AAer Tiruvallur became he headquarters of Tiruvallur District, the
hospital also h m Head Quarters Hospital, Additional buildings were constructed and
separate blocks for Eye, Ent, Skin, Orihopaedic, etc., were formed,An emergency block was also
constructed for the speedy treatment to the patients.
Revenue and Expenditure :The working of this Municipality is restricted to a great extent due
to the paucity of hds. With available funds this Municipality has done a great work for h e
development of the town and introduced many welfare schemes for the improvement of people.
The main source of income to the Municipality is from tax imposed on houses, shops and
agricultural lands, The Municipality also received income from other sources like bus stand,
water supply, daily market,slaughter house, commercial tree plantation cattle sandai (weekly
market}
The Municipality appointed officials and collected taxes fram the people.
Though the incame to the municipality is limited to above sources, the expenditure is
many folds and the mmicipality was not in a position to cw on many welfare measures, The
132
ofthe municipality are to maintain roads, street lights, hospitals,
sanitation facilities, to provide ladies assistance schemes, town planning programen, schools,
various ex@-
drainage SyStM &12.
As we have alnady
above, the revenue of Tiruvallur municipality proved inadequate
to meet the growing expenditure. At present this tom has developed 4 times in 15 years and in
another 10 years the population may double and in 20 years it may reach well over 3 ldhs with
rndtifari~u~
deficiencies.The present condition of supply of services are if not totally
satisfwtory, at least adequate to certain extent. But these entire basic infrastructure had to be
drastically 'mprovedto meet the future demands.
Pilgrim Center :Now Tiivallur becoming an important pilgrim center and hwdreds of
devotees visiting the temple daily and it increasing many folds during the festive days. To cater
the naeds of this floating population and to provide amenities to them, Government should take
necessary steps to provide enough funds for the development of this town. The proximity and
accessibility of this town to Chennai, large number of people are settling in this town and the
population is growing rapidly. Availability of good drinking water, ever going electric trains,
chap rer& low cost of living induces large number of people to settle here for whom the
Municipality should provide all basic amenities. Further the increasing number of educational
institutions l i e arts, science and engineering colleges which are fascinated by the facilities
available in this town also posing big heats in the years to come with more nurnber of student
population. So to tide over all these problems the Municipality had to gear up its activities.
Unfortunately the growing importance of this town has been completely ignored by the
Municipality. Mawvet the income to the Municipality though various sources is inadequate.
?'he financial condition of Municipality is also in weak. To overcome these difficulties the
ah
Government of T-u
special case may sanction special grants. In turn Municipality
Fa
'. S. V & I W ~ TiMdIIVMunic@aIfw
Madras,PAB;
-
A SN& (From 1986-2001).unpublished M.Phil Thesis, Univmity of
to improve drinking water facilities with a foresighted vision; roads to be made tit and
I33
w;drainage to be given more importance and the underground drainage covering all parts of
the town to be completed shortly; to increase the numkr of street lights and to improve health
and sanitation facilities. The Municipality should also be provided more income generating plans
like the construction of hotels, guest houses, shops, planting useful trees etc., and also
them properly may be a good idea.
About hundred years back, it is learnt from the old people of Tiruvallur that around the
temple of Viragava Perumal there existed broad road covering all four sides, These roads were
called south Mada Street, North Mada street, East Mada street and West Mada Street. These
streets were very broad and had many choudries constructed by noble hearted people belonging
to various districts and states. Many rich people came from various parts of India visited this
temple and due to pucity of transport facilities they stayed here for few days. They practically
came to understand the difficulties of pilgrims who were staying here for few days. In order to
help the pilgrims they constructed many choudries around the temple. There were more than
fourty Choudries existed near the temple. Unfortunately, all thesc choudries were taken over by
private and influencid people. Those people who managed this choudries put their claim that
they were belonged to themselves because of heir occupation of them for few decades. The
Indian laws are aho in favour of them and so they made them as their own properties through thc
court of law,
However, the Man law forbadc the transfer of immovable properties of Muslim and
Christian minority institutions to the individuals. This law was not applicable to Ilindu ReIigious
Institutions. According to Indian law Hindu Religious Properties may bc transferred lo
Mviduals on certain conditions. It is high time for the government to think over this subject and
change the law to suit the Hindu People and to protect Hindu Religious properties. This law
should bt h g e d because throughout Tamil nadu lhousands of Hindu Religious and charitable
buildings were taken over by private and influential people and there by preventing the common
32. $.
~elrmaugan,h a l j u r MunjC@a(j(~
- A Sru& (From IYX6-2001). unpubl~shcdM. Phil Thesis, University 01
kh,P,#;
134
peopleto get any benefits. The Government should enact a law to protect these public
Pqmties from the influencia1 people.
In Tiruvdlur dl choudries except one or two were occupied and enjoyed by the private
~eople.Pallavaram Tulasinga Mudaliar chouldry and Palaverkadu Venkatasamy Grarnani
chouldry are in dipleted condition and about to be taken over by the private people. It is highly
necessary that at least municipality should look into the matter in a serious way.It is also
advisable that the Municipality should take over a 1 existing choudries, renovate them and give
them for pilgrims in magre rent. This may be another source of revenue to the Tiruvallur
Municipdity.
SOCIETY IN lgTH AND 2oTH CENTURIES
In the beginning of 1% CenW social and religious life of the people mingled together
resulted in socio-religious movements, which are called lndian Renaissance. By this time the
Indian culture stood wm~letelydemoralised against the western culture, Indian people lost
confidence in their own culture and blindly followed western dress, manners, literature and
thought. But fortunately a mmpltte change took place in the lndian mind and it inspired by the
glories of Indian society, religion, literature and fine arts. This new thought wave, the inspiration
and emotion, which it created and its resultant effects have been called the Indian Renaissance.
It affected every sphere of Indian life and brought forth significant changes. It gave new life and
purpose to Indim cultwe. It inspired the Indians to remove the defects in their culture. They
came to understad that the M a n culture is superior to western culture. They tned to revive the
glory of Indim culture, reform Indian society and religion and bring improvement in every field
of life. The impact of modem education, rational, humanitarian and scientific approach to life
and their action and reaction resulted in reform movements in religion, which in turn gave
im@u to social reform movements in the 19th and 20th centuries. Social reform became
integral part of religious reform in India and this was equally true of Brahmo Sarnaj, Prarthana
Samj,Arya Samj, m i s h n a Mission and Theosophical society in Hinduism as also among
the Muslims.
The social reform movement in India has aimed at uprooting social evils and inculcating
in men and women the spirit of sacrifice for the general good of the society. The first and
foremost social evil was sd and another infanticide. Other two great problems are caste system
that mid great attention in the 19th century while the problem of untouchablity came in
sharp foeus in the 20th century because of its polilical oveitones. A p a horn this, the other social
pmblrms arc the condemnation of the child marriage and polygamy and popularisation of
widows' e g e , abolition of Purdah system, to provide provision of educational facilities for
womcn d mnornic openings to make them self - supponing and finally an equal share for
women in the political life of the country by enfranchisement. The people of l'iruvallur
~~dostood
these B O C evils
~
and thmw their might for the removal of these evils from our
136
society. 'Ihey joimd with the people of Tamilnadu and in turn with the people of India and
fought a g a these evils. This mingling with other people of India resulted in the integration of
Indian states into One unit.
Social Reform b the 20th Century: In September 1932, the All India Anti-untouchablity
League was found4 later renamed as Harijan Sevak Sangh. Women crusaded for equal status in
society and organised the First All India women'sconference in 1926. The lower castes founded
All India Depressed classes Association and All India Depressed Classes Federation. Mrs. Annie
Besmt set up the Hindu Association in Madras to eradicate social evils. The Social Reform
Movement lost its exclusive male and upper caste basis and orientation.
Gandhiji attacked Purdah system and appealed to women to come out of the purdah and
participate in the nationalist struggle by picketing and spinning. In the Civil Disobedience
Movement launched by Gandhiji in 1930, women paicipaled and court arrested in large number
to evoke a comment h m a foreign observer that if the Civil Disobedience Movement
accomplished nothing else but the emancipation of women in India, it would have fully justified
itself,
Though m y social evils like drinking, bcgging etc., rcceived [he attention as social evils
of 20th century, the twin problems of improvement of the 101 oC women and depressed classes
received greater attention partly because of the dynamic leadership of Gandhiji and partly due to
the political overtones of the problem of dcpressed classes. In 1928 the Indian National Social
Conference adopted a resolution that "the present Caste-system is a greater obstacle to the
unification of the Hindu Society, and therefore resulves that its abolition should be expedited by
(a) encouraging true interdining (b) promoting inter-caste marriages and (c) removing
untouchablity and all disabilities arising lherc from wherever they exist." Dr. B.R. Ambedkar,
the politidly conscious leader of thc Depressed Classes, was not satisfied with these half
hearted moves d blamed Harijan Scvak Sangh as a wing of the congress with the "real aim of
muring the ~ntouchab1aand to make them the camp followers of the Hindus and the
~ ~ n g r e s sHe
" . advised his fellow untouchables to embrace Buddhism.
137
The Democratic hstitution of India has abolished untouchablity and forbidden its
m
c
e in any form,while reservation of seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes in the
Lok Sabha and Centrd and State Government services are steps in the right direction. Caste
disabilities are fast crumbling under the new democratic set up and economic pressures and the
scheduled castes are inmusingly playing their due role in the national life.
Sati: Sati was the most cruel social malady, caused immeasurable havoc to the 19%eetury
Hindu smiety. The practice of sati resulted in the irrecoverable loss of many valuable human
lives. No part of India was left untouched by this traditional crudeness. The British government
of that period alarmed at this barbaric practice endeavoured to irnplemcnt bold and enlightened
measures to wipe out this evil,
The term Sati literally means a "pure and virtuous woman".This idea degenerated into
self-immolation of women by ending their life by entering into the funeral pyre of their husbands
in order to have perpetual union with their hushands even afier worldly Iife. Self-immolation was
popularly described as Teeppaidal or Teekkulithal in Tamil. Teeppaidal means diving into the
funeral fire and Teehluthal means bathing into the funeral fire
Though Sati was widely prevailed in North India, thc magnitude of this practice in the
South, parhcularly in the Tamil districts was less severe, where nobles practiced it.j9 From the
available recorded evidence, it can be inferred that Sati existed in Tamilnadu from the Sangam
period. Tolkoppiayam also refers to ascetic window-hood, which indicates that the act of Sati
was not compulsory even-though it was venerated4'.
.
31
N. S
".
Tohqyiym,Porulathikamm, Puram Verse 19.
u
w H i s i v ofTamil Nadu uptu 1565 A D.,Madurai 1978, p. 344.
138
ManimeMi m
s a shy in which a lady, Alhirai attempted to end ha life in
heard that he^ huband was drowned in the sea'. Sati was practiced in the
flamcs
Chola period (850-1070AD)when Sundara Chola died in 973 A.D., his wife Vanavan Madevi
ended her life in flamep. In the I fh century when Tirumulai Nayak (1 623-1659AD3,the ruler
of Maduai died in 1658, out of his 200 Wives, a few performed sati4',
During the 19' mhly numerous instances of sati took place in Tamilnadu. Sati stones
are to be seen in various parts of Tamilnadu bearing testimony to the fact that
sati
did exist in
certain quarters in Tamilnadu. The sati stones were also called Teeppaidal Koil (sati temple).
Lord Wellesly (1789-1803), the Governor General, of India appointed a British official Francis
Buckanan to make economic s u m y of Madras Presidency. He mentioned about the existence of
many slti templesu. Though there was no occurrence of sati at Tiruvallur between the years
1819 and 1821, four cases were reported in the subsequent period45.
In 1825, the thee wives of the Raja of Ramnad Muthuramalinga
Parvatha V
Sethupati, namely
W Nachiyar, Poorana Nachi yar and Thangarnai Nachi yar submitted the petition to
the collector that they decided to commit sati. But they were dissuaded by the then collector.
Parish and colone1 Manual Martin with the promise that they would be provided with necessary
food and clothing during (he rest of their lives."
43
. R. S a t h i d e r , Tmil Noh in the 1? Cenluv, Madras University, 1956, p. 1 8 1.
u. F-H
B~c-, Ajowmqfim Madras ihrough [he Cvunlrra of Myswe, Canara and Malabar, Vol. 11,
London, 1807, pa330.
45
. Judicial Consuhations, Vol, 155-b,Cons. Dated, 6 Ap~rl1821, pp. 844-45.
Sati was prevailed throughout Tamilndu and it was followed by
Brahmins and royal families. It appeals that
VOI-
sat! internally was
cummm PWP'',
not a compulsory act but a
one; tven-tbough cues of compulsions were not unknown.
In the be-g
the British did not think in terms of abolishing sati for fear of
opposition from the orthodox sections. According to the Cornwallis regulation of 1 793, the East
India Company was obliged guarantee religious freedom to the people of India. But when this
incidence reached high proportions, the government was forced to adopt measure to root it out.47
Whm Lord Wellesley k a m e the governor-gened, he made sati a culpable act. His Regulation
VII of 1802 stipulated that "if any person or persons shall hereafter form themselves into an
assembly for the purpose of aiding, assisting or witnessing anugamanum (sati) they shall bc
considered as acwmplishes in the murder and death with a c c ~ r d i n ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~
In 1813, during the Governor-Generalship of Lord Hastings (1812-1823 A.D.) Circular
Orders were issued to the judicial officials directing them to enlighten the public about the
gravity of the crime.49 C.M.Luhington, the acting Magistrate was informed by the government
to dissuade widows h m performing sati. In 18 19, he reported that he looked upon this practice
as a disgrace to the British Government in India as it affected the lifc and well being of the native
Hindu families, as it was also not sanctioned by the Hindu ~ a w "
When William Bentinck became the Governor General, he joined with Raja Ram Mohan
Roy and hied to enlighten the public against this horror:' Fortified by public opinion, Bcntinck
moved the Bill and on December 4, 1829, it was enacted into law as act XVlI of 1829.
47
.
48
.
19
,
'O.
$1
Derraetrius C. 8oulger (Rulers of India Series), W~lliarnBentick Oxford. 1897, p. 8 1 .
Cited in Judicial Consultations, Vol. 226, Cons. Dated. 2 February 1930, pp. 391-92,
Cit~dinJudicidC~nsulhti~ns,Vol.
155-b,ConshDated6April 1821, pp.853-54.
Judicial Consul$tions, Vol. 226, Cons. Dated ? February 1830, p. 387.
. Mimes by liwd William Bcntinck dated, 8 November 1829.
It declared, 'The practice of Suttee or burning or burying dive the widows of Hindus, is
140
hereby d c c l d illegal and punishable by the criminal courts."52
Though sati was abolished in Madras presidency in 1830, stray cases of sati had been
reported b e c w the high caN Hindus were indifferent to this legislation. It could not be said
that the legislation on sati had in full measure the support of the people. Yet, this was a milestone
in the history of Social Refom,not only in Tamilnadu but also throughout India. After this all
widows began to lead a humane and respectable life. The Governor-generals like Cornwallis,
Minto and Hastings had taken some steps to restrict the practice of sati of pregnant women or
widows below the age of 16 and above all, making compulsory h e prcsence of police officials nt
the time of sacrifice who were to see that no compulsion was uscd. However thesc restrictions
proved inadequate and unsuccessful.
Infanticide: Another horrible and cruel rite was killing the female child by her mother at the
time of birth by giving poisonous drugs because people considered female child was a liability
for their family. l%e Bengal regulations XXI of 1795 and I11 of 1804 declared infanticide illegal
and equivalent to committing a murder. Other Indian states were compelled to pass laws for this
effect. The Government of India passed an act in 1870 making it compulsory for parents to
register the birth of all babies and providing for vcrification of female children for some years
after birth, particularly in areas where this custom was restored in utmost privacy.
Child Marriage: Cbild-marriage and widow re-marriage were the two social evils, which
captured the attention of progressive-minded people, in India in thc nineteenth century. Thosc
child-wives who lost their husbands, remained widows till death. The stalulory abolition of Sati
in Tarnilnadu in 1830 added to the problcrn of the widows, particulaly the Brahmin widows
which encouraged the social reformers to launch the Widow Re-Marriage Movement in India in
the 1850's. The problem of child-widows is linkcd, to a larger extent, with the problems of child-
".
PaperralatingtoW India Affairs, Regulat~onXVII, p. 45.
h a g e as most ofthe child-widows were L e victims of the child-marriages took place very
141
often between Young female child and old man or between young male and female children.
In the ancient days, it was very common for young children to k betrothed or married at
a very early age, There were instances of betrothals performed even as soon as the baby
was born, Promises were given and accepted regarding the fiture partner for the baby. Marriages
were performed even before the girl or the boy understood what they all meant. One of
the consequences of such marriages was early widow-hood, due to the sudden demise of
the 'by-husband'. In the nineteenth century, there werc many child-widows in Tamilnadu as
they were in other states.
III the Madras Presidency, child-marriage was common among the Brahmins, he
Kshatriyas and the Chettis, The Brahmins had their children married between the ages of six
and wen which also, to a certain extent, accounted for the increase in the percentage of
widows". In 1881, the total number of Hindu girls married in the Madras Presidency was
1,57, 466 and the number of widows in the same year was 5621.'~ Similarly, an estimated
number of 434 girls who were below 10 years of agc got married, out of whom 16 became
widows.55
The Census of 1891 for the Madras Presidency showed that the total number of married
girls between one md nine years was 1,66, 544 as against 1,57, 466 of thc Census of 1881 and
that those d o became widows between one and four yeas were 988 and that those betwccn four
and nine years wen 4147 making a total of 5135.''
.Papas on Indian Reform -The Women of India, (n.p.) dated 4 June 1889, p.56.
53
%. Rcprl
of the Fifteenth National Social Conference hcld in Rengl, dated 29 Dec. 1901, (Poona,1903), Apend~x
H,p. 94.
Lewis ~c IW,
Imperial Cenells of 18814pcra1ions and Results in the Presidcncy of Madras Vol. 1, The
R e p t - M h , (MW,1883), p. 69.
55,
.Report o f h m~#na
NationalSocial Conference held in Bengal, dated 29 Duc, 1901, (Poona, 1903),p. 947,
16
Civil Condition
Male
Female
Unmarried
Married
75,19,174
78,50,922
Widowed
6,04,791
34,88,851
The ordeals of widows were miserable, As Dubois says, she
was required lo cuntinue
in a state of mourning till the end. She was expected to undergo tonsuring evcry month and
she was not allowed to chew betel She was not allowed to wear jewels except one around
her neck. She was required to dress in white and let her forehead remain without kurnkurn.
A saivite widow was allowed to smear her forehead with sacred ash only. She did not have
the privilege of participating in functions like marriage or ~ ~ a n a ~ a n a mfor
" , her very prcsencc
was considered an evil omenSB.
In 1896 as reported by The Hindu, on the basis of the Census, out of six million young
boys in the Madras Presidency as many as 10.000 were marricd bcfore they reached the age of
14 and nearly 8,600of them married before they had rcached the age of four.59Out of six million
girls in the Madras Presidency, as many as 6,27,000 got married before thcy rcached the age of
14 and out of 2.65 million as many
24,000 wcrc niarried before they reached the age of four.
'Our boys', The Hindu added, 'become fathers at thc age of 18 and girls become mothers at the
age of 14 and many died in the prime of lift. This deplorable statc of things is the legacy of ages
. Upyanam means areligious ceremony of the orlhodox Hindus wherein the sacred thread was put on the
m
a ofa boy at the age of 9 or 10 to indicate that he had reached a certain status.
57
II
1. A. Duhiq H
39
The Hhh,dated 1 June, 1 896.
.
.
M
manner^, Customs and I'urumonret, Vol.11, (Tr.)by K. Beauchamp (Oxford, 1897), p 336.
and centuries.'" The Elevmih National Social Conference held at Amraoti (December 1897)
143
reported that in the Madras Residency, out of five women, one was a widow and this high
was due to infant-marriage.''
-be
Widow R b m a w e : Widow re-&age
where a woman could
wuld never be thought of in a country like India
only once. According to Hindu customs,a marriage is indissoluble
even after the death of one's husband, The Tamils prescribed monogamy as an essential
condition to p m m e the ~Mtyof women, Severe restrictions were placed on widows
who had lost their husbands lest should they go wrong, the most serious being the denial of the
freedomof re-marry .
The Act XVII of 1829 abolishd the practice of Sati. But the widows who escaped death
on the funeral pyre of their deceased husbands, had to remain victims of blind social customs,
which did not allow them to get re-married. They were lodged in a dark cabin in the house.
Above all, they
had no legal right for their deceased husband's property. The Widow Re-
marriage Movement emerged as a remedial reaction in the nineteenth century and became a
social reform measure.' In short, the Hindu widow symbalised the appalling degradation or
Indian w0rnen.6~
Widow re-marriage associations were established to spread this movement. In 1873
a Widow &-Marriage Society was founded at Nagercoil by Sesha Iyengar for promoting widow
remarriage. He set a precedent by giving his widowed daughter re-married. These devclopmcnls
encouraged reformers l i e P. Chentsal Kao. Kama Iyengar, Muthusmy lyer and Ranganaha
Sastri who fomdd the Madras Hindu Widow Marriage Association in 1874 to promote widow
.
60
Ibid.
. R&pmof the EleventhN~ionalSocial Conference held in Amraot i, dated, 30 December, 1897 (Poona, 1898),
Appendix I, p. 107.
62
. W i Day means it is the eleventh day after thc Newmoon or the Fullmoon.
61
6J
. LtonardJohn Greenfield Kanhhri V~rtlsulingam,1848-1919 - A Biography of an Indian Social Rcformer
(19711, p. 163.
rc.dw.
P. Chentsal b became its secretary. h drawback w that its leaders being
orthodox me%
144
not completely devoted to their cause. Though they were opposcd M child-
Mniagcs, hey wuld Mt but allow child-mmiages to be celebrated. They even reprimanded
those who failed to perform child marriages owing to the lukewarm attitude and the half-hearted
efforts of these orthodox reformers much could not be achieved.
The Hindu Women's Re-Marriage Association was started in 1882 and its aim was to
advocate widow marriages on the ground that such marriages were not prohibited in the Hindu
lawM.Raghunatha b,
the f o d m of the Hindu Women's Re-Marriage Association, believed
that women were deprived of their civil rights mentioned in the sastras and were forced into
child-marriage and enforced-widowhood.65 He also held that the success of the Widow Rc-
Marriage Movement depended on preaching to the people that child-marriage and enforcedwidowhood were not only pernicious but was opposed lo the sas~as." He preferred the term
''revival" to reform and held the refom should be effected on the basis of the sastras.
The Hindu Women's Re-Marriage Association promised not only to encourage widow
re-marriages but dso to offer monetary incentives to the couples, their supporters and
syrnpathisers. It submitted a petition to the Government of lndia requesting it to invalidate
section 2 of the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856 which disallowed the right of a widow to gel her
husband's proply. It also pointed out that this particular clause had encouraged many a parent
to confine their widowed-daughters within the four walls of heir house in a perpetual state of
widowhood.
The Hindu Women's Re-Marriage Association sent invitations to leaders in the rural
ateas for a conference to chalk out a plan to promote widow re-marriages. On December 31,
M. Tht Asylum Press Almanac and Compendium of lnlelligencc for
1887, (Madras), p. 1085.
65
. N. S u b Rao Pantulu Garu (ed.), Hrndu S o c d Progerss, (Madras, 1904), pp. 66-68.
W
.
hid, p. 69.
145
1884 the Conference was held in Madras, but admission was restricted to graduates only.
Ragh~thaRae, P.Chentsal Rae and Vksa1inga.m Pantulu were invited ss guests. They passed
three resolutions to the effect that (i) every graduate should actively work for women's
ducation, (ii) he should discourage child-marriage and (iii) he should work for widow re&ages. The third resolution could be voted only after a prolonged deliberation. The next
meeting was dso held in M
h in December 1885 for which non-graduates were also invited.
The fust widow re-marriage under the auspices of the Hindu Women's Re-marriage
Association was celebrated at Mylapore on June 7, 1883 Andhru bhashanjivani, a Telugu
newspaper remarked that 'under the protection of the English Government, Hindu widows have
the opportunity of freeing themselves from the despotism of religious custom' Raghunatha Rao
presided over the fimction. Viresalingam Pantulu performed the widow remarriage. One hundred
g u m attended the function. Regarding this marriage Viresalingam Pantulu wrote in his paper
Viyekavudhani that the 'castle of bigotry (Madras) had been taken by surprise, at the banner of
progress is unfurled in the metropolis'
In 1889, G.Subramania Iyer (1855-1916) founder- member of The Hindu, celebrated the
re-marriage of his daughter, Sivapriyammaf, widowed at the age of twelve. He gave his daughtcr
to V.S.V.Ramammi of Bombay and celebrated this remarriage on December 31, 1889." Thc
marriage took place on a Tuesday evening around 5 p.m., considered inauspicious by thc
orthodox Hindus.This marriage coincided with the Bombay session of the Indian National
Congress and was celebrated at the house of Madhavadass Raghunathadass, a great social
reformer of Western India. G, Subramania Iyer and his family members faced severe opposition
horn the orthdox Hius, However his action of his daughter's maniage gave a boost to the
social reform movement in the South India. Never before in the Madras Presidency had a man of
his standing m e d from the path of social conformism".
. Indian b i a l Reformer, dated 10 Feb., 1894; The Hindu, dated 13 Dec., 1699.
61
In 1894 a widow re-marriage was celebrated at Madras. The bride was eleven years
old B*
146
hailed from Kumbakonam. The marriage was celebrated in Septernber 1894.68
N,G. Chandavflh, a judge of the Bombay High Court and social reformer, wrote a letter to
K. Subba Rm,another social reformer, expressing his happiness. The letter read thus: 'I am
much obliged to YOU for informing me of the widow marriage that is to come off at Madms on
the 18* instant (Septcmk 18,1894). The bride and the bridegroom have my full sympathy...I
m also sending a wedding present for the lady.. .' Between 1893 and 1894, sixteen widow
r e d a g e s took place in Madras, The Indian National Congress was founded in 1885 and its
leaders felt the need for giving importance to social reforms. With this end the leaders like
Dahabhai Nauroji, Budruddin Tyabji and W.C.Banerji stressed the need for discussing social
reforms as part of the congress programme. In the third scssion held at Madras in 1887, it was
finally decided by leaders like Raghunatha Rao, Ranade, Narendranath Sen and Janakinath
Ghose that a separate national association should be founded for social progress in the country.
Thus the Indian National Smial Conference came into being in 1887. Madras had the unique
honour of hosting its first session in December 1887, as T. Madhava Rao was its President,
Ragbunatha Rao its General Secretary and Ranade its Vicc-President, It was decided to hold
annual conference in different parts of the country to discuss matters such as sea-voyages, inter
caste marriages, enforced-widowhood and ill-assorted rn~riages.6~
It was also dccided to hold
provincial conferences to expand the scope of social reform. Thus by founding the Indian
National Social Conference, M,G. Ranade converted thc Social Rcfonn Movement into a
national movement.
It could be seen that the Widow Re-Marriage Movement, which was taken up
enthusiastically by its members in the initial stage, experienced a setback. With the advent of
revivdimfO in Tamil society, the Widow Re-Marriage Movement lost its vigour. Reformers like
S.Subramania Iyer and R Raghunatha Rao joined the Theosophical Society G. Subramania Iyer
alone remained in fie Widow Re-Marriage Movement during the 1890's. As pointed out by
. K.Subha Rao,Revived Memories, (Madras. 1933). p. 266.
. Ibid., pp. 36546.
61
H
. Revidism
70
"Reform along traditional lines"
w
i
e
l
d
,'Brrlhmins in Madras used the Theosophical Society and its doctrines to resist
147
intrusions on their social and religious life.'" The problem of widow remarriage was virtuali y
to
the background, Viresalingarn Pantulu,the Vidyasagar of the south, criticised the
nwsophical Society as 'a powefil fce of his social reform efforts in ~adras.'"
Further, the Widow R e - M a g e Movement failed to make an impact on the grass-root
level, A movement to be effective should be backed by the common people, But in the case of
the Widow Rt-Marriage Movement, it was not supported by the common people. The orthodox
Hindus Med to stand by the Widow Re-MarriageAct of 1856 for the fear of social ostracism.
The reformers, instead of bestowing their attention on the question of rc-marriage of
widows alone, should have concentrated on the prevention of child-marriages, as the condition of
child-marriages sometimes might have prevented the emergence of child-widows. Measures
were still needed to improve the lot of the widows who were in the grip of tradition. However in
the subsequent period, with the growth of education and public awakening. there took place
'a corrtsponding increase in the process of the re-marriage and rehabilitation of widows." Child
marriage also gradually became unpopular especially from the beginning of the twentieth
century.
Abolition of Slavery: Slavery was of two types in Tamilnadu, namely domestic slavery and
agricultural slwery, Domestic slaves were obtained either by kidndpping children or by buying
them in the slave market. Agricultural slavery consisted of two types, namely (1) ~annaial" and
Padial. Generally, domestic slavery was the privilege of the Hindu 7amindars. Domestic slaves
were purcbed whereas agricuftural slaves were employed, 'I'he l'amil term for slave is Adimai
which name w used frequently by the people. B.S.Baliga points out that the practice of
n
. hid,,pa255.
n . I d ofWm Hisw,Vol. IV Part Ill, (l'rivandrum 19761, p. 723.
74
.
Pannaimans land, al means a labourer. Thus, Pa~~naial
meant a pcrmdnent labourer anachcd to land Similnrly,
Padi moaas a fixeddaily allowance of food a1 mean a labuurer.
kibpping children was associated with slave trade and domestic slavery7' which existed in
148
a larger measure in 'hmflnadu. Children were kidnapped and sold as slaves without the
bowledge of their P
b . A.D.Campbel1, the
Superintendent of Police in Madras, restored
s e v d c h i l h to their parents." B-Natarajan points out that the customs duties wcre lower in
the Madm pmt and SO slave trade flourished in the Tamil districts." Further, domestic slavery
was a recognised institution at Madras and sa slaves were licensed and purchased, and sales were
registered at the
hodt try." Mr.Cotton, the Principal Collector and
Magistrate of Tanjore.
reported to the Madras Government in 1825 that children had been kidnapped from his district
and transported overseas where they were employed as plantation workers. He instructed his
officialsthat port clearance certificate should not be issued to ships until thcy were ~earched.'~
Agricultural slaves wm very often sold in different ways. For example they were sold
with land or he of land, by execution of bond, mortgage or contract. The value of slaves was
fixed in terms of money, goods and labour. The p y s e of their sale being normally subsistence,
to meet expenses connected with marriages, ceremonies, festivals, to clear debts, and to pay
capital, interest etc. Similarly there were different types of agricultural slavery such as hereditary
slaves, voluntary slaves, total slaves, partial slaves and bounded slaves with varying rights and
duties in different areas. In 1819, the Revenue Secretary to the Government of Madra~in order to
improve the s~
of ?he slaves, demanded reports from the collectors of Tamil districts relating
to the state of slavery. During the periods of Nawabs (1710-1743) and the Wallajahs (17431801), slavery existed in Tiruvallur while the descendants of slaves were later set free.
15
. B.S.Bdip, Tanjore D i c t Handbook, (Madras 1957))p. 345,
.
76
A.D,Campbell, 'Y)o the State of Slavery in Southern India", in J.C. Morris (ed.), l'hc Journal or Literature and
Science,Vol. I, October 1833 to December 1834, (Madras, 1834), pp.24445.
n. B.N-jan,
"Sbve Trade in Madras", In Madras l'crcentenav CommemorationVolume, (Madras, 1939), p
241.
3
n
. Ibid., p. 250
a
Judicial~ u l ~ o~ no l,145-a,
, Cons. Dated 28 June 1827, p. 1417.
The slaves were sold at the pleasure of the master, independently of the land to which
149
they wen attached- When a pariah was unable to make both ends meet, he offered himself a
slave to his r e l d v ~for a sum of money varying fmm one to ten Bully Chuck. If the slave was
manid, his children were considered the property of the owner and employed in the cultivation
of land. The master granted them the due allowances in gain. Even if the master happened to
sell his hid, he was still in possession of his slaves and could sell them at his will. The master
could hire his slaves to another when he could not provide them with work. But they could be
redled in times of need. However the slavery was fast disappearing in many parts of Tamilnadu
in 20%tq
as they left their masters and joined the army. Only a few of them stayed with
their masters who possessed lands?'
The Collector of ChingIeput wrote to the Board of Revenue that agricultural slavery did
exist in his district h m time immemorial. The slaves were formerly owned by the Vellalas but
subsequently owned by Reddiyars, Kammavars and other Sudra caste Hindus. In Chindeput and
Tiruvallur regions the slaves were not owned by he Brahmins. They were not attached to the
land in this region so that they could be sold or mortgagedaglBut unlike in Madurai, Coimbatore
and Tmjore the children of slaves were not attached to the master,
J. Huti, Acting Collector of North Arcot informed to the Board of Revenue in 1819 that
the system of slavery was practised in five taluks of his district namely I ,l'iruvaIloor, 2.Cawery
Pauk 3,Pooloor 4,Sholingur 5,Wandiwash. Like other districts, they
were employed in
agriculture and attending to cattle. Here Ihc slavery was hereditary. The slaves could be sold or
morigaged. Each slave was sold at 20 pagodas in 1819 in Tinrvallur.
The dawn of the nineteenth century witnessed a series of enactments curbing slavery and
slave trade. Following England,which abolished Slave Trade in 1808, the Government of India
enacted the Slave Trade Felony Act, doing away with slave trade. It dedared that the slave trade
". P,B.R vol,w,d a d 25 ~mh,
1819, pp. 10648-49, P.B.R. Vol. 837, dated 8 November, 1819, Letter
No.33, %33, Collect", P.B.R, Vol, 840,
Records, Madurai District, Vol. 1 166. dated 26 Oct. 1119, pp. 91-93.
datad 25 Nov, 1819, pp. 10660-10664.
150
in the British ~ P ' W
to be a great offence. Similarly, in 1809 another act was passed (Act
No. XI of 1809) Aich declared slave trade to be unlawful. In 1910, the exportation of slaves
was made an
in 1812 dave trade was punished with a fine.83
In 1841, he Gowment of hdia appointed a Law Commission to go into the question of
slavery. This Canmission recommended restricted scale of punishment for slaves. But in
England acid reform leaders like William Wilberforce and others were not satisfied with this
limited package of relief to the slaves, as they wanted full-fledged emancipation. So due to
pressure from the British Parliament, the Government of India passed Act No, V of 1841,
ablishing slavery.
Even after the enactment of the Act V of I841 slaves continued to be exported from the
port at Madras. But the Government was lukewarm until 1860 when it passed the Indian Penal
Code Act, The Sections 370 and 371 of this Code prescribed severe penalties for slave trade.
Section 370 declared that whoever was involved in slave trade was liable for persecution and
imprisonment up to 7 years. Section 371 declared that whoever habitually involved himself in
slave trade was punishable with imprisonment with transportation for 10 years or a fine."
It could be seen that the systems of domestic as well as agricultural slavery persisted in
Tamildu in the nineteenth century, From the available evidences, it could be inferred that no
Hindu reformer took up the cause of slaves and also the abolition of slavery in [he nineteenth
century in Tamilnadu. It was perhaps due to the fear of opposition from the orihodox I-lindus.
The credit for the eradication of slavery goes to the British Government and also to the Christian
". Judicial Despatch to England 182628, Serial No,5 , General No.7465 -General L e k r to England in the Judicial
m e n &dated 28 Jan. 1127, p. 108.
0
.Ibid,, p, 110,
".
A CoUaction of S m s Relating to India in Two Volumes, Vol. 11 (187 1-1899), (Calcutta, 1901), p. 569. The
Acts of the Governor-General in Council ( I 834-1867), Vol. 1(Calcutta, 1W9),p. 339, The
Unrepeaied
U n q m l d Ganeral Am of the Governor-General in Council in Three Volumes, Vol. 1, (1 830-63),(Calcutta, 1873),
(ktion 371 only) p. 480.
15 1
Missionaria. Legislative mames were passed in 1811, 1812, 1829, 1833, 1843 and 1860
but these measures d
d ~lDtput an end to slavery.
G o ~ ~ ~took
I I Iefforts to settle the problem of slaves. Yet the position of the
agricultural slaves did not improve much. They continued to be in the grip of poverty. As the
slaves were at the mercy of the landlords, they could no! think in terms of getting freedom,
though they wete statutorily k d . It must be admitted that in spite of its noble intentions, the
Government was tak'mg hesitant and lukewarm steps to abolish slavery because of its fear of
losing land revenue. The liberation of the agricultural slaves would, it was feared, lead to loss of
labour on land cultivation and hence the Government's reluctance.
Missionaries like William Goudie of Tiruvallur, T.B. Pandian and Collectors like
Tremenheere were taking great efforts to improve the lot of the slaves, particularly the pariahs.
The Christian Missionaries pleaded that the pariahs should be given land to settle in but the
landlords refused. On January 17,1893 The Hindu reported that about 1500 acres of land were to
be granted to the pariahs in Chingleput and ~iruvailur.~'
But the pariahs got [he land from the
Government only after a tussle with the landlords,
T,B,Pandian did commendable service in supporting the cause of the pariahs by opening
schools for pariah children; Christian missionaries for the pariah slaves. They attacked the Hindu
practices such as untouchability, sati, infant-mamage and slavery. It resulted in a large numbcr
of pariahs got them converted into Islam and ~hrislianit~.'~
Thus the Christian missionaries were
responsible for persuading the government to emancipate the slaves. The missionaries wcre
ink&
in converting the slaves by giving them social equality and status. The government
because of its sympathy for the cause of the Christian missionaries could not resist he pressure
exerted by the Christian missionaries in emancipa~ingthe slaves.
I3
. The Hindu, dated 17 January 1193,
. M.N. Srjniw,$dlChmge in Modern Indra, (California, l968), p. 50.
M
Free India's constitution is against the exploitation of labour. Article 23 prohibits all
d
c
152
in h u m beings and other forms of forced labour. It declares thai slavery or use of
women for h m d or other purposes is a punishable offence. It also prohibits the employment
of children below the age of 14 in any factory or mine.*'
In 1975 a Presidential Ordinance declared bonded labour illegal." In spite of these
measures, the blot of slavery persists in one form or the other even today on the Indian society.
Only a change of heart coupled with economic development alone could eradicate this social
evil,
Temple Entry: Temple entry by people belonging to the lower strata of s ~ i e t yfanned an
important phase in Social Reform movement in Tamilnadu. Temples were constructed for the
purpose of worship thereby facilitating social integration and the spiritual development of the
people. But cettain sections in the Hindu society were not allowed to enter the temples to
worsbip Gods and Goddess, The temple entry movement gained momenium especially during
second half of 19' centuty.
In Tamilnadu, the non-Brahmin castes were divided into valunhi or right hand and
idankai or left hand castes. Abbe Dubois, the French Missionary, pointed out that the division
into right hand and left hand factions did more harm than good by being a perpetual source of
disturbance among the people89.It seems highly probable that all the agricultural communities
called tbemselva as right hand group and that all the artisan groups called themselves the lefi
hand group. Apart h m them untouchables also lived, They associated themselves with unclean
professions like he &inning the dead animals, drinking intoxicating drinks and hence they were
called unto&les.
II
w
w
They were prohibited from touching or coming near ihe upper caste Hindus
. R.C. A g d , ComtihrtiondHhtory ofIndia and Ndional Movement, Part 11, (New Dclhi, 197I), p.39.
. The Hindu, dated 10 July, 1984.
manners, ~ ~ ~ ~ and
o tcrremonits,
n s
Vol, 1 Translation by K. Beau Champ, (oxford, 1897), p,
.Abk Dubois,
in order that they did not cause pollution and were not permitted to use freely the public
153
roads and wells.
Though the csstc ~ f l e t l ldid not exist in Vedic times, it came into forefront during
pallava period as Vmnmirona Dhama. Accordingly society was divided into four Varunas or
castes namely Brahmins, -pyas,
Vysyas and Sudras, which was based on their occupation.
The Brahmins occupied highest strata and wielded enormous powers in the society. Since
temples wcre in the hands of these Brahmins, they imposed severe restrictions upon other people
in the society. Being the possession of vast areas of land, temple wielded marked influence on
the society, owning estates, regulating markets and credit, bestowing key positions on favourites.
celebrating festivals and promoting arts and letters and defining social status,
Like the other parts of India, in Tamilnadu, too, the temples were considered the abodes
of brahminical deities. So they remained beyond the reach of the low caste Hindus, though they
belonged to the Hindu society professing the same Hindu customs, believing in the sacred hoks
of the Hindus and worship'ig the same gods.
Among the caste Hindus, the Bhaltars were done permitted to enter the inner shrine or
Garbhagrih of the temples. Those Hindus who did not enjoy the privilege of cntcring the
temple, they could make their offerings to the dcity through the intermediatory class of priests.
They could not themselves perform the ritual of archana to the deity. No wonder, the priestly
class which had the sole prerogative of performing archana considered itself superior.
It is said that sudras and untouchables could worship the dcity from outside gopuram as
they were not allowed to enter inside the temple. It is also said that unclean women and
untouchables were forbidden to enter the prakaras when the deity was in procession and during
the utsava time. They were forbidden to come within 100 cubits (Icubit 18 inches
approximately) from the idol. In case there was any violation on this rule, it was feared that it
might deprive the idol of Its divine powers, cause he death of king, bring ruin to village and
allow no crops grow! H e m , they brought their offerings of fruits and flowers that they
154
made over to a temple priest, standing outside the shrine.
In the bent of midental pollution, the idols were required to undergo consecration and
various ceremonies were performed to make them pure again. These ceremonies were
collectively called as punyoham (ceremonies to purify idols from pollution), In spite of their
massive strength, the low caste Hindus meekly accepted the spiritual and temporal predominant
of the high caste Hindus and stayed them arbitrary laws. They were afraid of questioning thc
long established customs.
The oorig'in of the temple entry movement in Tamilnadu goes back to the 12%cen1ur~
A.D. Periapuranam, the saivite work by Sekkilar, describes the story of Nanadanar, the low castc
devotee of Lord sivanP1Saint Ramanuja is considered as early pioneer of the temple entry
movement in South India as he threw open the doors of the temple at Melkottai in Mysore to the
low caste Hindus. In the modem times due to the spread of education, tireless work of many
social reformers and awakening of the people against the social evils many legislations were
passed in the assembly to eradicate them. In 1" September 1932 P-Subbarayan moved a
resolution, in the Madras Legislative Council recommending that the temples should be thrown
open to Harijans and low caste Hindus. This resolution was passed by a majority votes. In
November 1932 Narayanan Nambiar introduced a bill entitled, 'The removal of depressed
classes religious disabilities bill' aiming to h o w open the temples to low caste Iiindus. In 1937,
C. Rajagopdach, he then chief minister of Tarnilnadu took initiative for rcmple envy of
Harijans and low class Hindus. Accordingly an act was passed known as 'Temple Entry Acl'
which declared that 'no person should suffer any civil or criminal penalty or disadvantage by
reason of anything done in connection with such cntry and worship".P2 In pursmcc of this act
W
. C,E.Ramchaudranand K.V, Rarnan (eds.) Aspecls Nlndra Hfiory and Culture, (New Delhi, 1984), p. 25 1 .
II
. P e r i y a m , Tirunalaipovar, verses 16-37.
92
.Am w d by the M&S Legislature in 1919, Government of Madras, Legal Dept.. Madras Act No XX[I ol
1939,p.2.
all people were allowed to eater and worship inside the temples in Tiruvallur in the manner
155
as high caste Windus.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION IN TIRUVALLUR
In the beginning of 19th century two kinds of educational institutions
existed in
Tamilnadu. h e was elementary school and the other was higher learning schools. The Polu.~aias
and Mobbar were elementary schools and Madrams and Sanskrit schools were colleges for
higher education. Madrasas were supported by healthy Mohammadans and former Muslim rulers
while Sanskrit schools were generally supported by the rich Hindus or by grants of land obtained
from the Rajas. As far as elementary education was concerned PatasaIus gave instructions to the
students in three R's namely reading, writing and arithmetic. There were no printed books and
methods of teaching were stereotype and traditional in nature like oral learning. Maktabs were
attached to mosques and usual1y they were built along with mosque buildings. The term Maktab
derived from Arabic word "Kutub" which means a place were writing is taught. Madrasas were
Arabic schools where gmmm, logic, rhetoric, mohammadan theology, philosophy and
mathemtics were taught. In Sanskrit schools grammar, law, mathematics, rhetoric, hindu law
and astrology were taught.
The Charter Act of 1813 directed the company to spend One Lakh Rupees per year for
the education of Indian. It was William Bentinck who introduced English educational system in
India. The Minutes of Macaulay started the ball rolling and efforts began for the education of
Indians through the medium of English language. Thc Company concentrated only on school and
collage education and neglected primary education. Then came the Educational Despatch of
1854, known as W
s despatch, which marked another important step in the deveIapment of
education in h& The Secretary of State Mr.Wood directed the lndian Government to assume
the responsibility of educating the Indian masses, encouraging private bodies to start schools and
colleges with the government subsidy, appointing school inspectors and Directors of Education
in each province md establishing Univeridcs in presidency towns i.e., Burnhay, Calcutta and
Madras, Lideprogress was, however, made in the field of education prior to 1858. Whatcvcr
was a done in education the larger credit of it goes to the Missionary Societies and Voluntary
156
~ r g m h t i o mof the Indim and cannot be ascribed to the efforts of the Government. This
system neglected the education of the masses more particularly those of females. There remained
lack of scientific, technical and vocational institutions in hdia as the Government paid least
attention to their establishment and growth.
The reason why the Britishers not at all interested in the mass education of Indians was
that the English masters were not interested in educating the Indians for the sake of imparting
knowledge, They showed some interest in it because of some other motives. The one was
cultural imperialism and the other was to get low paid clerks. Yet, another reason was to develop
the taste of English among the Indians with a view to expand their market in India and so on,In a
letter to Court of Directors dated 21 Feb 1784, Warren Haslings referred to the lack of school in
every capital town and city of North India and Deccan. For the promotion of learning the Court
of Dimtots established a college at Calcutta in 1771 and Banaras Smkrit College in 1772. The
English education was introduced in Madras Presidency towards the end of 18th century. The
Act of 1813 opened Ma to the missionaries to set up schools and laid the foundation for the
Modem Educatiorial System. Lord Ripon appointed the Indian Education Commission popularly
hown as Huntex Commission in 1882. This commission suggested many measures to further the
policy envisaged in the Dispatch of 1854. Later on Indian Universities Act of 1904, the Sadler
Commission, the Hartag Commission, Wardha Scheme of Basic Education, Sargeant Plan of
Mwtion, w
s h Commission,
~
UGC , Kothari Education Commission were appointed
by Indian Govement for the development of education
.Muhammadan Education: In 1903-04, there were only two Muhammadans studying in
colleges in ~adras'. Females were not given education at the collegiate and upper secondary
stage?.
W
Two industrial schools gave instruction in technical subjects in ~ondaimandalam~'.
. R.P,I. M9.1903.04.Vol. 1,p. 13.
91
. RP.1. M.P. 19W-05, Vol. I. p. 30.
a
. RP,t MJ. 1905-06, VOI.1, p. 21.
were two high Schools viz. the government Madras-i-Alam and the Harris High
157
School, Royaptah exclusively meant for the ~ o h a m m a d a n sIn, ~ ~19 1 8-19, the Government
~adm-i-Alam was raised to the status of a second gradc calleg~'. A great boost to
Mubarnmadan education was the Imperial great of Rs.50001- for awarding scholarships,
Rs.10,0001-for training schools and Rs.10001- for aided schools for improvement, Two colleges
were established for Mohammedans in 1921.22~'. However, a survey on Muhammadan
Education undertaken in 19N3' revealed the dearth of schools for Muhammadas in many p a of
Tamil ~adu'. For the first time one Muhammadan lady took dcgree course 1923-24 and in 1927
thne were four ladies studies in Arts colleges'00. In 1929 the Hmg committee, whilc stressing
the importance of establishing separate institutions for Muhammadans stating that " the
establishment of 'Separate' and 'Special' educational institutions fur Muhammadan had
undoubtedly brought Muhammadan pupils under instructions more extensively and more
quickly'0'."
As a result of the expansion of Muhammadan education, the expenditure on it was also
increased h m Rs.3,10,196 in 1906-07Io2to 27.36 lakhs in 1936-37'". The percentage of male
and female Muhammadan literates to their total population increased to 19.2 and 1.8 respectively
during the above period. In 1936-37 there were 554 Mohammedans in the various Arts Colleges
and 126 were in professional colleges1". These Facts rcveal that the Muslims who had bccn
--
.
". R.P.1, M.P. 1905-06, Val. I. p. 28,
%.
RP.1. M.P. 190547,Vol. 1. p. 89.
91
. RP.1.M.P. 191920. Vol. 1. p. 12.
.' (2.0,
1938, Law Education, dated, 10.1 1.1925.
lo'.
ID1
The M
g Committee report, 1929, p. 199.
. Madm Adminishtive repott, 190607, p. 90,
bachvard in education for long now made up for their deficiencies of the past in some
respects, even m a n h i abed of other communities105.
158
~dncationof Women: Hindu Society in the 19th century suffered from false religions
illusions that Hindu scriptures did not sanction female education and it wrath the anger of gods
leadiog to their widowhood. But this was negatived by religious and social reformers and they
popularisd women education by establishing number of schools and colleges for women.
Charles wood's disptcb on education of 1854 laid great stress on the need for female education.
In the broad pmptive, women education became a part of the general campaign for
amelioration of the plight of women in society.
In the beginning of 20th centwy the Government of Madras adopted
a
number of
measures such as the ahbiishment of Primary Schools for girls at important centers, sanctioning
of liW grants for female education, strengthening of female staff, increasing the training
schoolslMfor ladies and establishing inspecting agencies fbi supervision. In the primary stage
instruction was given in health and house management and of the secondary stage in music,
domestic science, economy and industrial s~bjecb'~'.The progress of women education to a
greater extent was confined to primary and secondary stages aione in Tamil ~adu"'. In 1 9 12- 13
the Madras Govment sanctioned a sum of R.s.25,0001- to accelcate the progress of female
~ducdon'~.
Further the Government sanctioned the opening of 500 new elementary schools in
centers1lo where more than 2000 population and having no ladies school. During 1930 notable
progress was made in professional education also.
Ibi, pp. 6142.
IM.
lbs
. G.O. Nos. 215-216, Educsltion, dated 6.4.1W,p. 28.
I D1
R.P.I. M.?.,1911-12,Val.1,p. 51.
I".
R.P.I. M.P. 190647, Vol, 1, p. 81.
,
lop
. G.O.No,236,Education, dated 25,2.1914, Madras, P.9.
"'.R.P.I.M.P. 192-28,Vol. I,p. 182a
During the S ~ n World
d
War period political problems alone received much
159
mtion.Another imp-t
development in the post independence period was the appointment
of the University Educafion Commission under the chairmanship of Radhakrishnan. It
recommended the Wter help to meet the increasing demand for every type of higher education
namely literary, scientific,technical and professional."' The development of women education
dining five yem plans is ~01thmentioning. Women's education at all stages found impomnt
place in the Third Five Year Plan.
Edncationd Poliw of Tamilnadu Government: In the early 50's,
C. Rajaji, the then Chief
Minister of Tamil Nadu reduced the school working hours to 3 per day thereby enabling the
pupils to engage themselves in any wcupation either with their parents or with a craftsman,
outside the s~h001h~ur~"'.Pniar E.V.Ramaswamy vehemently criticised that it would
perpetuate caste system and he called this scheme as Kuiakkalvi
hilta am"'. In May 1954 the
modified scheme of Rajaji was discontinued1". Under the chiefministership of K. Kamaraj the
Government followed a policy of expansion of primary education and the free education scheme
for dl gave a fillip to the growth of secondary education particularly in rural areas.
The Government's policy on education since 1960 was based on the "three language
formula.' Under this policy the pupil was expected to learn 3 languages namely mother tongue or
regional language, Hindi, and ~n~lish"'.Besides a drive towards mass and compulsory
education, the Government followed a policy of extending free education up to the secondary
stage to all irrespective of caste h m 1.4.1944 and it was furthcr extended up to pre-university
level.
111
. RadhaKrishnanCommission Report, 1948, p. 33.
- RPJ. M.P. 1953-54, p. 4.
111
. Ihrdpvc Robert L. The Dravidian Movemen/, (Bombay, 19651, p. 43.
113
114
. hopas Education in the Madras State, Govt Press, Madras 1954, p .32.
113
+
Ibid., p, 17.
To improve the anditions of schwls particularly in the remote villages in nual area,
160
the p h t project for ~ m h t i o Scheme
n
was introduced. Out of the munificent contributions
made by the p p l e in the form of money,materials and clothing to children, supply of furniture,
books, and writing materials to the poor children and this scheme was first started
at
Kadambm village near ~iruvallur."' When it met with success, it was tried at Tiruvallur
during 1957-58."' Tb~heexpenditure on these two schemes undertaken came to Rs.40,0001-of
which 26,0001- came from the public on the spot itself,1i8 Soon this scheme was tried
successfully in different parts of Tamilnadu, While appreciating the successfui implementation
of this scheme in March 1966, Smt.lndira Gandhi, the late Prime Minister of India said, "In
Madras,people have bonded together to improve their schools. They have given &.I 00 million
beyond what the government spends on their schools."' l9
Educational In~titntionsin Tiruvallur: There are hree elementary schools, four middle
schools and one higher secondary school controlled by the Government. Two private schools
namely D.R.B,C.C.C.
Hindu higher secondary school and Goudie higher secondary school are
popular schools of this town
D.RB,C,C.C Hindu Higher Secondary School: Some noble hearted gentlemen of
Tiruvallur town joined together and decided to start a Hindu institution, With the blessings of
saint P o n ~ g a n n hamy
i
they started '4TiruvaliwNative High ~ c h o o l in
" ~the
~ ~second day of
March 1887. G. Rawhandam Iyer served as its managcr and conducted the school in spite of
its financial difficulties.
"* . G.O.No.637, Education,dated 28.3.1959.
117
. RP.1.M.S. 1957-58,p.11.
I?
119
+
110
a
Ibi&,p. 12.
The EducetionQuarterly, Vol. XXl5 dated 1 April 1970, p. 28.
Calcndtr, D.R.B.C,C.C.Hindu Higher Sec School, Thiruvallur, 1986-87, p. 10.
During the
161
Y a , two charitable minded ladies, Srimthi Andal Ammal and
~~imathi
Lubhmi Amrnal rendered substancia1 aid to this institution"'. Later on, the Raja of
Tirur gave a generous contribution of Rs,30001-per year, with which the school was run for
m
e more years. P. fi&agmaya Chotfimalso extended his patronage to this institution from
heyear1909 to 1912~'.
In spite of XIMY ups and downs in the earlier stages, fortune smiled on this institution
when Rao Bagadur Calavala C m a n Chela Guru took control of this institution on the 21
June 1917". It was his ardent desire to raise this institution into a full-blown High School and
impart education on indigenous and vocational lines. But his sudden and premature demise in
1920 was a severe shock and thus the noble plans were frustrated and the institution continued as
Lower Secondary School till 1948. However the school celebrated its Golden Jubilee on the 17'
April 1937 on a very grand scale under the president ship of Alladi Krishnaswamy lyer, advocate
general, ~ a d r a s ' ~ ~ .
The long cherished hope of late Dharmamurthi Rao Ragadur Calavaia Cunnan Chelty
Garu to upgrade the school came true in the year 1949-50 when Fourth Form was opened. Based
on the services rendered by the school to the public, the educational department accorded
permission to open VI standard in the year 1951-52. C. Eihiraj, took charge
as
Honorary
Correspondent in 1954 and from then on the school has been showing marked progress in all
spheres of activities. In the year 1956-57 a block of four classrooms was constructed at the cost
of about Rs.25000 with the generous contribution of Rs. 10000 from the government. Under the
local development scheme Laboratory, equipment, maps, charts for improvement of teaching of
core subjects were purchased in1958 at a cost of about Rs.15000,
"'. Ibid,, 1990-91, p. 10.
"'.Ibid,,
In.
124
Ibid.,
, D.S u b r m y a hjq D h m a m ~ h Roo
i Bohadur Chlavala Cunnim Chwv .-A Stvdv, an unpublished M. Phil.,
thesis, University of M h ,March 1982, p. 27.
162
In the year 1960-61 the construction work of a block of 9 class rooms at an estimated
cost of about
Rs.90000 with the Govrmment building grant of Rs.35000 was taken up and
completed and the build'@ was decked open on 17' March 1966 by the Chief Minister M
~&havatckalam. In the Year 1961 a sum of Rs.1 1 144-55 was paid to the Government for
acquiring the p d s e s Nos.1 md 2 Mothilal Street, Trivellore for providing additional
~ o m o d a t i o nand a d d possession of the building was taken on 8-1-1963. Enhanced
compensation of k.1351153was also paid on 13-8-1965 by the management for the above
premises,
During he year 196162 Engineering and Secretarial courses were introduced as
diversified corns. Engineering block at a cost of about Rs.45000 was taken up and was
declared open by T.V. Titus, the then Director of Secandary Education an 2" April I 969. For the
improvement of libraries Government sanctioned Rs.5000 in the year 196 1-62 under the library
improvement scheme. The Pmanent Recognition was gmted to the school by the Education
Department in the year 196243,TheDirectorate of School Education was pleased to select this
school in its first list of 200 high schools to be upgraded into Higher Secondary institutions,
For academic improvement,better classroom facilitics, furniture and new building were
charted out. A new building was constructed on the first floor at an estimated cost of Rs,3.91akhsa
Vocational course was introduced utilizing equipment supplied by Government at a cost of
Rs,75,0001-.The mmagement spent Rs.10,0001-on strengthening the workshop building.
Physics Laboratory was constructed at Rs.70,l 451-a
The Centenary Celebration of the school was held on 18.1.1993 under the president ship
of A. Venkaraman, former President of India. T.T.K. Ymu,the Revenue Divisional Oficer,
The District Educational Officer, The Deputy Superintendent of Police and some of the old
students graced the occasion by their presence. The construction of Centenay Floor with 8 class
rooms at a cost of Rs.11242611- and the same was declared open by! I Yaraprusada Rao, I.A.S.,
District Collector of Chengai-MGR District on 31.3.1994.
163
Pupils and staff suffered due to scarcity of drinking water and
Honorary
~omspo~kfit
made hmediate mgements to dig a bore-well at the cost of Rs.363881- and
thw helped the students and staff Due to his efforts furniture to the tune of Rs.1060001- was
for the new cl~ssr~oms.
The building bearing No. 5, Motilai Street, was purchased at
the cost of Rs.4000001- and the document was registered on 17.8.1994. The old building was
demolished and new classrooms were constructed for the benefit of the students at the cost of 52
&lh.
A pacca boundary wall was constructed on all sides of the school playground situaled at
Kahlur near Tiruvdlur.
Life history of Dbarmamnrthi Rao Bahadur Calavala Cunnan Chetty: Telugu
speaking Arya Vysp Community is an elite social group who helped the poor and nearly people
and have contributed much to the welfare of the society. They an intelligent and hard working
people, and naturally became successful businessman. The great philanthropist Rao Bahadur
Calavala Cunnan Chetty had born in that social group and amazed huge wealth through business.
He spent this money for philanthropic activities."'
According to an unpublished record"%he was horn on 29.05.1 868. His father was Sri
Chellam Chetty, a prominent businessman and a senior partner in Messrs. King and Company in
Madras, Rao W
u
r Calavala Cunnafi Chetty had studied first in Pachaiyappa's High school
and then in the Pahaiyap's college and Christian College in Madras. After the completion of
his education he had taken up the business of his father along with his brother Calavala
Rammujam Chetty. They carried business in high quality timbers and costly spirits likc the
Scottish Whisky made in G r d Britain. As necessary aspect of their business both the brothers
lE
.An nonymw~pdliWRecord, D.R.B.C.C.Charitits office. 166. Govindappa Naickan Street, Madras, p.1
la.
lbid., p.1.
had developed useful and intimate contacts with many western campanies. "'T'heir honesty
1 64
ad hard work had bmught them a Wt fortune and they came to be called as 'Timber Kings'
~~erchant
Usually the two brothers sat near the entrance of the firms office situated in the First Line
Beach, Mdras, and invited the customers with smiling face for business and also supervised th e
workers and &. Calavah Cunnan Chetty, who lived a simple life quite unostentatious and
generally modest, also was ~arefulin maintaining a good health. As a means to attain that, he
used to play Tennis regdariy in the mornings, in the Madras United Club (M.U.C,) in which he
was a r n e m b ~ He
? ~lived
~ mostly in the "Kingston House" on the Poonamallee High Road in
Kilpauk where the present Seetha Kingston House School functions. Apart from this he had a
house in Govindappa Naicken House in Madras, where the office of the trustees is now
He was a truly philanthropic and deeply religious. He wore his religious mark
Thengalainamurn in his forehead everday after taking bath.'ll After business work he used to
listen religious discourses whenever they conducted in any part of Madras city . He also
participated regularly in v a i h v i t e temple festivals with much religious fervow and devotion.
His Philanthropic Activities: He was one of the greatest philanthropist of India, who helped
the poor and needy imspective of any distinction of age, sex, creed, caste or religion. He had
spent all his wealth to wipe off the tears of the poor, by giving food, dress, shelter and education
to them. Therefore, the people of Triplicane, who had observed his Philanthropic activites, called
'",
Ibid., p.2.
". Calavala Brothers and their benefectious - An anonymous unpublished anicle, D.K.B.C.C. chartice office,
Madras, p.3.
sd-
M.K., "The Generow Founder" Micle Published in the D,R.B.C.C. Hindu College
M W ,1969-71, Vol, I., p.17,
I".
131
. Ibid, p,3,
165
him with love and ~ p cas~"Dharmamurthi"
t
meaning "Lord of
The British
~ o v e ~ n inm mt ~ f l t i o nof his yeoman services that he had rented to the nation, honoured him
withthe title of "Rao ~hadur"'~~
His ~ n a library
l in the Govindappa Naicken street Madras, reveals the trulh that he
had a thirst for knowledge and love for the Indian Culture. His l i b r q is filled with valuable
works on religion, Philosophy and Hindu ethics. It is evident from this that he had an adequate
bowledge in the subjects, and no wonder that he was running a school for Sanskrit in
Triplicane, ~adras.'~'Many Day School and Night School in Tiruvallur, Mambalam,
Neehangdam, Chiddripet, George Town (Madras), Purasaiwakkam, Permbur and
P o o d l e e have been benefited by his charities. The management of the Dharamurthi
charitie's having fully understood this aim of the philantheropjst, had established two more
ducation institutions, namely, Seetha Kingston lIousc School and Dhammurthi Rao Bahadur
Cahvala Cunnan Chetty's Hindu College at Pattabirarn, Madras.
Rao Bahadur Calavala Cunnan Chetty established many poor feeding
centers in and
around madras and distributed milk to children and food to poor people. He constructed the
chouldry near Egmore Railway Station, for the benefits Pilgrims and Patients. Apart from this he
maintained chouidries in Srirangam and Kaladipettai in Madras and many Ayurvedic Medical
Hospitals,
He had established a board of trustees
to carry out his philanthropic activities
permanently. He died on 05.08.1920 and his funeral was attended by large number of people. A
memorial meeting was held in the Pachiyappa's Hall which was atknded great leaders like
h i e Bewt,C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, Though he is no more, his philanthropic activities are still
contin*
ad helping innumerable poor and needy people through the Charities established by
him.
131
. The m
y
m
o
u
sunpublished record, Op. Cit. p.2.
133
.Calavala Brothers and their benefactious, op, cit., p.6.
134
.lbid, p,19.
GOUDIE BIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL
Alexander
166
a member of the missionary of the Generd Assembly of the Church of
Scotland came to India in 1830 and Protestant Missionary started a new era in the field of
education in I d a . The Scotish Mission showed more interest in spreading education among the
bigh caste Ihdus and ldies. JohnAnderson was responsible for the Church of Scotland to start
educational institutions in and around Madras, In June 1835 Rev. Messrs Bowie and Lawrie
established St. Andrew's school at Madras. The Church of Scotland Mission started schools in
English at Kancheepuram in 1839, at Chengleput and Nellore in 1840, WaIlajabud in 1856,
Raympef in 1867, hihiyalpet in 1868 for boys. Girls' schools were slarted at Thvdlur in
1858, hncheepuram and Chengleput in 1845. Fces of Ihe pupils differed from 2 m a s to 6 or X
annas per mensum. Free ducation was provided to ladies. Thiruvallur School was the last to be
established with six classes and prepared them for Matriculation exams. The opening of the
railway line through Tiruvallur increased the importance of these educational institutions.
Scotland Mission founded this school in 1857. It gave religious and moral instructions to
students and also converted common people to Christianity. In 1891, this school was handed
over to the Methodist Missionary Society. They cared more for the education, rpcdical and
hl !Ilt** G o d \
religious development. In 1891, a permanent recognition was granted 10 this school. B+was
/r
mainly instrumental for the construction of prescnt building with a tower clock attached to it.
j
1
With his guidance this school developed very fast and many ncw buildings were attached to it.
7After getting Independence, the Government of India did not like the schools run in the name of
foreign missionaries. So the names of all foreign missionaries were abolished and they came
under a single name i.e. Church of South India. From that onwards, the name of this school was
also changed as C,S.I, High School. Because of his tireless work of spreading the education
among poor people, the management committee changed the name of this school as Goudie High
School as a mark of respect and gratitude to him.
Goudie High School was founded by the Free Church of Scotland Mission in 1 ~ 5 7 . In
~~'
the beginning, the Free Church of Scotland Mission was started this school in a simple manner in
13'.
R C P~
~ fH b m
,School Magazine, p. I.,C.S.I. Goudie High School, 'I'iruvallur, 1975-58.
order to ~ n v thde non Christhs to Christianity. In 1891, it was handed over to the
167
Mahodid Missionary S ~ i e t y ,due to difference of opinions arose in the midst of the
missionaries.
cared IUIRfor the education, medical and religious deve10~ment.l~~
Late Rev. Willism h d i e was mainly instrumental for the construction of the present
building with a tower clock attached to, in the year 1891."' Then in 1891 permanen1
recognisstion was granted for this school.'" The School name was changed from Wesleyan
Mission High School to Methodist Mission High School. It was a co-education institution from
the beginning. After independence Indian Government was not liked the School run in the name
of foreign mission names. SO that all missions names were abolished and it came under the
C.S.I. It was divided as Church of South India in Southern side and Church of North India in
Northern side. C,S.I. was established in South lndia in he year 1947. From that date onwards this
school name was also changed and it was called as the C.S.I. High School.
In he year 1950, three large thatched sheds accommodated eight classes were re-modeled
into safer and stronger sheds. In addition the management committee of the school gave Rs.
25,000, Rev. T.R foulger and Rev. P.G. Chmhron have taken more interest. These sheds had
eight sections of about 50 pupils.'39 The name of the schooi was changcd from 1954. Then
onwards it was called as the Goudie High ~chool."~
The present building was constructed under
his (Goudie) supervision in that time, so the management committee christened it as the Goudie
High School as a mark of respected and gratitude to Goudie.
1%
Interview with the former HeadmM, Mr.I. Jcyaraj, (1976-76 ImJuly),C.S.I. Goudic Higher Secondary
Schwl, Tirwdur,on 13.10,2001,
a
Annul
lJ7.
ofthe Headmaster, School Swvniet, p. 33., C.S.1. Goudie High School, Tiruvallur, 1965.
. Annual Repwt of the Headmaster, Op.Cit.
13'
140
, Annul Report oftfie Headmaser, pp. 1 ., C.S.I.Goudie High School, Tiruvallur,
1968.
168
Three 0 t h chsmoms were added to the building. The foundation stone of the new
block was laid by Rev. J.B. Bins on 26.05.1965. This foundation function was presided by the
ono our able JusticeN. Natesan, B.A., B,L.,'~' Miss. Chandrakantha Cine Artist who Presided
over the drama conducted in the aid of building fund for Rs. 3,0001- during the same year.'42
hother three thatched sheds class rooms was s t ~ e for
d the additional accommodation
at the cost of Rs.30,OOW- and public of Tiruvallur were generously donated about Rs. 8,000.'~'
These were built under the president ship of Ret. Rev. Dr. Lesslinew Bigin. (Bishop of Madras),
new class moms was opened by sir N. Natarajan, I,A.S., Collector of Chcngalpattu in
19,10.1966~''
Thus the school building gradually was expended and took full shape now,The school
bore the name of Goudie High School till 1978 and then become Goudie Higher Secondary
School when Higher Secondary System of education was introduced in 1979. During the period
1975.1978 the school had classes from I form to VI form with an approximated strength of 1000
students. Tamil, English, Maths, Science, History and Geography were he subjects taught for
upto V fom students and VI form students studied the same subjects with an optional subject as
Elective,
During the year 1978 the S.S.L.C. system of education was introduced. In the year 1979
the State Board of education m i d the standard on par with other states. It decided to introduce
Higher Secondary education in the year 1979. Chinna Ikkadu at Tiruvallur l'aluk is onc
kilometer fiom the school. The C.S.I., has sanctioned a special grant of Rs. 80,0001- for roof
repairing of the hostel in April 1986. It maintains clean records of the admission Register,
Attendance Register, Academic Progress Register. Postal Register for incoming and out going
141
.Annual Report of the Headmaster, p.l., C.S,I. Goudic Iligh School, Tiruvallur, 1966.
.Annual Report of the Headmaster, School Souvenier, p.34., C.S.I. (ioudic High School, Tiruvallur, 1965.
142
143
. Annual Report ofthe Headmaster, P.I.,C.S.I. Goudie Higher Secnndary School, Tiruvallur, 1968.
114
. Ibid.,
169
letters, Parcel b * ~ , Daily event records, Sick Register, Inventory Register, Visitors
book, Minute book Foster Parents address bwk, and Hostel leaver's Register etc.,
Morning and Evening devotions, Sunday Classes, Christian meetings, quiz programmes
and oratorical mmpetitiom
conducted. There is a small library for hostel students. Physical
Education is another impartant branch of education. Inter Dioceses spons meet is being held
every year. An~tbaimportant activity is Social work. Students go to near by villages like
T ' i p h w r which is three Kms hm the hostel. Most of these villagers are illiterate. Students
go there and teach Bible and sing same songs to the people.'4'
Library: It is functioning from the inception of the school where very old books are available in
this library. J.S.M. Hooper who was the first manager, in its initial stage just started with 500
books. Apart fiom the gifk and contribution made by the foreigners gave some books for the
development of the library. This enabled the staff of each faculty to guide their students in the
right choice of books at the right time. From 1857-1940there were about 20,000 books including
sangam period to present time books, Now it has the credit of possessing 32,000 books at the
cost of Rs. 1,00,000.From the year 1979 Higher Secondary introduced in this school and the
Tamilnadu Higher Secondary introducd in this school and the Tamifnadu Higher Secondary
Scheme supplies enough number of books. Another important thing is that all varieties of Maths
books fromthe Rajamanujam period to present time books are available here, District education
Library Exhibition was held at Tiruttani in 1973, Goudie won the first prize and 21,000 books
were exhibited in that occasion.'" From 1989 onwards Cc managernen1 supplies News papers,
Weekly magazines, General Knowledge books, Monthly maguines, Sports Magazine etc..
Library h c e s
the staff and students in their academic pursuit and disseminates
knowledge in various ways.
"I
. S-
of BodingHome brn 1984-91, C.S,l.Goudic Higher Secondary School Hostel.
.Intetview with the Libmim~urn-DrawingMaster, Mr,Jeshrun, C.S.I. Goudie Higher Secondary School,
Tiruvatlur, on 13 .09.1998.
116
I70
At Chinnu fib, lkm away from Gowdie School a hostel was constructed in 1936.
ere morning ~d
e v h g prayers, Sunday classes, Christian meetings are conducted regularly.
The hostel students went 10 villages during Sundays and taugbt Bible, songs etc. to the village
pople. There was a library existing in a separate building, which consisted of a more than
32,000 b
k
S
.
Life histoly of Rev. William Goudie: He was born on 6th May 1857 for Goudit and isahel
heesan at Chenaryick in England. His parents were deeply rcligious and had much faith in
~hristianity.When William Goodie's friends went to Ireland and Greenland to earn money, he
disliked this and became strong advocate of religion and became the preacher in England. On
14th January 1881 he was appointed to work as missionary and falher in Dr. Jenkins Church in
Madras. He learnt Tamil, Telugu and Setnsknt. His missionary work and pleasing manners
attracted all people and gained good name.He worked at Geargt Town, Perambur, Runigunta
and Tinrpathi and preached Christianity among the people. He served the people when they were
in distress and helped them, In January 1882 he was appointed as a preacher at Tiruvallur. In
1885, he rnearied E l i h t h and from 1886 onwards he began to work for the upliftment of the
poor people. The rich people and landlords in Tiruvallur treated the poor as their slaves. They
also betrayed the poor people by way of getting signature and suppressing them of thcir Iand.
Once the wedthy people demanded the poor people to vacate their colony without any reason,
But Goudie went to their rescue and went to court and got success in heir case. He gave money
to them to buy land, fod,seeds and other essentials, He came to understand the miseries of the
poor people were due to the lack of education and so he decided to construct school for them.
His activities like helping the poor, converting Harijans to Christianity were not liked by the
104people and so they thrown stones oo him. The irritated Gmvdie took a vow to construct a
church in that place. As a result he constructed a big bungalow for himself, hospital, church,
teachers gm~
and students hostel at the same place. In 1902, he completed the construction of
a church at h&,
near Thallur. In 1904 - 05, a severe famine affected Tiruvallur. People
suffered a lot due
Gov-at
to
lack of water, fwd and medical facilities. He
wrote lelters to the
and drew their attention to ~e necessary action, He constructed a hospital and
provided free medical aid to poor people.
Economic Development in 19th and 20th Centuries
The ffall of Vilaymgar h g d o m threw the whole of South India in a state of political
chaos and subsequent economic distress. Throughout South lndia there arose a large number of
mutually antagonistic pW poligars and small chieftains whose jealousies and wars threw the
life of ordinary people in a pool of agonisin~experience for 2 K centuries when the British
established their paramountcy in the area and regularised their miseries and misfortunes by
methodsing exploitation md p~under.'"~arsand annexations were always accompanied by
large-sde plunder and massacre of innocent people; those who survived fell victims to famines
and epidemics. In some caw the latter enemies wrought greata havoc on them than the former
and decimated the population of certain areas.
Agriculture in the early British Period: The misdirected revenue policies of the early
British administrators put the whole of South India in a condition of economic backwardness
never known before, Their excessive greed for money coupled with total ignorance of the local
conditions and land tenures made their early rule one of rcrnorseless oppression. During the early
years of their rule, there was Iittle to choose between English administration and that of the
native princes, so far as agricultural classes were concerned. The ill-paid British servants carried
on extensive trade of their own, found themselves suddenly transformed into governors of
provinces and they behaved as worst oppressors of people than most of hc local rulers. They
mercilessIy killed the people and destroyed their religious places and public buildings. Mr. Place
reported tbat because of havoc caused by them one could come across in this jagir with bones of
the bodies that had been massacred and remnants of lrmpies and chouldries, which were burnt'4R.
111
. P.N. Chopm, History ojSwllh India, Vol. 111, Modem Period. S. Chtind & Co. Ltd ,Ncw Drlhi, 1979, p. 147.
'" . Mr,placer*
on
Jagiredated, 06, June 1790. Mr.Place was the Collector of Chingelput
The invasion of Hyder Ali sod the wars between Tippu Sultan and the company
ruined the economic condition in the Carnatic. The compt adminisiration of the Nawab of Arc01
had further drained the resources of the country and added to the misery of the people. The
whole country prsented a deselted look from which it did not recover even after a quarter of a
century"'. In the dement of Land Revenue, in the early years, the British committed grievous
errors, The resources of the country had been brought to the last stage of exhaustion by wars and
famino. Neglet of irrigation works by the rulers caused famines in South India, In 1733, a
famine ravaged Chingelput district. when the Nawab of Arcot was ruling over. Haider Ali's
conquest of C ~ t i in
c 1780 A.D. left the whole land in dissolution to be swept again by
horrible famines.The British East India Company completed the acquisition of territories on the
eastern coast by the year 1801 either by conquest or by subtle means and the boundaries of
Madras presidency were f m l y established, In 1801, the Nawab of Carnatic was considered
incornpent to rule the country and he was relieved of his dominion in the carnatic and
pensioned off.As a result, the carnatic districts came under the direct control of the company.
Even before this, the Chingelput district was obtained from the Nawab of Arcot in 1783 by the
East India Company for the services rendered to him and his father by thc company. From that
time onwards Thimvallur was directly controlled by the British East India Company.
The British East India Company instead of redress the grievances of the farmers,
introduced permanent settlement of land revenuc. This was to bc done with Zamindars where
they existed; where they did not exist, new Zamindars were created. The districts of Chingleput,
Salem and Dindugd were divided into a number of mittahs (who were called as mittadars) and
sold to the highest bidders. In course of timc as this settlement failed, the
system of village leases was tried but with same result. As late as 1854 A.D. John Bruce Norton
wrote that in view ofunremunarative character of agricuiture in Madras Presidency 'competition
is necessary to keep even the present amount of land under cdtvation'.
The ryotwari system made matters worse for ryots and cultivators and drove
out m*i,
119
Over assessment ruined the peasants and drove away businessmen md
. Munro'sminuter dated 3 1, December, 1824.
traders from the M c d d pursuit. Elimination of concealment under the British system
h r t b made @cultural
O
P
~
173
not
O only
~ highly unremunarative, but, if continued, also
ruinous to the ~asmts.' h e non agricultural capiialists therefore were not prepared to risk their
money hsuch unpmfibble concern of rural economy.Major portion of the money advanced to
dlyots came from such peasants and not horn non agricultural capitalists. Therefore transfer
of lands from the debtor to the creditor in discharge of his debt took place within the agricultural
community in the Madras Presidency.
Wet crops were lugely raised adjacent to the banks of the numerous tanks which the
district bad many ~, and also adjacent to the banks of various rivers. Agriculture was
nevertheless very backward, a fact attributable to the numbcr of abscntee land owners who
resided in Madras, rarely visited their properties, About 27% of the villages of hc district
belonged to landlords with privilage tenure, a large part of whom were absentees. This left the
land to be cultivated by land renters (Paikaris) which checked the investment of capital in the soil
and encouragd a solvency and hand to mouth system of agriculture. Perhaps no better indication
of the poverty of the actual tillers of the soil could be given them the fact that land revenue was
regularly in mars, and that from 15% to 20% of the total had lo be collected annually by
coercive process, The prevalent tenure was ryotwari, the cultivator holding the right from the
Government, In chingleput diskict a permanent right of occupancy of 7,28,904 acres of
cultivable Govemment land was available for such holdings of which 5,39,862 acres were held
by individual de&, The rest of the Government land in the district 10,89,996 acres was reserved
as grazing grounds, village housing sites and waste lands.
About 2,50,000 m
s of private property were under cultivation, raising the total of
production land in the district to about 8,00,WO acres. Most of this, though settled in ryotwari
tenure was subject to certain mitt3 or hereditary right which take the form of tax paid by the
outsiders to the dmdents of the original villagers for what was practically as permission to
cultivate. &sides the ryohvari tenure, there were various other forms of holdings, the chief
among them being Zamindari, Mirasthar, Manyam and Jwa all distinguished by the common
ystem of id mhg.
fie tenants
174
agents of the absentee landlords invariably opposed the tenants.
f r e s ~ d in
y debt to the landlords. their agents or the village money lenders.
amassm mi Ayyar, the then acting sub division Sheristadar, himself Mirasdar and practical
inner, compiled the following treatise on agriculture: 'in this district arable land are of three
3orh viz. wet, dry and tofakal.In each of these three sorts there were five different kinds of soil
i z , red soil, soil mixed up of day and red earth, soil mixed up of clay and sand and black clay
ail. Each of these classes of land is made up of both superior and inferior kinds of soil. Different
qariaties of pddy are cultivated on wet land employing the dud method of Sethukal and
plulhikal. Reggi, Millet, V
w , Maize, etch,are cultivaterd in dry lands. Vegetables, chilly,
~baccoand such other products are cultivated on Totaka1 lands. The ryots of the Chingleput
$strict maintained crude and unprofitable agriculture at a low level of existence. The ryots used
infertile seeds and worked at a great disadvantage owing to the inefficiencyof appliances.'
Tfie chief obstacle to the improvement of Indian agriculture is the need of menure. Water
md marmre together represents the ryots' main wants. The chief supply of manure is derived
from the dung of farm animals, bitter of calde and household waste. The dung is largely burnt as
fuel, The cattle, sheep, cow, horse and other animals are fed on concentrated food producered by
3griculture. The little of the animals' waste goes back to the land as manure.
In various parts of India wild indigo and other plants, which grow freely on waste lands
and not grazed by cattle were employed as manures. Speaking generally, the cultiva~orwas quick
to seize any chances of supplementing his limited stock of manures.Green manuring was a very
common practice for irrigated crops. Several crops were grown for this purpose, the most
common being horse-gram and Bombay hamp commonly called San. It was ploughed in when
three or four feet high. The system of green manuring was cheep, effective for sam crops and
well with in the means of all except the poorest cu~tivator'~'.In Chingleput and Tiruvallur
districts, though the fecilities were offered to the ryots to extend the use of green manure they did
I47
,
I m p d -ofMndia,
ldhn Empire, Vol. 111, Economic, 1907,p. 22.
175
not like to
the product in their own patta lands as they thought that it would ruin their
Ihe Government had introduced experimental cultivation of plants, shrubs and trees for
the use of m~~ in the Year 1905 A.D. The Chingleput province was devided into three circles
namely NoCentral and Southem circles. Tiruvallur was placed with C e n d circle. Abou~
318 acres in Chingleput range and 120 acres of land in Timvallur range were sown with the
seeds of manure leaf geldings species. But the operation was not successful as the seedlings
dried out during the hot weather and for want of rain, As sowing in the banks hitherto a failure, it
was proposed to make arrangement to sow the seeds under the cover of bushes. It was a pity that
Mer results could not be shown by this experiment.
Once %in the Government in the year 1906 A.D. started the experimental cultivation of
shrubs, plants and trees. The bad areas of this district such as abandoned fields were ploughed
and sown with seeds of cedn manure leaf yielding shrubs such as Avaram and Velari. These,
being hardy species, were sown in the open high grounds. All other species germinated but only
about 40% in the open and 75% under the bushes remained unaffected by the hot weather, Some
of the seedlings in the open had withered in the hot weather and however regrown during thc
rains. The sowings were commenced in Augest and cutting operation continued in the end of
octokr in Chmgleput range and november in Tiruvallur range. In Thvallur range permits were
issued to clear forests and nurseries were planted near water resources. 1400 seedlings of
h g a m were transplanted in 25 acres, some in the open and some under the bushes in november
1906 A.D. They were grown much better than the seedlings grown from the direct sowing. In all
81 1 acres were sow. It was more successful than in the pervious year. Mr. Brasier remarked in
hs nok on ipapction & in February 1907 AD. considered the result
satisfactory and creditable.'"
141
.
G.0,Miscellanous. No. 1169,2& NOV.
1960.
. IWL, No.67,
149
JW.1908, p,4.
was decidedly
In this way green manme was used in a large scale from 1910 A.D. to 1930 A,D. In
176
1910 the P e n mauure used was 77,150 pounds and it had increased to 2,08,000 pounds in 1930.
The use of fish and bone manure was attempted in the year 1920. The bones were in most
c a u n h i ~ngarded a valuable manure for dmost ail cultivable crops. But almost evewhere
in India the value of bones for manure was disregarded by the cultivators. This was due to partly
religious and caste prejudices and p d y to the difficulty of crushing and heating them. Dissolved
bones wwe most effective but the cost was prohibitive as the sulphuric acid was not then
in India. ' h e expon of bane during that time had average to one million tons per
annum and the export trade had raised the price to so high pitch that the oil cakes and the other
pducts which were more effective as manure could be obtained in India at a cheaper rate. 'l'he
caster cakes and karanj cakes were extensively used as manure by the farmers.
There was a considerable progress in the use of artificial manure in the year 1926, 'l'he
Government was supplying manures and other agricultural equipment5 to the farmcrs. Even
seeds were distributed freely or sold. Since 1924 the agricultural department had ceased to buy
and stock mure for distribution except in a fcw isolated places where it was difficult for the
farmers to get it in any other way. Ryots were also given the option to place the orders with the
supplying firms for manure.
In Madras, practical interest in agricultwal development was
awakened as early in
1863 A.D. by Sir. William Denison, the then Governor who drew attention to use the improved
implements, manure and continuous cropping. In 1864 A.D. the government entrusted 350 acres
of land at Saidapet near Madras to a committee of amateur agricultural enthusiasts, who
undertook to conduct on it a full trial and exhibition of the agricultural implements received from
England, artificial manures and an exhibition of improved system of agriculture. In 1871 this
farm passed under the official controlH0. An attempt to work out a scheme of agricultural
education resulted in the establishment of a public agricultural college at Saidapet in 1876 A.D.
In 1884 A.D.tht control of the college was transformed from the Board of Revenue to the
D d r of Public Instruction with whom it remained until the reorganisation of agricultural
1905-06 A.D. This agricultural college became Research lstitutc that
specdid in various b d e s of *cultural
had been effected
the department
177
studies. Some of the main improvements which
which were demonstrated are taught to the cultivatols in
this allege.
included economic planting of paddy, improved varieties of seeds and new
imp]mmts'51
dfor agriculture.
'hen
this @dtUtd allege was transformed to Coimbatore.
In 1927, there were 48
d e n t s and in 1930 the strength had risen up to 70. Besides specidised training through the
~urriculurn,there was an endeavour to instil in the common public and the interested farmers a
general awareness almost all rnattm pertaining to apiculture, land development and other allied
fields,
RURAL INDEBTEDNESS:- One of the problems confronting the ryots of Tiruvallur region
was the problem of rural indebtedness, The peasent was constantly overburdened with debts for
various reasons. The problem of agricultural debts had frequently drawn the attention of the
Government and public dike from time to time.
A pmmt kad to borrow generally at every stage of operation to meet his current and
capital needs as well as his family consumption. 'To start with, a cu\tivator requires credit for the
purchase of cattle, implements, manure, ploughing, preparing the soil for dry lands weeding and
hoeing have to be carried out. Finally he must be ready to meet the expenses of reaping.
gathering, threshing and harvesting corps. Further if rains were not adequate, he had to incur the
cost of ploughing and sowing. To meet all such losses and risk involved in farming and provided
rent to lmd lard or l a d revenue to government and for family maintenance a ryot needs money'
and he neussarily contracts loans with whichever agency that is approachable and is prepare to
advan= him in
and wording to his convenience.
me crdt needs mY be classified into three division (i) for current expenses of
178
cultivatio@ ~ c c s s and
h marMng of produce, (ii) for long term land improvement and
purchW of
and
for n o d consumption expenditure especially for family
maintenance as well as for repayment of old debts or expenses on occasional ceremonies like
marriage death
pilgrkes, which was unproductive. The Royal Commission summed up
the their position in these words "to a very great extent, the cultivator in India labours neither for
profit nor for a net return but for subsistence. The crowding of people on land, the lack of
alternate mew of securing a living, the dificulty of fmding any avenue of escape, and the early
age at d i c h a man is burdened with dependants, combines to force the cultivator to grown food
wherever he can d whatever terms he can." Moreover the farmer was both proprietor and wage
emex ud this position of rnixed interest offers a challenge to cconornists cnquires as well as lo
fie programmer of administrator and legislators.
f i e causes for agricultural indebtedness has been summarized by the committee as
follows: 1) Poverty with unproductive soil precarious climate, 2) ignorance and irnprovidencc
and 3) Extravapcy, Ancestral debt 4) Expansion of credit 5) Increasc of population without
correspomhng increase in return. 6) Facilities for borrowing owing to the influence of money
lender. 7) The limitation of laws as leading to renewals on unsurious terms including compound
interest and 8) Revenue system of fixed demand.
In a way the agrarian indebtedness appears to be inevitable under several handicaps and
difficulties. Credit is essential and imporbnt for development and production. Agriculture like
any other industry also needs capital investment. It assumes more importance in Tiruvaliur
region because about 70% of people indulged in agricultural activities and loans.
The Govmunent deputed Sir Fredrick Nicholson and Sathyanathanto investigate into the
scope of establishing agriculture and other land banks. As a special officer for enquy in rural
indebtedness, Sathyanathan had h w n himself unreservedly in favour of helpless
agriculturalists. Such a deep interest evinced by him was indeed laudable in a civiii7ation. Hc
emphasid the need for increasing the earning capacity of the ryol if he was not to relapse into
in debt*^, He
179
suggwted Some simple, bold steps that the department of agriculture
and idustry might
improve the lot of cultivators. He himself finds it impossible to assess
M m d y the
, proportion of indebtedness even &r such an elaboraie enqui~y.
For
welfare and de=lopmcnt of farmers two important acts were passed namely the
Land Impv=nt
A d of 1833 and the Agricultural Loan Act of 1884, By these acts. loans were
granted for the wnstmction of wells, tanks and other works for be storage, supply and
distribution of water for the purpose of agriculture. Thousands of acres of land were brought
under cultivation.The interest charged on loans for preparation of land for irrigation, drainage,
reclamation from rivers or other water sources ox protection from flood or from erosion which
were used for agricultural purposes was fixed lowest at 6 114 percent in 1930 by this act.
Rules have been framed under the two acts with a view to help the ryots of the district.
Special rules were first introduced in the ceded districts and later extended
to other
districts,
Amendment in the rule under the Iand improvement and agricultural loans acts were introduced
under G.O. No. 961, 27, Sep. 1906, '%o loans shall be granted without a local enquiry". The
revenue inspectors or higher officials would hold the enquiry and grant the loans when the
amount applied for exceeded Rs,5001- Local enquiries should be made by the officer not lower
than the rank of Deputy Dahsildar.
Under qriculhml loans act, laons upto 5001- alone were given. The maximum amount
was Rs. 20,0001- in each case. The loans were free of inlerrsl repayable in 3 years. The Collector
of Chingleput district had distributed 37% of the total allotment. Usually the Govcrnmcnt loans
never reached the agriculturalist in right time. If we examine the figures of the disbursement of
Ihc lm in cbingleput district s h g from 1893, it will reveal that there was a tardy progress in
h
e sanctioning of the amount. For instance, the amount advanced under the land improvement
act from 1893 to 1903 was 5,32,845, Amount rccovcrd during this period was 3,62,342. From
1913 to 1922 the sanctioned amount has been raised to 7,19,757. The amount recovered was
Rs. 1,48,706. Then in another 10 year period, the sanctioned amount has reached b.16,50,774.
7he recavev made d
h this puiod amounted to Rs. 8,18,247. By the year 1930, the amount
&aced by way of loan had trebled what it was in the beginning of 1900.
The I
dimprovement Loan Act had only provided long term loans. The short term
loans an the immediate loans could be raised from private money lenders. The cooperative
movement was introduced specially to fill the gap in h e rural credit section and to create
institutional amgement for credit services to the farmers,
Cooption as a principle of economic development as long bcm popular in India. "The
failure of state system of Takkavi advances and the increasing urgency of the problem led to the
preparation of the scheme for the establishment of Agricultural banks by Sir. William Wedder
Bum and Mr.Justice Ranade in the early nineties. This was acceptcd by the Government of India
and appointed Sir Nicholson to conduct a special cnquiry in Madras Presidency and Tiruvallur
district to look into the matters relating to cooperative societies.
Sir Nicholson recommended the establishment of credit societies and emphasiscd the fact
that it was not only credit that was needed but also inculcation of the habits of thrift and self
help1". These societies were formed on rile modcis of credit societies of Germany.Since the
inception of agricultural credit cooperative in 1904, Government support allowed them to play a
key role in many of India's development programmes. It reduced the influence of moneylenders,
while increasing savings and providing easier credit terms to small farmen. 'his assistance
enabled the d i t cooperatives to grow from 2000 in 1906 to nearly 10,000 by 1930. Nicholson
111
. Annd Report on the Workig ofthe Cooperative Socicities, 1905, p.1.
honour m
inldu*
y was the result of his mammoth report regarding the possibilities of
181
Land and *@cultural Bada in the Madras presidency. Nicholson, a distinguished
civil servant with a long and m d ~ r i ~ career
u s became a member of prestigious commissions
c o n h g m a n affairs, Fufifl, he headed the Madras Land Revenue and Agricultural
Department.He also helped to draft the Cooperative Society Act of 1904. He was regarded as
probably one of the most competent and knowledgeable Englishman on the subject of Madras
Agrarian Economy. According to the Act of 1904, the first credit society was started in l'irur, a
village near Tiruvallur. The view of P. Rajagopalachari that the cooperatives in the hands of rich
ryots would further the cause of growth of the movement, was welcomed by many
11
was held hat rich ryots would in association with their poorer brethren assist them to gain
advantages, ordinarily obtainable by rich and suong15'. Registrar Herningway supported the rich
ryot's pamipation because he believed a cooperative's purpose was not
to
be a "charitable
institution but a business institution which lends money and intends to recover it." But the credit
societies did not bring immediate relief to the millions of farmers. Even so many hurdles and
restrictionshad to be surmounted. The caste barrier, favouritism and political influence played an
impomt role, which dominated the cooperative movement. Actually these cvils had spoiled the
cooperative movement and eaten away its roots.
Tiruvallur janophra saawatba nidhi Limited :-
The Nidhi is a method of doing business. It is defined as a group of men united to help
one another by common contribution of funds, which are to he lent out to the members only for
their benefit. All profits derived from this operation arc to be returned to the members. Lach
member enjoys the same rights and privileges as every other member in his transaction with he
Nidhi. The need for the formation of these institutions was perhaps due to exorbitcnt rates of
interest charged by fie money lenders. In fact the schemes of the Nidhis are welfare oriented and
'13
. Annual Rqort m
Working of tfie Cooperative kieties, 1905, p. 2.
. Hk Hdngway, 7he Mabas CooperdiveManrill Madras, 1921, PP. 48-4 9.
19
their functions and activities are more d i m e than that of chit funds. They are also styled as
M&
182
benefit mieties,permanent funds, saswatha Nidhis etc. 13'
The
of the Nidhis are, to help the people to save money, to advance loans on real
property, on jewels and on deposits, 10 undenake such other activities which will promote habits
of thrifi among the common people, to give donatins or to finance for the activities connected
with national, charitable, educational, religious and scientific purposes and to organise such
institutions which will promote national, charitable, educational, scientific and religious interests.
fie Nidhis are registered under the Indian Companies Act, 1913 and are brought under the
~ e ~ u l d o of
n sBanking Companies Act.
For the benefit of the peopIe of Tiruvallur, S. Arunachala Mudaliar of Tiruvallur.
Velappa chattiar of Dhurgam, Raghavachari of Adhimdam started lending business in the year,
1889, They charged less interest and so their business grew rapidly. They jointed wih 11 other
people and discussed about the starting of Nidhi company. These noble hearted peoples are
P, Rmanuj~hariar, V. Kuppu chettiar, K. Srinivasa Chettiar, P. Venkatarayalu,
A. Raghavackar, A. Mumgappa chefliar, 5, 'Ihiruvenkatachariar, Balu Mudaliar,
P. Ramanujdu Chettair, E. Srinivasachariar, V. Rangavachariar. They readily accepted and
started this Nidhi on 11.02.1890 and registered as a ~orn~an~.'~"hisNidhi provided Jewel
Loans, Mortgage loans, personal loans to the people. Large nunibcr of people in Tiruvallur
benefited from this Nidhi.
1U
'I6.
.V. Krishnan, Indigenous Banking in south India, Bombay, 1959, pp. 7-9.
Informatim collded hm The Secretary, Tiruvallur Janopakara Saswatha Nidhi Limited.
Secretnries of thb Nidhi :
S,humhala Mudaliar
1890 - 1925
P,Narayanaswamy
1925 - 1930
A. Kothandm Pillai
1930 - 1932
V.Raghavachari
1932 - 1936
K, Jeyaram Chettiar
1936- 1941
P.EthiFaja Pillai
1941 - 1951
V, hismy Iyangar
I951 - 1967
V.Rmnujxhari~
1967 - 1983
V, Ramu cMar
1913 - 1988
S.K. Dilli Babu
I988 to till date.
Now this Nidhi is pmpnly managed by a host of officials namely manager, cashier, 3
clerks and an attendant. The money transaction of this Nidii has crossed 1 crore during
2001 - 02.
Any resident of TirwaUw k a m e the member of this Nidhi by paying Rs. 11- towards
the membership Fee.
Then he carries on transaction with the Nidhi. As on 1.1.2002. 6041
people'37in Thdlur join4 as members and they invested their money as daily recurring
184
drposit, monthly recurring deposit, fixed deposit etc and helping the development of this Nidhi.
Nidhi in turn poi@ them short term and long term loans, Jewel loans and house loans for
their benefit.
IJorticuIhre :-Tiruvallur region is highly suitable for growing trees such as mango, pineapple,
lime, cashew, vegetables and flowers. There is a good scope for raising agricultural crop, as well
as fruit trees side by side as part of Integrated Farming System. State Horticulture Farm at Athur
in Chingleput taluk is engaged in multiplication and distribution of seedlings of mango, lime and
Horticulture ofice functinoing in Tiruvallur which supplying hybrid
ornamental
seeds to agriculturists at a 50% subsidised rate. Horticulture officials visiting every village and
advising farmers for the use of manure,fertilizers, pest control methods in order to increase the
yield of the crop. As on Dec 2002, Horticultural crops grown in Tiruvallur region are as
Fruits
follows:'39
Vegetables
Banana - 553 Hectors
Onion - 25 Hectors
Mango - 23 17 Heectors
Ladies Fingcr - 146 Hectors
.
.
-
Guava 2317 Hectors
Briijal - 198 Hectors
.
Grapes - 41 Hectors
Greens - 129 Heclors
Other Fruits - 340 Hectors
Coriander - 83 Hectors
. From the r&
13'
of Timvallur J a n o p h Saswatha Nidhi Limited.
1st
. Dictor of agriculture, Madras,repofi dated 7 Aug. 1989.
139
Info&on
h m assistant agricultural officer, Horticulture, Tiruvallur,
~~rlgatl~fial
System: Agricul* was the main occupation of the people of Tiruvailur for
185
v/nch i m g a t i d system formed important aspect. Generally inigational system formed three
ws mely
irrigation, Well irrigation and Rainfed irrigation. The principle system
prevailedand @cad
in Thvallur was the canal irrigation. Canals were dug from the rivers
and lsnks at convenient points and lands were irrigated. Since there are no perennial rivers in
Tiruvdlur regios canal figation supported by the numerous tanks formed the prime inigational
system. Wells were also sunk at convenient points,
There was no river flows in TimvaIlur, the water for drinking and agricultural purposes
were met by tanks, SO large part of this area is watered from the tanks or artificial rcservoirs.
Most of them an rainfed and some w supplied from the canals led from the rivers. The most
important are Redhills tank and Cholavaram tank fed by Kortt~laiyur,Tiruvallur tank Ed by
Arni river, the CkmhmmbakRam fed by the Coavam river existing around Tiruvallur region.
There are five tanks existing in Tiruvallur which supplying water to its pcople and their lands,
They are Kakkalore tank, Pungutkur tank, Perumbakkam tank, Tiruppuchur tank and
Pularambahm tank.
In the beginning of 20%entury, a reappraisal on he debate of improving the ilrigational
facilities began in the Chingleput district. The famines between 1896 and 1901 AD in every
province made the Govemmcnt to realise the value of irrigation. Sir. Colin Scot Moncricfi was
appointed as President of the Famine Commission in 190 1 A.D. The Commission had reported
for the creation of central board for irrigation.
State inigation work in the presidency of Madras were divided into two classes. The first
one comprised of all the more imporhnt works which were constructed, restored or improved by
the British Government at a capital cost of nearly I1 crores. The second class included all the
smaller tanks, rivers and hind that were very ancient in construction. Government had
undert&en their maintenmce and devoted considerable sums annutllly for their upkeep although
very few of were originally constructed by the state or by the British Government.
TO i-e
the
facilities, the irrigation department had taken certlin measures to
bring the excess flood
to certain tanks through supply canals. Even the excess water of the
@ during the rainy season was let out into the river nearby.
Well Irrigation :
During the closing years of the Company's rule the development of well
ifigation raeived much amtion. This was done because of the liberal policy pursued by the
C o m p y . fie principle of leaving to the ryots full benefit accuring from improvement effects
by their own indusq and means was first advocated by Sir Thornas t on roe.'^' But it was not
until 1852 A.D. that his recommendation was implemented, In that year orders were issued
giving a distinct assurance tbat the ryots would be allowed the full benefit of their own
improvements, that the lands thus improved would not be subject to any additional
assessment,"'
In the saga of higation of Thiruvallur district, there is ample evidence of the interplay of
natural resources and man made artificial resources to tap water for irrigation. The chain of tanks
in the district provided the much utilized tank irrigation, The sinking of wells, large and small,
individual and communal, as a paying private enterprise with or without Govcrnmentd financial
assistance as grants or loans at very low interest, furnished the second dependable mean. of
irrigation. The unique and indegenious method of digging spring canals or kasams in thc district
as a c o d a b l e pecularity supplied the much-needed third source of irrigation. The variety of
commissions and the enterprising experiments coupled with prompt follow up action by Ihc
Government and proofs of the relief measures taken by the Govemmcnt for the amelioration of
the hardships of the poor and hard working fmm of this district. It is significant that irrigation
was accorded ample and apt attention by the Government as it catered to the needs of the largest
section of the population namely agriculturists.
110
. Report of Indian higation Commission, 1401- 03,p. 12 1.
141
,
Ibid.;
Rice Reae~rchStation at Tirur: One of the Jewels adorning the crown of
187
~hvaflUti5 the Rice R e m h Station at Tinu 3 km east of Tiruvallur, It was established in the
year 1942 with bobjective to cwy out research programmes in RlCE and to develop suitable
high yielding wide$for the predominantly tankfed areas of Tiruvallur and adjoining
dishictsl". 'his station lies at 7838' East longitude and 13" 7' North latitude md 39" 47 meters
above M a n Sea Level. T"netotd area of this farm is 15.85 hectares,
' h i s station was initially started as Rice Research Station and upgraded into Paddy
Experiment Station during the year 1974143 wth
additional facultics like Agronomy, Soil
science, Entomology and Plant Pathology dong with already existing plant breeding with an
objective to cater to the needs of the paddy growers in l'iruvallur and adjoining districts. In order
to strengthen furher the research programmes, this station was brought under the control of
Tsmil Nadu Agricultural University from April 1981'~'.
This station has bred ten high yielding rice varieties, released from this station is a boon
to farmers of Tamil Ndu especially Tiruvallw and adjoining districts. The well known rice
variety TKM 6 developed by the scientists of this station had been used as a donor by thc
breeders of Inkmational Rice Research Institute, Manila, Philippines and released many new
varieties like IR 20, IR 34 etc throughout Tamil ~adu'". It has also achieved its superior
perfomce in international area by evolving a new paddy variety called 'I'KM 9 which can bc
grown under semidry and rain-fed conditions. This has brought laurel ta thls inshtute as il was
identified as a good donor by International Rice Research Institute, Manila for developing such
high yielding rice verities. The crop production technologies developed by ihc scientists of his
station from time to time, both to sustain and maximise thc yield of rice varieties of this slation,
have been carried to the farmers for adoption and have come to stay for long. Further, useful
'
.Rice Rae& Slalim Tirur, Prospects, Relrospecls and Progress, issued by Tamil Nadu Agricultural
University, p. 1.
on the biofertilizers both Blue and Green Algae and h l e s are king creditably
I88
pursuedto benefit the fimveneeds of nitrogenous fertilizers has been done by this station'"
Indoshy: Though agriculture was the main avocation in this region there was also industrial
development, which involved many people of this region towaids industrial production. The
industrid organisation of this region during the period was too widespread and considerable
products were manufactured in such abundance that the country was as a whole self-suficient.
Towards the end of the British rule, the new socio-economic movement emerged in this area, and
consequently the economic development of this area improved very fast.
Hindustan Motors Limited, Tiruvallur :Hindustan Motors Limited has been a pioneer
in the automobile induslry in India since 1942, The Earthmoving Equipment Division
was set up at Melnallathur 5 km away from Tiruvallur and 46 km from Madras in 1969 in
technical collaboration with General Motors, U XA,, for manufacturing earthmoving
machines. Over 5000 Hindustan earthmoving machines from the Tiruvallur plant are
already working all over the
counttry.
After succasfully absorbing technology from
General Motors, the company has now tied up with Caterpillar Inc., U.S.A. The current
product line in the Earthmoving Equipment Division includes Dumpers, Loaders and
Crawler Tractors of various capacities. It is a major indusky under private sector and it
has an inshI1e.d capacity of 630 machines of Earthmoving equipments. The comparative
study of the capital investments at the time of inception i.e., as on 31 March 1972 and 31
March 1992 is as follows'".
146
. Ibid., paeface, p. iii.
I41
a
Booklet on H
i e o v i n g Equipment -published by the Hindustan Motors Limited, Tinrvallur.
Item
As on 31 March 1972
h d
5.78
Building
17.16
As on 31 March 1992
65.17
Machines and Equipments 32,21
Furniture and Fittings
2.84
Vehicles
0.79
Total
58,78
The products are currently marketed under the brant name HINDUSTAN reflecting the
high degree of indigenisationachieved, The manufacturing facilities of this company spread over
a land area of 144 hectares, including a covered area of 39414 sq mts. Plans have been drawn out
to increase this to 177 hectares land area and 50,000 sq, mts covered areal4'.
The plant is equipped with several modem machineries in structural process shop,
machine shop, welding shop, assembly shop, paint shop, tool room, hydraulic room, quality
assurance, heat treatment and other installations. A range of machine numerically controlled
(CNC)machines including Horizontal Machining of intricate shape components. Other special
features include automatic tool changing, attachment changing, work changing, auto gauging and
tool life mamgement.
With a view to upgrade the technology and offer a wider range of equipment
manufactured to current world standards, Hindustan Motors Limited, entered into a collaboration
141
Mobile (amonthly on Transport & travel), Supplement on IIINDUSTAN MOTORS LIMITEL) Earthmoving
huipment Division, p. 3.
wi&
C A T E R P W TuCTOR CO., USA, the world leaders in earthmoving, construction
190
and materials handling equipment.
Hindustan Motors' wntribtion
10
the development of ancilliary industry has been
considerable. BY w o r b with a ]age number of manufacturing units and by constant
~nsultationand htmtiob it succeeded in developing a core of industries which can
manufachue components to the high technological and qua!ity standards required by the
h o v i n g equipment industry. 80% of the workforce existing in this industry belonged to
Mled category. Considering the need to adapt new and changing technology, this industry has
organised skill development programmes for workmen in the areas of welding, assembly,
machining and maintenance.
In recognition of the human resources as the most important asset to any organisation,
various training programmes for staff and workmen in the following areas have been organised.
I. Managerial skill, 2. Technical skill or supervisors, 3. Apprenticeship training 4. In Plant
Training 5, Oversees Training, Managers and Supervisors in the functional areas are being
deputed for training to USA, UK,Japan and Germany and also to the suppliers of CNC machines
for absorption of new technology and technical skills.
With a view to providing a better standard of living, workmcn are being cxposed to
programmes on family planning, occupational health hrvards, safety, quality life etc., and to
creative hobbies like mistor assembly, motor winding and house wiring. As a part of the
policy of Conhuing Education, this industry has sponsored some of the promising engineers for
M.S, Programme in Indian Institute of Technology, Madras and management programmes at
GMI, USA, so that not only the employees are benefited in continuing their education hut also
will contribute to the company in bringing out the new techniques in their work methods. An
educational cmb is
built within the factory premises to provide lraining facilities not only
for employees but also for customers.
sIDCO INDUsTRUL ESTATE, KAKKALUQ TIRWALLUR :
Industrialization in our munhy has been greatly helwd in the field of medium and small
sized industries by the central d State Industrial Development Corporations. The small
Indudes Development %oration,
the Industrial Finance Corporation and the Industrial
Development Bank of Ma also provided medium and long tern credit to industrial concerns.
For the Industrial Development Tamilnadu, Government established many financial institutions
for the benefits of small, medium and large scale industries. These fwcial institutions are
1. Small Indusbia Development Corporation (SIDCO)''~
2. Tamilnadu Industries investment Corporation (TIIC)
3. Tamil Nadu Industries Development Corporation (TIDCO)
4. State Mutries Promotion Corporation of Tamil Nadu (SIPCOT)
Since 1960, many states have taken steps to establish state owned industrial development
corporations in order to accelerate the pace of industrial development in their respective areas.
The Tmhdu Government worked out the most appropriate strategy for the development of
backward areas into developing areas. The essentid feature of this strategy is the selection of
growth mtm which have potential for development, Then provisions far infrastructumi
facilities in these centra are provided and promoting projects to ensure that these growth centres
attain the stage of self sustaining growlh in the shoast possible time in pursuance of this
&ategy. SlDCO has t a b up the development of s number of potential growth centres in the
state and h e one among them was Kakkalur industrial Estate. This was developed for the benefit
of the people of Tiruvdlur.SlDCO was established in 1971 to provide facilities to industries and
supplement
of other allied corporations in Tamil nadu. As far as SlDCO is
conwed qart h m fimcing to industries, it encourages entrepreneurs and promote
investments.
IQ
. &&el from SW30 IndusPial Estate. p. 4.
SIDCO i8 managed by a board of directors headed by a chairman, followed by an
192
adminiddve officer and directors. The number of directors is nomdly Twelve and these
directors consisted of both officials and non officials. From among the directon, the chairman
& tht Managing director are appointed by the Government.
Objectives of SLDCO"~:1. Pmvision of financial assistance on liberal t m s to small and medium industries.
2. ImpIetllentation of a package of incentives for the benefit of entrepreneurs.
3. Development of potential growth centres and provision of developed lands at
reasonable cost at easy payment terms.
4. Provision of various ancillary services for the entrepreneurs.
These centres are provided with developed lands, supply of adequate power, sufficient
transport facilities, water facilities, abundant raw materials and financial assistance from the
central government, state govemment and other agencies. These centres are provided with other
inhastructure facilities like power, water, housing, medical, telephone, tclax, post office,
supemrket, police station, fire service station, hotel etc, which arc important for industrial
development.
SIDCO provides a number of services other than the above mentioned oncs, 11 has
recently Iamches enttepreneur development programme. Further it provides location guidance
and escort services.There is a special cell for non-resident Indian entrepreneurs. Apart from the
above d o e s , there is a single window agency service.
The objective of the entrepreneur programme is to guide and offer counscl to
entreprene1~~
with regard to methodology of setting up a industrial units and to familiarize them
with the various m o b management techniques so that they are fully equipped to run the units
efficientlyand profitably. SIDCO helps entrepreneurs to asscss the merits of locations regarding
inhms
available
,
sources of raw materials, marketing potential and other facilities
'.
Ibid.;
I93
available in a @ d a r area. Escorts senice imply provision of comprehensive services by
the management Q~SDCO
to the entrepreneurs on various aspects of the project particularly for
rcgistrati~n,license ~ ~ f m h
nm~ local
e authority and financial institutions, thus it provides all
&es
and informations required for implementing the project.
The SmCO Indubid Es~lteconsisting of many industries, widely diversified into
various fields cavning entire range of consumer,intermediate and capital goods. There was a
rapid and almost continued growth took place in the industrial sector during the First fifteen
years perid from 1950 - 65. h this Industrial Estate variety of goods like Chemicals, Fertilizers,
Electrical and Electronic items are manufactwered with the assistance of Tamilnadu and Central
Government assistance schemes. The important industries in Kakkalur industrial Estate are as
follows :-
Name of industry
Manufacturing products
Indian Fumitwe
Furniture
TI Diamond Chain
Chains for pulling
Aditya castiag
Fabrications
Arvind remedies
Pharmaceuticals
Lactocem
Chemicals
Winkem Lab
Medicines
Fisher Inorganics d Auromatics
Chemicals
Quality Inorganics
.B h t h Pressing
Chemicals
Automobiles
Leo Auto products
Automobiles
Aneka Hygienic Products Pvt Ltd,
Napkins
-.
Royal Confectionary Company
hkd Packages
Photo film spare parts,
~ighlightfof the o m o n of
SDCO,Kakkalore (Tiruvallur) are given below :-
2001 - 2002
2000 - 2001
Quantity in
Value in
Quantity in
Value in
Mh,
Cram
Mts.
Cmres
~ronand &I
4928.889
9027
4995.927
10,007
p~affinWax
342.950
1,335
169.800
0.679
Match wax
69.617
0,245
255.500
0,934
33.500
0,113
26.500
0.086
37,354
0,152
5412.310
10.872
5447,727
11,700
Ponassium
chtorate
Copier
point
Total
sales
194
The slump in sales was mainly due to the decontrol of iron and steel, gcneral industrial
recession besides stiff competition due to invasion of secondary steel producers wd liheralised
imporb of materials. However by maintaining a good rapport wiih the SSI units who buy
regularly fmm SIX0 raw material depot and by getting orders from government departments
like Tansi, Transport Corporation, Tamil Nadu Khadi and village industries B o d , etc., SlIlCO
could achieve this sales,
Future Strategy :1) Common Bnnd Marketing :-This scheme is focussed to benefit the SSl and tiny units who
are not individually equipped with marketing techniques. Under this scheme, the SSI unit
producing a particular product will be brought under a consortium to market the produch
manufactured by them under a common brand me. Only units producing good quality
alone join in this schx~e.This will in turn help to improve the competitiveness
pr-
195
of the SSI units,
1) lnduhirl Cluster hvelopment :- Under this scheme, SIDCO proposes to identify
industrial clusters and m g e for upgrading the existing manufacturer of the units found in
such clustcn by availing itself of the assistance extended by the Goverrnent of India for this
purpose.
3) Marketing Asahtanre Scheme :-In order to assist the SSI Units to market their products to
Government departments,
SIDCO has approached Govcrnmcn~lo make it as optional
procurement agency for purchase of the requirements (SSI Products) to Government
depament and undertaking under SIDCO Marketing Assistance Schcme.
PROBLEMS :The mte of interest charged for term loans worked out to 12 %. Considering he huge
amount involved, purpose and period, it is felt rather burdensome to thc promoters of the
industry, Regarding the repayment of loans amount sanctioned, the promoters frnd that the
present gestation period is not satisfactory,
The state subsidy, which now works out to only 15%, is not a competitive one when
compared with the neighbowing states. To avoid the flow of promoters to nejghbouring stales.
the subsidy should be increased to atleast 25% or more.
Another important thing is the formalities in the registration of the new unit eat away
considerable money, energy and time for various procedures like documenta~ion,power
cannedon, pollution clearance, etc, The delay in registration due to the above reasons further
leads to a big time gap between the loan sanction and actual disbursement of loan. This can be
avoided t h u g h fie more effective functioning of the available single window agency and
creating some more effective agency in this dimtion.
Further it is felt by the promotas that in many centres, the available infrastmctural
196
kilities are inadequate.
~uggestions:-The P n t rate of intern for term loans may be reduced from 12% to 6%. Now
he period of
starts one yeax after the final settlement of the loan. The promoters
mtedthat mVW of loan should be started at least three years after the disbursement of the
.om. Regarding the power supply, particularly H.T. supply, preferential treatment should be
given to the units under the SIDCO particularly during summer. They should pay sufficient
ittention on agro-based industries like sugar industries, oil seed industries and sandlewood
industries.
Religious activities in 19' and 2otbCenturies
197
Tmple building activities in Tamil country could be traced to very remote past, During
the orly h i a r i d period, temples for V ~ ~ O Udeities
S
were constructed at different places. These
temples wen vv small in dimension and were situated in the open area even without my roof.
They an usually described as hypaekal temple. Is The sangam literature provides some
evidence to the existem of ther temples. Each eco zone in the Tamil country was assigned
with a deity."' The temples an refmd to as korram or mndnm. The religious places of the lains
and Buddhists were named palli, These temples were built of wood and brick. Survivals of thcse
temples assigned to Sangam perid are not available in the Tamil country.
The p
m object of temple is to promote religious worship. The medieval South Indian
temples properly adhered to this principle. However it functioned beyond the purpose of
spreading religion. The role of temples in the socio economic activities were discussed by many
historians and epigraphists like R. Nagasamy, Heitman James, Burton Stein, C, Meenakshi,
B.K.Pandeya, C,R. Srinivasan &., They pointed out that South Indian Temples functioned as a
social center where various communities interacted or exchanged their work. By conducting
festivals and other cultural events periodically, they have encouraged various art forms like
music, dmce and drama, It sewed as a big landowner, bank and employa and also as marketing
center. Some of these big Temples had a large workforce. Often it provided funds for the
development of education. Redistribution of wealth was another important economic activity of
the m & d South Indian temples. In the construction and renovation of these temples kings,
qutens, officers, chieftains, merchants and individuals have endowed with resources. Similarly
for fie maintenance and conduct of various functions, nurncrous grants were made by them. The
growth of h s e temples and their resources has played a significant role in the development of
economy in Timallur region in generd.
.-
'" , T
, V . u Sociw md Tempk economy ~n Tonda~mandalam,Unpublished Ph.D Thesis, Dept, of Ancient
History and Archeology, University of Madras. April 2000, p. 127.
I".Tht Tamil country was divided into 5 eco zones or Tinais as follows Kurunji, Marutham Mullai, Neithel, and
Palai with dihtregmnal bias. The following deities were assigned to these eco mnes. Kurunji-Murugan ,
Mullai-Tirud, Neithal-Vamnan, Palai-Korravai.
--wj,
198
During
Pdava period,
B M h i movement spearheaded by Nayanmars and
A l w succeeded in unifing people of different regions and cultures. Ihe institutions, which
helped in the pr0~1Vtionof Hindu faith was the temple, which grew as a multifaceted
this perid ~~nummble
temples were built for principle gods, Siva and
V i s h Many tmpla MY
existed were eanshucted with brick and mortar. These temples
were dogised by the Saiva saints in their hymns in Devaram and Vaishnava saints in
~iv-yaprabandhamand played a pivotal role in spreading their faiths far and wide. Thus these
institution.
temples attained sanctity and became the popular places of pilgrimage. Temple building
d v i t i e s thus gained momentum in the kginning of Pallava rule. Tbe Pallavas were the first to
build the stone temples in Tamil country. The role played in the Cholas in propagating the
temple worship was immense. After Cholas the Pandiyas, Vijayanagar rulers and the Nayaks
made their contributionto the deveIopment of temple art and architecture.
Vinngavaperumal Temple: The present structure of Viraragavapemal temple is
renovated in 1933 AD. Further changes have been made recently. But in the basis of the
inscriptions and architectural style we may assume that this temple was buiit during the time of
Cholas and undawent renovation d received tremendous attenlion during Viyaywagar and
Nay& rulers, At present this temple is maintained by the Ahobila matt, Karnool, Andra pradesh.
This temple covers an area of 1.10 acres.
Architecture of the Temple: The eastern entrance contains the gopura with fivc talas, though
it u n h t renovation, it depicts late Vijayanagar style. The structure, which is made up of
stone consists two parts that are divide by a Kapota. The lower part is upapitha surmounted by a
Kapota, above which is adhishthana that consists of upana, V r i h kumuda, Pattika and prati. The
pada podon contains niches flanked by pilasters and kwnbha Panjars. The superstructure made
up of brick and mom, has five talas. There are salas in the centre and Kutas in he comers and
the Panjaras in between them. The central door way was opening is present in every tala right
upto the g
d
nwhich is rectangular. At the apex is the massive sala s i h a with the kirti mukha
ends. On the talas there are sculptures of demons supporting the sikhara, dvarapalas are flanking
the domays and vsrious forms of Vishnu, His consorts and parivura drvoius.
199
The mp1c has
~rh
fie main
. shrine consists of a pillared mandapa, mukha
mmdapa, ardba mand~aand garbha
in the front tnantapa there are about 40 pillars, 5
pillm caoh in 8 ma
?'he pillars in the 1a, 4th, 5 th and 8h rows and the front pillars in the rest of
the rows afi of mm~sitetype. T ' t is with two columns, one is usual form with chaduram,
idaikattu and napbrmdha the other column consists of galloping hone with horse rider. These
pillan are in the Nay& style. Rest of the pillars are with cbrd~amand ldaikattu with sculpaos
and elongated pushpa p o h corbels. Garuda mandapa is situated outside this mmdapa facing
the main deity. Ahve the cornice of the fmnt mandapa there are series of salas and sculptures of
garuda on the four directions,
In the entrance leading to the mukha rnandapa, there are two massive sculptures of
dvarapalas, In the rnukha mandapa there are two sculptutes holding lamps. Between thc front
mantapa and mukha mandapa there is a cloistered varandah with 24 pillars. They are cyljndrical
pillars with plain corbels. The cloistered varandah provides a circumambula~orypassage around
the main shrine,
Inside the sanctum mctorum the main deity Vishnu is in reclaiming farm with the
Virmghava p d . There are stone scdptures of Vishnu. Sridevi. Bhudevi and Kamabhadra.
Tbere are also bronze images of these deities, On the southwes~corner there is a shrine for
Chakrathaivar both in stone and bronze, On the left side there is a shrine for Anmtalvar.
Oukr Pmkm In the outer p
e a as we cross the Gopura, we can see on the easiern side
b a l i p h , a hundi to receive the offerings of the devokcs and dhvajastambha of the temple.
On the right side of the main shrine is the shrine for Kanakava/li Toyor, the consort of the main
deity. This shrine is also facing east. This shrine consists of pillared mandapa, mukha mandapa,
ardha mandspa and garbha@. The pillars in the front mandapa are of composite type and also
the pillars, the chdwam and idahttu with pushpa Potikas. On the wails of the mandapa, there
were paintugs depicting the scenes born Tiruppavai and Markmdeya purana. (Which are now
moved) The elevation of the Tayar shrine has plain adhishthana with inscriptions on the jagati
portion of m b mandapa and garbhapiha. The pada consists of pilasters and empty niches.
IZrv i m is in ~CtOgonalshape.
200
super shucture has an octogonal sikhara with a single
stupin
Behind these two shrines, h e is a pillared vsranhh with about 35 pillars, 7 pillars in 5
mws. ~mongthese first four rows of pillars are of pillars with horse riders. Above the Kapota of
this varaadha there are series of salas and kutas on the cornices. In the middle of these pillars and
m d a h then is a small shrine for sukra varattammani (Vellikilamai Tayar) facing north.
Behind this varandha there are various shrines in a series.
On the southwest, there is a shine for Srirarna, There is a circumbulatory passage with
pillan; the &is
of which are not very prominent. The elevation of this shrine consists of
upam, padma, jagati and kumuda pattika. The pada porhon has pilasters and kumbha panjaras,
On the northern wall there is a boar symbol with dagger in
fronl.
This is the symbol of
Vijaymgar rulers, There is a figure lying under the legs of the boar, the identification of which
is not clear. The vhm is in octogonal shape. In front of Rama shrine there is a smail sannadhi
for Anjaneya When compare to the other shrines in the temple, Rama shrine seems to be ancient
one that depicts the Vijayanagar style, which is still in tact.
Next to Rama shrine, there are shrines for Venugopala, Vedantadesika and Nammalvar
and on the north western side there is a shrine for Andal. All these shrincs are laler additions.
The Andal shrine has a pillared mandapa with dvarapalakas flanking the doorway. In front of
these Srines is situated the vasanta mantapa with four pillars and pushpapotika corbels. Above
this are kapota, griva, s i i a and stupi. The comers of h e kapota have figures of reptiles (like
lizards). On the four sides of griva there are sculptures of Vishnu. In thc east Vishnu with His
consort S r i h and BMevi; in the south Annntasayana; in the west Lakshmi Narasimha and in
the north Adimd. The sikhara is in square shape with kid mukha on the four sides and above
this is stupin]n front ofthis mantapa there is another maniapa with round sikhara where devotees
offer salt as a part of their worship.
Adjacent to this mantapa there is a well, a tree and s h e s for Tirukhcchinomhigol
ard Si Bb3h-a.
20 1
There is also a small room provided to keep the vahanas, which are taken
into p r o d o n d h g the festival days.Next to these shrines there is a yagasala with six pillars,
which are composite pillars with horse and horse riders. On the basement of the yagasala, there
are dance sdpm playing hlaltrun, On the northeastern side there are shrines for Senainathar
and next to it is the office of the temple with a small room to house the bronze icons of the
processional deities.
On the southeastern side there are kitchen and shrine for Ganesa. The Ganesa shrine is a
small mantap with four pillars. There is a flight of steps leading to this shrine. Behind this
shrine there is a small store mom. On the south there is a small 4 pillared mantapa with fligh~
of steps with superstructure that consisted of salas, karnakutas and panj ars. The griva consists of
Anantasaym Vishnu and Garuda on the four comers. It has a square sikhara with a kalasa and
stupi, The basement of this mantapa has animal and human figures.
Origin of the Temple: This temple also called ~ h i s h w a r a n ~ a mis~one
~ ' among the ThondaiNattu twenty-two Thpthis of ~aishnavites'~~.
e . legend connected with the origin of Cis
temple showsthat once upon a time in Kritayuga, a sage by name Purupunyar lived with his wife
Satyavati in Badarik ashram. They had no children. So they pcrformed Salai Yajna with great
. RK.Das, Tempjo of Tamil Ndu, Bombay 1964,p. 261.
'I3
". 1T-
c o n h i d 22 sacred V a i h v a Centres or Divyadesams.They are:
12. T i m g a
13, Thnilattinga Thundarn
14. Tiruninrawr
15. Tiruniraham
16,Tirupparamcsvara Vinnagaram or
Vaikunta Penunal Temple
17. Tiruppavalavannam
18. Tiruppadagam
19,Tirupputkuzhi
20, Thvekah or Yadoktakari
2 1. Tiruneerrnalai
22. Timvelukkai
favour and devotion. EW day they offered Ahutis (oblations of the ghee to the sacrificial
fin a f k chsDtinB the mantra each time) for one full year. On the last day when Purnahud (the
final offering) was performed, Lord Nmyana was pleased with the austerity of the ritualistic
o b m R s of the sage, and appeared in the sacrifical fire in a blissful mood to offer boons. The
sage prayed for a noble son. With this blessing Lord Narayana disappeared. Then hc sage
collected the ash strewn
the Yajna peeta and gave a handful of ir to his consort to take in
with great v m t i o n as hasadam. In the loL month after that a son was born
to sage
Purupuny'a. The child was named as SaIihotmn. As the child grows,he showed much interest in
pilgrimage and visited temple after temple. One Tai Arnavasai (New Monday) he reached
Tiruvallur where he found that Lord Brahma, other devas and great sages like Vasishtar werc
engaged in taking bath in the Hrittappanasini tank. The holy assemblage induced him to tahc
bath in the tank before performing his usual religious observances. The bath in the tank changed
his mind and he decided to start a penance without food and drink for one year. Time rolled on to
next year on the same Pushya Amavasaya day he completed one-year penance and took a holy
dip in the Himamini tank and observed his morning prayer.
As he was fasting for one year without food and drink he collected on that day some
paddy and prepared prasadam. He divided it into three parts, The first part was offered to Lord
Narayana The second part was kept for offering as charity and the third part
was for his
consumption, At this juncture h r d Narayana took the form of an old Brahmin and came the way
where Salihotm was waiting to offer a share to a guest. When Salihoban saw the old Brahmin
he immediiely requested him to grace his hermitage, With great respcct he offered the presadam
to the Brahmin. Mer he ate the presadam, Salihotran felt from his facial appearance that he was
not satisfied. On enquiry he lemt that the old Brahmin had no food for the last four or five days
and his h q c r was not fully satisfied.The other portion, which he kept for himself, was offered
to the guest H
is guest was higbly satisfied and left the place.
Salifiotran commenced another year's penance without food and drink. Again on the day
of Pushya Amavasaya, at its close, he took his holy bath in the tank and noticed many usual good
omens on his way. After finishing his morning ritual he procured some paddy and prcpared the
like
203
OM Year. He offered one portion to Lord Narayana and was waiting for
offer the second portion. This h e also Lord Narayana took the form of an old
and was welcomed by Salihotran to his hermitlge.
a guest to
3-
old Brahmin expressed that he was feeling extremely hungry and thirsty and needed
a place to rest. After taking prasah, the old Brahmin expressed to Salihotran "Where is the
place for me to lie?''(Ed) "hthis hemitage" (Iwul) replied Salihotram. The old Brahmin was
greatly pleased at this offer and stretched his body in the hermitage gutting his head towards
south. Immediately the old Brahmin transformd into the form of Sri Narayana and Adisesha
appeared with his thousand hoods to serve as couch and canopy. This vision of the reclining pose
of hrd mayam made Salihotran so happy and satisfied. Lord Narayana fulfilled his desire and
ordained that because he asked Salihotran where he was to iic down (Evvul) and Salihotran
replied that he could lie down here itself (Iwul). This place is called 'liruewullur, and in due
course of time it dunged as Tivaliur.
Another legend connected with the temple shows that the Lord was sbted to have killed
two Rhakhas (evil forces) namely Madhu and Yaidaban and tiredly came to Ihis place and
asked the sage Salighotran where (Evvul) should he take rest, for that Salihotran stated to have
requested the Lord that he could lie down here itself (lvvul). Hence this place is cdkd Tiru
Evullu and in due course it came to be called 'Tivallur.
Historical Value of the Temple: Sri Viraragavaperumal temple at Tiruvallur has a great
historical value from 7 h t u 1 y onwards. This Sthala has been celebrated in verse only by two
out of twelve Alwars, The first dvar to sing about this temple and thereby elevated it to the
s t a h of a Divya Desa was Tirwnazhisai Alwar whose birthplace is about fifteen miles west of
TiruvallUTand who was a junior contemporary of the earliest alwars. (Mudal Alwargal) In one
verse of his Naanmugan Tiruvandadi (the fourth Prabandham) he includes 'Tiruewul' as one of
the Kshemw h the Lord can be seen to the reposing on the 'Nagathinai.' (serpent - Couch.)
In the gh
T m @ Alwar who was ihe last of the alwars and also the poet
204
po accllen@ a n g s t them, hu gofie into raptures over the Pemal of this place and sung in
exquisiteverses about Him. This Padilram (A unit of ten verses) is the second Tirumozhi in the
seoond centum of the 1084 v e ~ e which
~ , go to makc up Periya Timozhi. And in the 19Ih
Swamigal
century
bas praised the deity in his Tiruvarutpa. Tirumangai Alwar
describes the Lord as ''Edknwdai" the big mountain in Ewual.
The name of the main deity is also called Sri Vaidhya Viraraghava swamy, because it
was believed that by taking both in the w e d pushkarani (temple tank) and by worshiping Sri
Virmghavaperumal and the gopura Vijaykodi Vimana, all the diseases will be completely cured.
SO he was called Sri Vaidhya Viraraghavot swamy.
There was a belief that this deity was powerful in curing diseases. Once a son of a
Zarnindar fell ill and the doctors lost all hope of his recovery. So he prayed to the deity to rescue
his son from illness and promised to give a life-size image of God made of silver to this temple
as a gift. The boy was recovered horn his illness and the Zamindar fulfilled his promise.
The I d tradition attaches greater importance to this tank than the Ganga, the Godhavari
etc. On the new moon day every month hundreds of people taking a dip in the holy 'fiirtha and
worship the Lord. As usual in the center of the tank there is a Neerazhi Mandapa, where the
seasonal festivals are performed. Even to day though the water in the tank is less, the crowd that
come to this holy place on Amavasaya day is immense. Ibis temple is a Prarthana Sthala like
Tirupti, Oppiliappan Koil, Gunaseelam etc.,
The System of Wonhip: The system of worship including the science of temple
building, icon making, pujas, rituals and festivals among Vaishnavites is governed by ceitain
agarnas, tbc chief among them being the Pancharatra and the Vaikhanasa. The Pancharatra and
Vaikhanasa mas do not agree M e n themselves. The Vaikhanssa agama is almost
exclusively fm Vaishnavites, while the Pancharatra is both for Vaishnavites and nonV&hnayiteSS
VaiLhanasa lean an the Vedic mantne side, while the Pancharatra lean on ihe
~o
205
hncharatra system of worship attained more popularity because in the
side.
&em of
archah @'ma who perfoms worship), any grihasta (manied man) can look
&r the warship of god tnnporarily. To day the Pancharah is (and has been since the days of
manuja)the chief Vaishnava doctrine regarding worship. The hllowers of this agama worship
dwars, Acharyas and Matadhipathis (Pontiffs) and recite Nalayira Divya Prabandham during
th& worship. Tiruvallur Viraraghavaperumal temple follows the Pancharatra agama system of
W O ~ Psaid
, to
have been ppularised by Rmanuja.
lascriptiom of the temple
of endowments for conducting worship in the temple.
Endowmerrts were made for special services in certain important occasions and the articles
quid for the pujas are given in detail. But nowhere in the epigraph the time of thc
Perfmnanceof worship and the method or manner of conducting them are mentioned.
Tnc pujas in this temple fdin three categories namely Nityapuja (ordinary worship done
daily), Masa puja (performed in occasions like festivals once a month) and thirdly Varusha
visesh fdval (conducted once a year). The expenses for conducting these festivals would he
hrne by the temple itself. The income from the land would be utilised for such purpose.
Sometimes endowments were made by rulers or the public for conducting festivals.
Nitya pujas or d d y pujas are mentioned as Tiruppalli elucci, Sirukdai Sandi, uccikala
puja, a&
jama puja in the inscriptions of Tiruvallur region. Threc inscriptions of this region
mrded the performance of Tiruppalli elucci or the morning waking service. The epigraph of
Raja raja Ill (1234) from Msdavilangam registers a tax-free assignment of land by the Urur of
Kallw near Tmallur to provide offerings during the morning waking senrice of god. The record
from Kuvm new TiruvalIur also registers the endowment made by the Urur for conducting
morning mkq senice on all the 30 days in the month of Margali in the year 1610 AD. Yet
another mrd from Poondi registers the grant of some specified lands to a person who secured
hm M
m
w Maharaja towards Timpalli elucci, Sirukalai Sandhi, evening services on the
4' dry ~fchittirai
~d
The inscription
, of Kulothvnga I from Tiruppachur on the outskirk of
206
Tiruvdl~stam that tanm ofthe temple received money from rich people and a g e d a
co&ct Tiruppdli elucci during Pwattasi ~irunal'~~.
Thvdu has a ~9~ Position in the mode of worship adopted here. Usually the
mom routine or m o n i e s in
0 t h temples
~~
would begin
before sunrise, which is known as
whdkda pula but the ~1~ morning worship commences only aRer sunrise at Tiruvallur. The
puja starts with K a l a d puja. The main doors of the temple arc opened at 6.30 in the morning
and immediakl~ pfiesb would go to sayanalaya, the place for retiring in the night and wake
the god and goddess by chanting manha and verses. This is called Tinrppalli elucci. The morning
worship eonsists of six asanas or stages. The arc&
conduct this important worship most
elabomtely every day. The first asam is known a Mantrasana by which the presence of the
almighty is invoked, the second is Snanasaoa, during which time the Tirumanjanasana or holy
bath is performed to the daity, the third is the Alangaraasana when the daity is clothed and
adorned with jewels, the fourth is Bhojaasana when food is offered to the deity and the fifth one
is Mmtmma when mhana is performed by offering Tulusi (occimum sanctum) leaves and
chanting the manhas. The Iast stage is Sayanaasana when the deity is belicved to go to sleep. The
last mentioned sentice is reserved for the night.
The temple poojas for an ordinary day consisted of six times. (Arukalapoqia) The pooja
ceremony usually begins with reverentid opening of the door of the Sanctum Sanctorum in
which the image of the deity is housed. The powers guarding ovcr the doors are saluted and there
is sounding of the bell ad the clapping of hands before entering inside the Sanctum in order to
expel any unwanted spirits and to attract the attention of the Bod. The priest then expresses his
intention of worship and seeks the divinity his consent. Hymns are recilcd to propitiate the deity
to
take visible fm by inhabiting the image and once this takes place the priest is able to
converse d t h the divine. Various verbal formula (manbras) and symbolic hand gestures
(mudras) are then mployed to concentrate the power of the god and to permit the periomer of
the ritual to draw himself into contact with the divine.
207
Due athtion is @d to the cmf0rl of the divine presem, the preparation of the
vmals and h@enQ WsarY fm the worship, the water bathing (abisheka) to the utsava
~igharawhich is placed kfon the main deity and dressing of the main deity. The main deity or
the Vishnu image is anoited with oil, flowers, jewels, garlands, tulasi and entertained with
waving of @as
and burning of camphor. The offerings are presented to he god, which
consisted of cooked fdsuch as rice foming the principal meal.
gain the uccikda puja commmccd afier eleven in ihe morning. The recitation of the
portions of the PraIAandams takes plat during the time of pooja. The ritual ends
Sathumarai after which
wilh
consemated water (Thirtharnj and food (Prasadham) are distributed to
the reciters and 0th~devotees. During the midday worship abhisekha is done with food
offerings and the midday worship ends. Immediately after this the temple is closed and again
opened at 4 in the evening. The evening worship starts with abhiscka to gods. Food offerings lo
various gods have done in dl the shrines. At 9 in the evening ardhajamapuja is performed. This
consists of food offering or naive& to gods. After this the image of Viraraghavaperumal is
bathed and worshipped. Then the metal image of the god is brought to the sacred bedroom
(TirylplIiyarei)near the shrine and the image is left there in a bed decked with flowers.
Monthly ceremonies are performed on the special occasions. The special offerings made
on the amavasya day are well known. Thousands of devotees come io this temple in this day
every month. They take bath in the temple tank, offer their hair to god and do angapradahhina
around the sanctum sanctoram of the temple,
There are three big festivals or maholsavams celebrated in this temple, They are
Vwtotsavm, Navarairi and Brahmofsavam, The Vasantotsavam invariably Falls on the Tamil
month of V a h i . (April and May) This is conducted to celebrate the starting of spring season.
The festival is conducted for five days.Every day abishka is performed and the god is decorated
in various typs and the images an taken in procession. Ms festiwl is celebrated with a great
fun and fair in the Thmanjana mandapa. During the festival days music concerts, dances and
other nlipiousdeliberations we arranged in he lcmplcs.
208
Next bigger festival falls on the Tamil month of Puratasi ( q - o c t ) and conducted for
nine days called Navaratri utsavam. This concludes on Vijayadasami day. All images in the
mple an taken in pncession every day.
'Ibe biggest of all these festivals is the BrabmoUlsavam performed for 10 days. On the
first day of BrahoQavam, special flag is prepared and hung in the premises of the temple. This
is the ceremony connected with the utsavam. A rectangular piece of cloL is used as a flag, a
coconut is tied to it and amidst music and chows the flag is hoisted. %en follows the ceremony
called Angurupa, which comprises of sowing nine or seven or five kinds of seeds in a
e-are
pot. This precIudes the beginning of the utsavam. From the third day the regular
festival bcgins and.the god is taken out on procession on different mounts such as clcphant
-v
garuda v
W etc., on various days.
A ~ Mfrom these festivals other minor festivals like Tepptsavam or the grand floating
festival takes plm in the month of Ani at Hrittappanasini tank, which is situated on the southeastem side of the temple.
Ramanuja was born of the hash day of Thai (jan-fcb) month and
during this time annual floating festival is conducted every year. The marriage festival of Lord
Vishnu Eakes place in the month of Panguni (march-april) particularly on Uthiram day is
celebrated in a grand scale. Ram Navami or Rama's birth day, the seventh incarnation of
Vishnu is celebrated in every year in the month of chittirai. (April-May) The priest, when the sun
reaches the meridian, publicly exhibits a coconut, put it in a cradle and announces the birth of
god Apm hm this Rsdhotsavm or car festival. Avatara utsavam, which marked the decent
of Vkdapava st this place
etc., are celebrated
in this temple. Many of these festivals are
mentioned in he inscriptions show that even in hose days these festivals were popular and
amamd large number of people from fsr and wide.
Temple sdmlaistmtio~:From about early 8' cenluy construction of temples and endowing
hd
wealth to them became universal. Naturally when the temple became a wealthy
institution and dso a c e n of~ many social activities it needed an able administrative body
look &r all its affairs.
to
209
The epigraph
Thvdlur refers to the donation made by Viraraghava Sathagopa
jiyar in the A@of V i r a v h M Maharaja (1 630AD). The jiyar was evidently of the
Ahobila matt, the pontifi~ialStat fmm 1630 to 1675 AD. Tiruvallur temple is managed by the
authorities of Ahobila ma& which situated in Karnool in ~ndra~radesh"~.
The liyar held an
importand and honoured place in the temple h i w h y . Persons of good character and of sound
knowledge wen dened for the Jiyar's position. They were highly respected. These spiritual or
religious dignitaries were in charge of the religious ceremonies and worship in the temple. It is
found in the inscriptions that 4 categories of institutions had direct or supervisory control over
mple adminismti~n.They are 1.The king or his representative, 2.Village adrnioistrativc bodies
like &ha,
ur, nagaram
etc. 3. Priestly Brahmin groups and 4, the group designated
administrators who had direct involvement in the management like Devakanmigal,
Sthmathar etc.
Sivabnhma~s:The office of sivabrahmans was hereditary. Wc come across the term koyil
kaniyadaiya in the epigraphs, which implies the hereditary right or worship in the ternpje.
They claim descent from the Vedic rids Kausika, Kasyapa, Ciowtarna, Bharadvaja and Atrcya,
They performed a number of extensive functions in the temple besides heir ritual role. In the
epigraphs they were seen entering into agreement with various donas, receiving endowments for
the burning of lamps and for the conduct of worship and food offerings. The endowments
acceptd by them were in the form of gold, land, cash, paddy, grains, cattle, gardens etc. (The
interest accruing from these endowments was to be used to perform worship and offerings and
bumiog of lamps) There are instances when sheep, cattle and lands werc donated for lhis
purpse. Besides these they also agreed lo perform worship on everyday and dso on special
occasions and festivals, take the idols in processions, to perform morning waking service, to rear
flower gardm md to provide flowers to gods etc. Considerabale number of inscriptions speaks
a h the -S
as an executive body in the temple. Thcy accepted donations and agreed to
exRute t h . ficy also
ornaments for the deities and feeding pilgrims of the temple.
210
~ e i sRobably
: they were the members of the executive body. The tern Devakanmis
tho* who exw:ute the affairsofgod. (sewant of god, temple senant) They participated
dvdy in the affairs of the trmple and acted as immediate supervisors of the temple employees.
hey supenidand maintained the devadana lands, which were exempted from taxes.
~rivaishnava:They
the custodians and protectors of the charities snd hey have also
participltcd in the administration. By
large the management of the temple was in the hands
of local people called as S h t h r , Srivaishanavas, Sivabrahmans etc., who were intimately
connected with the temple. Occasionally local assemblies controlled the temple affairs.
It my be pointed out that there was no forcible direction or control or diversion of funds
from the temple by the state. The temple like the village was certainly free from direct state
control except for some obligations like payment of taxes etc. They were held in high esteem by
dl people. The sanctity of the temples was respected even by monarchs.
Sri i(rlibmba1 (alias) Kamntchiamman ~ern~lel': Thin temple was built about 200
years ago. It is situated on a plot measuring 16' x 60', one pooja is done daily by Gurukkal . This
temple has a mango grove and some shops, which fetch an annual income of Rs. 4501-in 1960.
Special gaojas are offered thoughout the Tamil mouth of Mar~hazhi.'The main festival
N a v d attracts the local people, A single trustee manages his temple.
Sri Vembnliamman Temple: This temple was built 250 years ago and was1" nnovuled
extensively by Sri Oopalaswamy chetliar about 50 years back, IIS extent is 105' x 70' and pooja
is offend regularly every day. Iattirai the only festival conducted in this temple in Avani month.
A single trustee looks after the affairs of this temple.
Sri lunnilupmmmari Df!va~thmam:'' This 80 years old temple was built by the local
p p l e bclonping to
Wya W ~ U W ~ QThe
. temple wvers roughly an area of Eight cenk.
The priest offm~ o j twice
a a day. The temple gets an income of 8 bags of paddy from one
acre of land. Navarathi festival
the local people. A Board of three trustees manages the
temple,
Sri Prasannavenkatesa Perumal Temple: The Vishnu temple, which is 140 years old was
renovated by the local people. The area of the temple is 400' x 1OO', An income of Rs. 6601- is
realised from N o houses and shops in 1960. Poojas are conducted daily out of his income. The
temple owns a palaquh and four Vaharas.But they are not used, as the Brahmotharam festival is
not celebrated at present for want of funds. Vaikunda Ekadesi is the only festivat observed in the
temple. Its adminisbation vests with a Board of two trustees.
Sri Seha Vlnayagar ~emple:"' An individual buiit the small temple some 113 yexs ago.
Four shops owned by tbis temple are let out for renl and the income is Rs.1801- per month in the
year 1961. Vinayaga Chathurthi is the only festival cclebraled. A single trustee looks after the
temple affairs.
Sri Theertbteswarar Temple:
Sri Theeriheeswarar ~empleof Tiruvallur was constructed
some 650 years ago by Ule local residents. It covers an area of 1.50 acres. The presiding deity Sri
Theestheeswarar is an installed Lingam.
I38
. bid.,pa26;
. lbid.p, 27;
159
la.
Ibi.p. 28;
212
A hereditary 0hrddd perfom poojas thrice a day and his annual remuneration is
20 &S of paddy. The temple
landed property to the extent of 16 acres of wetlands
managed by the presmt truste~from which an annual income of 42 bags of paddy accrues. This
is spent for poojas and festivals of the temple. It derives an additional income from hundi
The hundi is opened monthly once in the presence of the trustees.
The
folio*
are the Vaharas owned by the temple, which are heads of woods.
Rishabatn, Simham, Peacock, B h ~ d h a ,Adhikara Nandi. Ravaneswarer and horse. All the
~ahm
are about 80 yars old and were donated by the present trustee. Navarathri (for a pcriod
of 10 days) Skandhasashti (for 6 days) Manickavasagar utsavam (for a period of 10 days) and
Brahmothsavam (for a period of 10 days) are the regular annual festivals observed by the templc
of which the Brahmothsavam is the most important one during which thc presiding deity is taken
round the streets in a procession, This attracts a crowd of few thousand devotees from the nearly
villages. The temple is administered by a single trustee.
Sri Pandurangaswamy Temple: This temple was built by a devotee somc 100 years ago.
The presiding diety is Sri Pandurangaswamy. It covers an area of about 15 ccnts. The Moolavar
in this temple is in a standing posture. It is learnt that the temple has sthalapuranarn written by
Sri hghavadas in Telugu. As there is no priest here, he hereditary b s t c c who belongs to naidu
caste performs the pooja daily once in the morning.The annual festival is celebrated in purattasi
month.The temple is managed by a single trustee.
Saivism in Tirnvallur Region: Appar, Sundarar and Sambandar visited sacred places in this
region and sang Padigams in praise of Lord Siva. Karaikkal Ammaiyar, the woman devotee
worshipped Siva at Tiruvalangadu. Pattinathar, the poet, ascetic lived and died in Tiruvoniyur.
There are 32 Siva temples celebrated in the Devaram Padigms from this region. Among 63
Nayanmrn, six were born in Tondaimandalm. They were Sakkiyanar, Sivanesar, Vayilar,
Tirukkurippu Tondanar, Murkka, and Kaliyar.
L1j
~ ~ i f i h n n in
i ~ThVallur
m
Region: Vaisbnavism contributed its share of religious faith
in tbis regim P o y & l ~
native of Kanchi. Boodattalwar was born at Kadalmallai or
~ a h a b d p mPe~alwar
.
was born at ' h m y i l a i or Mylapore. Thirumazhisaialwar was born at
~irumaEhisainear Tiruvalur. Tirukkachchinambi,close associate of Sri Ramanuja, the famaous
phj]osopher and a religious leader was born in Pwnarnallee near Tiruvallw. The great Etiur
~urnaratatachayhone of the acknowledged leaders of Vaishnavism stayed at Tiruneenalai,
which becarne the center of his activities.
Jainitrn and Buddhism: In the field of religion, no other region bas played such a prominent
part as Tondaimandalam. In fact it was the meeting place of several important religions such as
Buddhism, J ~ s mSaivism
,
and Vaishnavism, each leaving an indelible impression of its
doctrine and philowphy, Kmchipuram was the most important Buddhist cenfer of S O U IIndia,
~
Jainism had also found its way in this region,Tiruppathirippuliyur was a great center of Jainism
where during the reign of Mahendravman I, Appar was the head of the Jain monastery,
T i r u p p a r u t h i h , popularly known as Jina Kanchi in Kanchipurarn was another important
center of Jainism. Mylapore had a Jain Pagoda for Tirthankara Neminatha.
Islam: Islam made its slow entry in South India from the later part of the Chola rule. 'Ihc
assimilation of I s h in this region was smoother than in the north. Since the Arabs were traders
and not conkstants for political power, they were not concerned with maintaining a separate
identity. The Arabs who settled in the western coast, later moved into the Tamil country for trade
purpase and settled in Tondaimandalam. In spite of the estahlishmcnt of the Sultanale of
Madmi in the Tamil country, Islam was still not having many adherents. Though politically the
sultanate of Maduai was brought to an end by Kumara Kampana in 1374 A.D., the Muslims
c h d their trade and commercial activities in the Tamil country without my hindrance,
In thc beginning the Muslims were not agreeable to the Hindu natives, since they
plundered Hindu temples and canied on destruction. They were trealed with scant respect and
habed by the Hindus. &It this trend had changed after the establishment of Vijayanagar Empire.
Though tbis empire was established to prevent the spread of Islam, lhry followed the plicy of
td-
214
towards Islam. This liberal religious policy encouraged them to settle in
~ o d a i r n n d ainclding
l~
Thvallur region. They settled and lived along with Hindus without
any religious bigow BY their labour, professional skill and experiise in trade and commerce
they
this region enormously.
hmp fl emuraged Muslims in several ways. He employed them in he army and
civil administdon, gave them jagirs and allowed hem to construct mosques. He gave orders to
place before his throne, a Kuran on a richly decorated table and gave much reverence to this
Holy book. 'hey were allowed to pursue their worship without any hindrance. This liberal
religious policy of Vijayanagar rulers was a unique featurc in the administration of rciigion,
Hindus wen Wpectad Mush Saints.
Migration of Muslim religious saints for the purpose of spreading their faith and to
educate good qualities to common people was frequent after the faH of Vijayanagar Empire. One
among them was Sayid Shah Jetmalani who came from Lucknow to South India. He visited
Central Indian B h i n i Kingdoms and reached Nyderabad. He was patronised by he Nizam of
Hyderabd and stayed in his court for few months,Then he marched furher to south and reached
Tituvallut. He stayed in a tent near Viraraghara perumal temple where there was dense bushes
and snakes. He developed his tent into a small house and stayed there along with Sayyid Khadir
who also came from Lochow along with him. There he conducted daily prayers and changed
their house into a prayer house. Then he developcd convict with nativc pcople of Tiruvallur and
preached Islamic
At Uthukoth about 20 km away from Tiruvallur Chanda Sahib, the Nawab of Arcot
~nstructeda fort, His relatives stayed in the fort and they frequently visited Nawab in his palace
in Chennai.(whm gonrcmment ofies exist today called Kuralagam) From Uthukottai Nawab's
reladves travelledthrough PeriqaIaym,Red hills and reached the Nawab's palace. But this
161
. Interview with Munwar-ud-din in Veppampattu on 1.08.2002.
L1J
mute was always riw because many rivers are flowing across the mad and this route was
innandated by river water for many months in a year. So they took the alternative mute to
~ h e t hdu g h Thlvfdur and Pwnamdlee.Nawab's relatives stayed in Tiruvallur many times
and had religiom d ~ ~ s i o with
n s Sayyid Jahnalani. They were very much impressed by his
bwledge about Islamic principles and aceepted him as their Gum.They converted the Guru's
hermitage into a mosque. ' h i s mosque now exists near Viraragavaperumal templc, which is
known as P-an
Ahmad Shah mosque.
Nawab's datives whose names are not known visiled this mosque frequently and made
arrangements for ~ n d ~ t prayers,
h g helping the pwr people and arranging religious discussions
with the people, Due to royal patronage Islam slowly spread in Tiruvallur. Nawab's relatives also
compelled Guru to get married because Islam did not accept brahrnacharya. (except for Sufis)
However Sayyad Khadir, Gum's friend renounced brahmacharya and got married. He also
took tbe responsibility of maintaining his friend and also the Holyman, Sayyid Shah Jatrnalini.
It is said that 10 genedons of Sayyid Kadir had passed away and now 1 1"enneration
Munwar-uddh is living in Veppampattu near Tiruvallur and conbolling Pademakkam
Ahmad Shah Mosque. There are few other mosques existing in Tiruvallur. They are (1)
Takkinikottai mosque (2) Jamia Masjit or Jumma Mosquc at mosque street (3) Fathial mosque
(4) Cbinna W U
Mosque (5) Manavala Nagar Mosque and (6) Madharsa Muhammadiya.
(Small mosque)
Evely Muslim is under the control of a religious leader.He is conducting prayers 6 times
a day in the masque, which is attended by Muslim people. He selects a band of Muslims who are
called Tnblic Jamad. Their work was to meet those Muslims who are not participating in daily
prayers and enlightened them about the imporlance of daily prayers and compelled them to
participate in prayers. They also help them to conduct religious festivals in their houses.
Whenever poor people approach the leaders for any financial help for marriage or burial of dead.
immediately it is informed to the rich Muslims and necessity fmcial help is provided to them.
216
If any one is willing to learn Arabic, he is sent to Manavala nagar Mosque where
g,&
Arabic school is existing and imparting Arabic languages and Kuran to the students.
h n are more than 30 students learning Arabic in this school. Even though all mosques are
cultivable lands but they are occupied by various individuals and the rent paid by them
meagre. So the fioancial condition of all mosques is so bad and they need much financial
lclp forlmh-~.
All mosques are now under the control of Wakf Board. Though Wakf Board helping
them to some extent it was not adequate.
The term 'wakf' means permanent dedication of
propettiesfor religious and charitable purposes. The aim of wakf board is to ensure that all the
walrf in Tamilnadu state are managed in accordance with thc provisions of the W akf Act of
1954. For proper administration of wakf properties, two wakf inspectors an:appointed by wakf
board as in charge of fieldwork in Tiivallur district. Jamia Mosque at Tiruvallur is one of the
important wakf institutions, In order to augment the resources of wakf institutions, loans are
grimed by ?he government through the Wakf B o d for construction of buildings of permanent
nature such as haps, lodgings, shandi khanas etc, The wakf board created a welfare fund from
out of the donations received horn the public and is providing financial assistance to the poor
and downtrodden for charitable purposes such as marriage of poor girls, schlorship for poor
students etc. Many
Muslim people in Tiruvallur benefited from these charitable activities of
Wakf Board,
Christanity: With the advent of the Portuguese in India, Christianity began to attract thc
people. But South India witnessed the coming and settling of Europeans from very early times.
Though there were some volentary conversions by the people, Christianity spread due to he zeal
and sacrifice of early Christian Missionaries. The Vijayanagar ruler Venkata I invited be
Christian faM,honoured them and made them lo take part in the philosophical discussions.
The tolerant religious policy of Rayas coupled with the support of the natives facilitated the
spread of Christianity. Barbosa says that the kings of the Vijayanagar empire granted full
freedom to the people of diverse faiths, treated them equally and justice was rendered
impartially,
217
In the beginning of 14' century many Christians stayed in Tondaimando.lom and
on their WO* of conversion of Hindus into Christianity without any hindrance due to the
bt that this region witnessed the political stability and religious tolerance. Fwfher this region
~ a v ethem hope for their Peaceful avocation, as it presented a congenial atmosphere to various
and diverx goups of people. In the begining of 19%centwy many Christians came and
in TondaimandaIam to spread Christianity among the native people. Their missionary
zeal knew no bounds and in course of time they gained substantial numkr of local population as
converts. Their humility and dedicated services attracted he society. They chose people of lower
strata of the society (down trodden) and improved them well. As a rcsult, the oppressed found an
asylmin Christianity.