POLICIES FOR PEDALING
Managing the Tradeoff between
Speed & Safety for Biking in Chicago
BY JENNA CALDWELL, RILEY O’NEIL, JOSEPH P. SCHWIETERMAN* & DANA YANOCHA
DECEMBER 12, 2016
VS.
UBER POOL
CTA
BIKE
2016
CHADDICK INSTITUTE FOR METROPOLITAN DEVELOPMENT AT DEPAUL UNIVERSITY | POLICY SERIES
THE STUDY TEAM
AUTHORS
JENNA CALDWELL, RILEY O’NEIL, JOSEPH P. SCHWIETERMAN* AND DANA YANOCHA
DATA
COLLECTION
RILEY O’NEIL, JENNA CALDWELL AND STIJN VAN DER SLOT
GRAPHICS
RACHAEL SMITH
PHOTOGRAPHY FROM TOP RIGHT, COUNTER CLOCKWISE: PHOTO BY VICTOR GRIGAS (CREATIVE COMMONS),
COLLEEN O’NEIL AND DANA YANOCHA
*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
CHADDICK INSTITUTE FOR METROPOLITAN DEVELOPMENT AT DEPAUL UNIVERSITY
CONTACT: JOSEPH SCHWIETERMAN, PH.D. | PHONE: 312.362.5732 | EMAIL: [email protected]
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
TheCityofChicago’sinvestmentsinbikeinfrastructureoverthepastseveralyears,includingdesignated
lanesandotheramenities,areallowingcycliststoreachtheirdestinationquicklyandwithastrong
perceptionofpersonalsafety.Thisstudyevaluatesthespeed,convenience,andpredictabilityofbicycle
travelinChicagoaswellaspolicyoptionstohelpmanagethegrowthofbikingasameansof
transportationinthecity.
AreviewofmunicipalordinancesaroundthestateofIllinoisandfieldobservationsof875cyclistsatsix
intersectionsinChicagoprovidevaluabledetailsaboutthebehaviorofcyclistsinthecity–particularlyin
regardstoreducingrisk.BuildingondatacollectedfortheSpring2016study,HaveApp,WillTravel:
ComparingthePriceandSpeedofFiftyCTAandUberPoolTripsinChicago,thereportalsoexplores
resultsfrom45matchedtripsmadebetweenrandomlyselectedpointsthroughoutthecity.Considering
allthreemodes–publictransit,UberPool,andbike–bikingprovedfasterthanpublictransiton33of
the45tripsandfasterthanUberPoolon21trips.Whiletripsbetweenneighborhoodsincludedthe
largestpercentageofunmarkedstreetsused,morethanhalfofthetotalbikemileageonallroutes
couldberiddenondedicatedbikelanesand/ortrails.
Basedonthesedata,thestudymakespolicyrecommendationsformunicipalitiesinterestedin
supportingbiketravelbyencouragingridershipandsafetyontheroad.Recommendationsinclude:
I. Consideringpermitting“IdahoStops”atfour-waystopintersections,whichwouldenablecyclists
todeterminewhethertostoporyieldbasedontrafficconditionsinordertomaintaintheir
momentum.Thestudyshowsthatonlyaboutonecyclistin25presentlycomplieswiththelawto
cometoacompletestop.ApilotprogramtoallowIdahoStopsatcertaintrafficsignalintersections
whentrafficvolumesarerelativelylowmayalsobeconsidered.
II. Loweringfinesforcyclistswhocommitminortrafficviolationsandoffering“diversionprograms”
asanalternativetopayingafineifthecyclistattendsanapprovedtrafficsafetyclass.Suchprograms
presentauniqueopportunitytoeducatecyclistsabouttrafficlawsandhowtheyareenforced.
III. Prioritizingincremental,low-costinfrastructureimprovements,suchassignage,alongroutesthat
connectneighborhoodsoutsideofdowntown.Intheabsenceofadesignatedbikelane,theseefforts
bothencouragedriverstosharetheroadandjustifycyclistsridingintraffic.
1
Investmentsinbikeinfrastructurethroughout
Chicago—dedicatedlanesoncitystreets,trails,
bikesharingstationsandrelatedamenities—are
allowingmanywhotravelbybiketoreachtheir
destinationfasterandwithastrongerperceptionof
personalsafetythanjustafewyearsago.The
impressivepaceoftheseenhancements,together
withthehealthbenefits,convenience,andlowcost
ofbiking,haveraisedthevisibilityofamodeonce
confinedtothemarginsofurbanlife.
Alongwiththegrowthofbikingcomesaneedfor
newstrategiestobetterintegratethismodeintothe
ebb-and-flowofthecity’stransportationsystem.This
reportofferstechnicalperspectivesonthreeissues
thataddresstheseconcerns:
SECTION I exploresthestatusofregulations
governingbicycletravelandenforcement,bothin
Chicagoandelsewhere.Thissectionoffersadetailed
lookatpotentialimplicationsforadoptingthe“Idaho
StopLaw”toaddresscyclists’desiretopreservetheir
momentumatintersectionsandsavetime.
SECTION II providesnewevidencetosupportthe
notionthatshortertraveltimesandtrippredictability
maybedriversinthegrowthofbiketravel.The
sectioncomparestraveltimesbybikewithpublic
transitandUberPoolalong45differentroutes.
SECTION III suggestspolicyoptionsandprioritiesfor
policymakers,withparticularattentionfocusedon
adoptingpoliciesthatstrikeareasonablebalance
betweenthedesiretoencouragetheconvenienceof
biketravel,whilenotoverlookingthesafetyof
cyclistsandothersontheroad.
Thisreportdoesnotextensivelyconsiderthebenefits
andcostsofinfrastructureimprovementstosupport
bicycletravel.Instead,itofferspracticalshort-term
policyoptionsworthyofcarefulconsideration.
I. POLICIES AND REGULATIONS
GOVERNING BIKING IN CHICAGO
AlthoughChicagohasreceivednationalattention
recentlyforitsbike-friendliness,itisoften
overlookedthatthecityhasembracedand
encouragedthismodeformanydecades.Thecity
hasalongtraditionofinvestinginbiking
infrastructure,startinginearnestwithMayorCarter
Harrison,whocreatedabikepathfromthe
EdgewaterneighborhoodtoEvanstonandmade
bicyclingaprominentpartofthe1897mayoral
campaign.Betweenthe1960sandearly2000s,both
RichardJ.DaleyandRichardM.Daleyalso
demonstratedacommitmenttocycling
improvements,includingoff-streettrailsand
protectedbikelanes.i
Nevertheless,itwasnotuntilafterChicago’scurrent
mayor,RahmEmanuel,tookofficein2011that
effortstomakebikingmoreattractiveto
commutersgainedhighvisibility.Manymilesof
dedicatedbikelaneshavebeenaddedtocitystreets
underEmanuel.Thewidely-celebrated2013launch
oftheDivvybikeshareprogramfurtherreduced
barrierstoentryforpeopletotrybikingwhilealso
increasingawarenessthatstreetsaremeantto
servemodesotherthancarsandbuses.The
BloomingdaleTrail,knowncolloquiallyas“The606”,
aswellasthesoon-to-be-completedNavyPier
Flyover,“Paseo”inPilsen,andotherdedicated
bikewayshavebecomehallmarksofthecity’sbiking
agenda.
Inresponse,bikinghasbecomemorepervasiveand
theshareofallcommutingtripsinthecityhasrisen
exponentially.From1990to2000,thissharerose
from0.3%to0.5%.By2015,commutingbybike
madeup1.4%ofthetotalshareofcommuters—
morethanfourtimestherateof1990.Althoughthe
percentageofcommuterswhotravelbybikeisless
thanthatinnearbyEvanston(3.5%),andChampaign
(2.8%),itisfaraboveeveryothercityinIllinoiswith
atleast50,000residents.ii
Interestinpromotingcyclingisunderscoredbyits
myriadofhealthandenvironmentalbenefits.A
studybydeHartog,Boogaard,Nijland&Hoek
(2010)demonstratesthatthereductioninair
pollutionresultingfromashiftfromdrivingtobiking
candecreasepollution-relatedmortalityratesfor
communities.Additionally,citieswithhighbiking
2
ratestendtohavealowerriskoffatalcrashesforall
roadusers(MarshallandGarrick,2011).Thisbenefit
islikelyduetothe“safetyinnumbers”
phenomenon,theideathatdriversadjusttheir
behaviorinaccordancewiththeperceived
probabilityofencounteringabicyclist.
TheActiveTransportationAlliance,Chicago
MetropolitanAgencyforPlanning,andChicago
DepartmentofTransportationhaveallbeenactive
participantsineffortstopromotesafebiketravel
throughouttheregion.TheCDOTStreetsforCycling
Plan2020remainsthecornerstoneofMayor
Emanuel’svisionofaworld-classbikenetworkfor
Chicago,espousingtomakeitthe“bestbigcityfor
bikingintheUnitedStates.”The2012plan
ambitiouslycallsfora645-milenetworkof
innovativebikewaysthatpositionsbicycle
accommodationswithinahalf-mileofeveryChicago
resident.Theplanalsostrivestoconcentratethe
greatestnumberofbikewaysinthemostdensely
populatedneighborhoodsandidentifylow-ridership
areaswhereinfrastructurecouldspurgreater
ridership.Insomerespects,muchoftheplan’s
visionhasalreadybeenachieved:Chicagothisyear
wasnamedthe“FriendliestBikeCityinAmerica”by
BicyclingMagazine.iii
REGULATIONS & ENFORCEMENT
Analysisbythisreport’sresearchteamnonetheless
paintsamixedpictureofexistingregulationsonbike
travel.Thestudyteamreviewedtheordinancesof
eachofIllinois’29municipalitieswithpopulationsof
50,000ormoretoassessthestatusofbikelaws.The
followingisabriefsummaryofresultsthatappearin
the2016issueoftheIllinoisMunicipalPolicyJournal.
Bikevs.MotorTravel
Inall29cities,bicyclistsarerequiredtocomplywith
thesamelawsgoverningmotortravel.Thisincludes
speedlimits,observanceoftrafficcontroldevices,
passingregulations,andbehavioratrailroad
crossings.
Helmets
Noneofthe29municipalitiesrequireallcycliststo
wearhelmets,althoughCicero,EvanstonandOak
Parkrequirechildrenbelowacertainagetowear
them.Chicagodoesnothaveauniversalhelmetlaw,
apolicyconsistentwiththeviewsofmostexperts,
whobelievehelmetlawscandeterpeoplefrom
bikingandthusarecounterproductive.Further,
universalrequirementsforhelmetscancreate
complicationsforpeopleinterestedinusingDivvy
andotherbikeshareprograms,particularlythosewho
usethemonlysporadically.
Penalties
Thefineschargedforbicyclistsbreakingtrafficlaws
generallyrangefrom$10to$50.Chicago’sfinesare
atthehigherendofthatrange(between$50-$200).
Chicagoistheonlymunicipalityevaluated,however,
thatoutlinesfinesformotoristsendangeringcyclists
(parkinginbikelanes,doorings,etc.),withfines
rangingbetween$150-$1,000iv.Enforcementofthese
typesoffinesarestronglyendorsedbymanybicycle
advocates.
Sidewalks
In22municipalities,languagearticulates“ifand
where”itisappropriatetorideonthesidewalk.
Chicagoisamongthe22citiesthatbansadultsfrom
ridingonthesidewalkinbusinessdistricts,andisone
ofthreecitiesevaluatedthatmakeanexceptionfor
downtownsidewalkridingforchildrenundera
certainage(which,inChicago,appliestoridersunder
12yearsold).
TrendsinEnforcement
Chicagoshareswithnearlyallofthemunicipalities
evaluatedageneralleniencytowardbicyclistswho
violatetheregulationsdescribedabove.In
Chicago,13,150traffic-relatedticketswereissuedto
cyclistsfrom2006and2015.Thevastmajorityof
thesewereforsidewalkviolations(Knight,2015).
Otheranalysisindicatesthatthecityissuedan
averageofaboutnineticketsperdayin2015.Recent
mediareports,however,suggestthatticketingmay
beontherise.vNevertheless,therateofcitations
appearstobewellbelowthatofNewYork.vi
Inshort,Chicagostandsoutforitsambitiousefforts
toinvestininfrastructure,ticketmotoristswhoput
cyclistsatrisk,andpromotebikesharing.Likemost
cities,however,Chicagohasnotplacedagreatdeal
ofemphasisoncreatingbike-specifictrafficlawsor
adoptingeffectiveenforcementmethodstodealwith
concernsoversafety.
3
IS THE IDAHO STOP LAW APPROPRIATE
FOR ILLINOIS COMMUNITIES?
Atpresent,noneofthe29municipalitieshave
adoptedtheIdahoStopLaw,whichwasenactedin
1982inthestateofIdaho.Thispolicyallowscyclists
totreatstopsignsasyieldsignsandredtrafficsignals
asstopsigns(PedestrianandBicycles,1982).The
detailsoftheIdahoStopLawsuggestthatitwas
writtentoalignpolicywiththefactthatmanycyclists
seektomaintaintheirenergyandmomentumat
intersectionswithoutcompromisingsafety.
WhilethefulllanguageoftheIdahoStopLawcanbe
foundintheAppendix,themostnoteworthysections
forthisstudycanbefoundinthegrayboxbelow.
ResearchontheIdahoStopLawsuggestsitcanbea
reasonableaccommodationtocyclistsandmay,in
fact,enhancesafety.Meggs(2010)foundthatthe
yearafterthelawwasimplemented,cyclistinjuriesin
Idahodeclinedby14.5%andfatalityratesremained
constant.Thestudyalsodrewattentiontothefact
thathavingcyclistsfollowthesamelawsasdrivers
mayinfactbemoredangerous.Leth,Frey,&Brezina
(2014)concludedtheIdahoLawreducedthenumber
ofintersectionaccidentsbetweencyclistsand
motoristsincitieswherethepolicyhasbeen
adopted.Nostudieswerefoundthatconcludedthe
IdahoStopLawwasunsafe.
A2007reportbyTransportforLondon’sroadsafety
unitfoundthatalthoughwomenmakeuproughlya
quarterofallcyclistsinthatcity,theyarekilledby
largetrucksatthreetimestherateasmen(Tran,
2010).BetweenJuneandSeptemberof2016,six
cyclingdeathsoccurredinChicago(theaveragefora
fullyear),halfofwhichwerewomenstruckby
commercialsizedtrucksmakingturns(Sobol&
Wisniewski,2016).TheTransportforLondonreport
positsthatwomenaremorevulnerabletotruck
collisionsduetotheirtendencytobelesslikelyto
disobeyredtrafficsignalsthanmen.Bygoingthrough
aredtrafficsignalbeforeitturnsgreen,menareless
likelytobecaughtinatruckdriver’sblindspot.
Instead,theygetinfrontofthetruckbeforeitstarts
toentertheintersection.Thisresearchsuggeststhat
somecyclistsdisobeystopsignsorredtrafficsignals
insituationswheretheirpersonalsafetymightbeat
riskotherwise.
Otherresearchalsopointstothedangersthattraffic
signalintersectionsposetocyclists.Chen(2015)
analyzed707instancesofbicyclecrashesfrom2010
to2013,takingintoaccountnumerousvariables,
suchasthetypeofintersectionandtrafficcontrols.
Theseresultsshowsthatsignaledintersectionswere
associatedwithmorebicyclecrashes.Thus,ifcyclists
arelegallypermittedtoyieldandproceedthroughan
intersectionwhencross-trafficisnotpresent,they
cancleartheintersectionbeforemoretraffic
becomespresent.
AstudybyNixonpublishedin2011foundthatnearly
94%ofcyclistsinterviewedconsideritanegative
physicalexperiencetohavetheirmomentum
interruptedbyastopsignorredtrafficsignal.The
majorityofbikerssurveyedreportedthatthey
actuallymakeanIdahoStop,evenwhenthelaw
forbidsthis.FajansandCurry(2001)suggestthatthis
behaviorhasarationalbasis,determiningthata150
poundcyclistproducing100wattsofpower,witha
stopevery300feet,incursa40%dropintheir
averagespeed.
IDAHO STOP LAW | SUMMARY
At stop signs, the Idaho Stop Law stipulates that
a cyclist: “Shall slow down and, if required for
safety, stop before entering the intersection.
After slowing to a reasonable speed or stopping,
the person shall yield the right-of-way to any
vehicle in the intersection or approaching on
another highway so closely as to constitute an
immediate hazard.” The law also specifies that
a biker “may cautiously make a turn or proceed
through the intersection without stopping.”
At traffic signals, a cyclist: “Shall stop before
entering the intersection and shall yield to all
other traffic. Once the person has yielded, he
may proceed through the steady red light with
caution.” At signaled intersections, the law
specifies “a left-hand turn onto a one-way
highway may be made on a red light after
stopping and yielding to other traffic.”
4
FIGURE 1: Observations of Bicyclist Behavior at Intersections with Counts
STOP SIGN INTERSECTIONS
1. LOGAN SQUARE
110 OBSERVATIONS
TRAFFIC SIGNAL INTERSECTIONS
4. WEST EDGEWATER
140 OBSERVATIONS
Bryn Mawr Ave
W Belden Ave
N Clark St
N Sacramento Ave
2. WICKER PARK
133 OBSERVATIONS
5. BUCKTOWN
135 OBSERVATIONS
W Augusta Blvd
W Armitage Ave
N Wolcott Ave
NM
ilw
auk
ee
Ave
6. RIVER NORTH
236 OBSERVATIONS
3. HYDE PARK
111 OBSERVATIONS
Kinzie St
E 55 St
N Wells St
S Cornell Ave
A total of 875 bikers were observed during 14 total hours of observation during Summer 2016
5
FINDING I:
Whencross-trafficisnotpresent,fewcyclists
complywithexistinglawsateitherstopsignsor
trafficsignals.Abouthalf,however,exerciseat
leastthelevelofcautionassociatedwithIdaho
Stops.
FIGURE 2: Intersection LocationsCity of Chicago
Atstopsigns,justtwopercent(aboutonecyclistout
ofevery50)cametoafullstopwhencross-traffic
wasnotpresentwhilefarmore(43%)madeIdaho
Stops,slowingdownenoughtoyieldifnecessary
(Figure3).Theremaining55%failedtotakeeither
precaution.Onecanpositthatwhencyclistssense
therearenoimmediatesafetyrisks,theirdesireto
maintainforwardmomentumandconserveenergy
almostalwaysexceedstheirdesiretostrictlyadhere
totrafficlaws.
4
1
5
2
6
3
CYCLIST BEHAVIOR IN CHICAGO
Togainperspectiveonthebehaviorofthetypical
cyclist,thedatateamforthisreportobserved
bicyclistsinChicagoduringthesummerof2016at
sixintersectionsoutsidedowntownonthenorth,
northwest,westandsouthsides(Figure2).Halfof
theintersectionsareequippedwithtrafficsignals
andtheotherhalfwithfour-waystopsigns.
Observersremainedlargelyoutofviewofcyclists
andrecordedthenumberthatmadelegalstops,
IdahoStops,orfailedtoexerciseeitherlevelof
precaution.Intersectionswereselectedbasedon
highlevelsofbiketraffic.Countsforeach
intersectioncanbeseeninFigure1.
Fieldobservationswereconductedtwiceateach
locationforatleast60minuteseach,onceduring
regularcommutetimes(generally8–9amor5–
6pm)andonceduringanoff-peaktime(e.g.
weekends).Thedataoffersareasonable
representationofhowcyclistsbehaveat
intersections,andsupportsthefollowingfindings.
Attrafficsignalintersectionswhencrosstrafficisnot
present,30%madefullstopsandwaiteduntilthe
lightturnedgreen,ormadearightturnwhen
permittedafterstopping.Morethantwiceasmany
(65%),however,madeIdahoStops,oftenby
proceedingthroughtheintersectionbeforethelight
changed.Onlyfivepercentfailedtodoeither,
proceedingthroughtheintersectionwithout
stoppingoryieldingatall.
Theseresultsshowthatinquietconditions,
compliancewithtrafficlawsisfargreaterattraffic
signalsthanstopsigns.
FINDING II:
Whencross-trafficispresent,compliancewith
existinglawsismuchgreater,particularlyattraffic
signals.
Atstopsigns,ninepercentofcyclistsmadefullstops
whencross-trafficwaspresent,while65%made
Idahostops;theremaining26%tookneither
precaution.Attrafficsignals,78%followedthelaw,
andonly17%madeIdahoStops(Figure3).The
remainingsixpercentexercisedneitherprecaution.
Thesampleisnotlargeenoughtomakedefinitive
conclusionsaboutdifferencesintravelbehavior
duringpeakandoff-peaktimes.However,during
morningandeveningrushhour(aswellason
weekends),itappearsthatagreatershareofcyclists
makeatleastanIdahoStopcomparedtooff-peak
times.Overall,54%compliedwithcurrentlaws
duringcommutingtimescomparedto44%atother
6
FIGURE 3: Legal and Idaho Stops at Chicago Intersections by Traffic Conditions
100%
90%
17%
80%
70%
65%
60%
50%
66%
40%
30%
20%
43%
30%
10%
0%
78%
9%
2%
Stop Sign
Traffic Signal
No Cross-Traffic Present
Legal Stop
times.Thelimitedsizeofthesamplemakesit
difficulttodetermineexactlywhythisisthecase,
butheaviertrafficduringpeakperiodsislikelya
contributingfactor.Forasummaryofsomeofthe
notabledifferencesinbehaviorbetween
intersectionsaswellascumulativeresults,please
refertoAppendixA.
Overall,theseresultsshowthattheIdahoStopisthe
mostprevalentactiontakenbybikersapproaching
anintersectionexceptattrafficsignalswhencrosstrafficispresent.Giventhis,itwouldlikelybequite
controversialforlawenforcementofficialsto
dramatically“stepup”enforcementbytargeting
IdahoStopsatstopsignintersectionsandattraffic
signalswherecross-trafficisnotpresent.Asnotedin
SectionIII,theseresultssuggestthatadoptingthe
IdahoStopincertaincircumstancescouldenable
resourcestobedivertedtodealingwithmore
flagrantviolations.
Stop Sign
Traffic Signal
Cross-Traffic Present
Idaho Stop
II. MEASURING THE RELATIVE SPEED
OF BICYCLE TRAVEL Thepopularityofbikinginurbanareasmaybe
stimulatedbyitsrelativespeedandpredictability.To
betterunderstandtheimportanceofthesefactors,
thissectionoffersasystematicanalysisofthe
differencesintraveltimebetweenbiking,Chicago
TransitAuthority(CTA)servicesandUberPooltrips.
IntroducedinthecityinNovember2014,UberPool
isaformofridesourcing(oftencalled“ridesharing”)
thatallowsthedrivertopickupotherpassengerson
thetrip.Thisspecializedserviceisoftenreferredto
as“ridesplitting”andpricedaround40%lessthan
conventionalUberXservice,makingitmore
competitivewithtraditionaltransitoptions.
Theanalysisbuildsuponapreviousstudybythe
ChaddickInstitute,HaveApp,WillTravel:Comparing
thePrice&SpeedofFiftyCTA&UberPoolTripsin
Chicago,whichcompares50“pairedtrips”(inwhich
travelersdepartedsimultaneouslyononeofthetwo
modes)betweenrandomlyselectedpointsinthe
city.Theanalysisbelowsupplementsthisstudy,with
datacollectedfromJune–December2016.
7
Thenewlycollecteddataincludesallrouteswith
distancesofatleast3.5miles—45ofthestudy’s
original50paired.Thisminimummileagethreshold
waschosentolimittheanalysistobiketripsofat
least20minutes.Onshortertrips,onewouldexpect
abicyclisttoarrivemuchfasterthanpublictransit—
particularlywhenatransferisnecessary—onan
overwhelmingshareofrides.Thelongesttripwas
15.6miles.
METHODOLOGY
Thedatacollectorsfollowedastrictsetof
methodologicalguidelines,ridingthesame
commuterroadbikeandbeginningeachtripby
startingatimerattheoriginaddressandwalkingthe
bicycletothestreet.Theridermaintaineda
moderatepacethroughouttheentireride,resulting
inspeedsslowerthantheexperiencedcyclist,but
comparabletoacasualcommuter.Upon
approachingthedestinationaddress,therider
lockedupthebicycleonarack(ifavailable)orstreet
signpost,walkedtothedestinationaddressand
stoppedthetimer.Thedatacollectortookthe
necessarytimetoputonandremoveahelmet.
Allbikingtripswereconductedonweekdays
between10a.m.and6p.m.Inadditiontoregular
trafficlanes(thosewithnoidentifiablemarkings),
twotypesofbikelaneswereutilizedduringthese
trips:1)sharedbikelanes,whichinvolveabarrieror
paintedlane;and2)off-streetlanes,i.e.,theNorth
ShoreChannel,The606,andLakeFrontTrail.The
majorityoftheroutesincludedridingonsomeform
ofbikeinfrastructureormarkedlanes,especially
whenutilizing“bloodlinebikingstreets”,suchas
MilwaukeeAvenueandDearbornStreet.Routes
wereidentifiedusingtheGoogleBikeapptoavoid
subjectivejudgments.
Eachtripiscategorizedintooneofthreegroups:1)
downtown-to-neighborhoodtrips;2)neighborhoodto-neighborhoodtrips;and3)outerdowntown-toneighborhoodtrips,withthe“outerdowntown”
beingcomprisedoflocationsontheperipheryof
downtown.PleaserefertotheHaveApp,WillTravel
studyfordetailsonhoworiginsanddestinations
wereselectedforthesetrips.
DIFFERENCES IN TRAVEL TIME
Theresultsshowthatbiketraveltimesdiffersharply
basedontheoriginanddestinationofthetrip,as
seeninFigure4.
Downtown–Neighborhood:
Onthesetrips,bicycletraveltimesaveraged50:52,
makingthismodeslightlyslowerthantheCTA,
whichaveraged49:15,andsignificantlyslowerthan
UberPool’s43:21.Bicycletravelwasfasterthan
publictransitoneightof19downtown-toneighborhoodtrips,andwasalsofasterthan
UberPooloneightof19trips(Table1).
OuterDowntown–Neighborhood:
Bicycletraveltimesaveraged43:38,moderately
fasterthantheCTA(52:58)andafewminutes
slowerthanUberPool(40:09).Bicycletravelwas
fasterthantransitoneightoftheninetripsinthis
category,andwasfasterthanUberPoolonthree.
TABLE 1: Results of 45 Paired Trips in Chicago: Bike, CTA & UberPool
PAIRED
TRIPS
TRIP TYPE
AVERAGE
BIKE
DISTANCE
# TRIPS
FASTER BY BIKE/
SLOWER BY BIKE
AVERAGE
TRAVEL TIME
AVERAGE
WALK
DISTANCE
BIKE
CTA
UBER
POOL
CTA
UBER
POOL
CTA
VS.
CTA
VS.
UBERPOOL
AVERAGE
COST*
DOWNTOWN –
NEIGHBORHOOD
19
8.55 MILES 50:52
49:15
8 FASTER
43:21 118 FASTER
SLOWER 11 SLOWER $2.35
$10.11
.55 MILES
OUTER DOWNTOWN –
NEIGHBORHOOD
9
7.70 MILES 43:38
52:58
FASTER 3 FASTER
40:09 18 SLOWER
6 SLOWER
$2.35
$9.51
.63 MILES
NEIGHBORHOOD –
NEIGHBORHOOD
17
5.27 MILES 28:11
52:05
FASTER 10 FASTER
31:37 17
0 SLOWER 7 SLOWER $2.41
$9.47
.58 MILES
ALL TRIPS
45
7.05 MILES 40:51
51:04
33 FASTER 21 FASTER $2.36
38:16 12
SLOWER 24 SLOWER
$9.66
.58 MILES
*While commuter cyclists incur regular maintenance costs to keep their bikes running smoothly, they do not pay a cost per-trip.
8
Neighborhood–Neighborhood:
Forthesetrips,bicycletraveldominated,havingan
averagetimeof28:11,whichwasmarkedlyfaster
thantheCTA(52:05)andmoderatelyfasterthan
UberPool(31:37).Bicycletravelwasfasterthan
transitonall17neighborhood-to-neighborhood
trips,andwasfasterthanUberPoolon10of17trips.
transfers—afactorevaluatedingreaterdetailin
AppendixB.
Thefollowingstatisticsillustratethedramaticways
thatthecity’sinvestmentsinspecialized
infrastructureforcyclistshaveshapedthecharacter
ofbiketravel:
Whenconsideringalltrips,theaveragebiketripwas
40:51minutes,abouttenminutesfasterthanthe
51:04averageCTAtrip,andtwo-and-a-halfminutes
slowerthanUberPool(38:16).Bikingwasfasterthan
publictransiton33ofthe45tripsandfasterthan
UberPoolon21trips.
Anotableexplanationforthespeedofbiketravel
comparedtotransitistheavoidanceofboththe
“walktime”totransitstopsandwaittimes.Onthe
45tripsconsidered,theaverageCTAtripinvolveda
.58milewalk,averagingaboutnineminutes,aswell
asconsiderablewaittimes.TheaverageCTArider
spentjustoverfiveminutes(05:13)waitingatabus
stoporrapid-transitstationbeforetheirbus/train
arrived;manyspentadditionaltimemaking
•
Everyoneofthe45routesutilizedanoffstreettrailorbikelaneatsomepoint.More
thanhalfofthetotalmileageon38ofthe45
routeswascompletedonsuchlanesandtrails.
•
36%ofthetotalmileagewasriddenon
unmarkedstreets.Neighborhoodto
neighborhoodtripshadthehighest
percentageofroutesusingunmarkedstreets.
•
TheLakeFrontTrailwasutilizedasthe
preferredrouteforpartof15ofthe45bike
trips.TheBloomingdaleTrail(alsoknown
as“The606”)wasthepreferredpathineight
routes,whiletheChicagoRiverwalkandNorth
ShoreChannelwereinstrumentalinfour
routeseach.
FIGURE 4: Average Time by Trip Type: 45 Trips by Bike, CTA & UberPool
1:00:00
0:52:30
45:00
0:37:30
52:58
50:52 49:15
43:21
43:38
52:05
40:09
30:00
28:11
0:22:30
31:37
15:00
0:07:30
00:00
DowntownNeighborhood
Outer DowntownNeighborhood
Bike
CTA
Neighborhood Neighborhood
UberPool
9
FIGURE 5: Comparing Trip Differences
1
2
12
77
13
11
4
14
15
3
16
5
6
21
20
22
7
OD1
CTA Fastest
UberPool Fastest
OD4
OD3
LEGEND
Bike Fastest
OD2
OD5
OD6
OD7
OD8
D1
D3
D4 D7
D5
D2 D6 D8
D9
D10
Neighborhood locations labeled with area number • Outer downtown locations labeled with OD • Downtown locations labeled with D
Thismapshowsthelocationsofthedowntown-to-neighborhood,outerdowntown-to-neighborhood,and
neighborhood-to-neighborhoodroutes.Thecoloredlinesindicatewhichmodewasfastestamongalltimetests:
Bike,CTAorUberPool.
10
TABLE 2: Predicting Travel Times
DIFFERENCES IN PREDICTABILITY
Theresultsshowthatcyclingtendstooffergreater
trippredictabilitycomparedtotheother
transportationmodes.TransitandUberPoolinvolve
waittimesthatcanbeunpredictable.Moreover,
UberPoolridersalsofaceuncertaintyoverthe
numberofpickupsontheirtrip,whichaverages0.85
stopspertripbutreachedthreeinseveralinstances.
Further,60%ofthetransittripsinvolvedmakinga
transfer,whichwasfoundtoadd15.84minutesto
thetriptime(seeTable3inAppendixB).Bicycle
travel,particularlywhendedicatedlanesare
available,isalsolessaffectedbytrafficcongestion
thanbusesandridesourcing,makingtraveltimeless
variable.
Theseobservationsareborneoutinregression
analysis,whichshowsthattraveldistance(mileage)
explainsonly26.8%ofthevariationintraveltimeon
theCTAtripsand37.2%ontheUberPooltrips(Table
2).Therestofthevariationintraveltimecanbe
attributedtootherfactorssuchaswaittimes,
transfersandoperatingdelaysinthecaseoftransit,
andcongestionandadditionalpickupsforUberPool.
Forbiketrips,bycomparison,mileageisanexcellent
predictor,explainingmorethan90%ofthevariation
intraveltime.Thus,abicyclistwhoknowsonlythe
tripmileagecanpredicttraveltimewith
considerableaccuracy.
Inthemodel,thedifferencesbetweenmodesare
alsoborneoutinthestandarderroroftheestimate.
Thetypicalvariationbetweenthepredictedtravel
timeandactualtraveltimeinthemodel(with
mileageastheonlyindependentvariable)is17.1
minutesontransit,11.0minutesonUberPool,and
5.0minutesonbiketrips.Ineffect,thismeasuresthe
anticipatederrorifatravelerweretoestimatetravel
timebasedonlyonthemileage(nottheoriginor
destination).Inotherwords,estimatingtraveltime
foraroutecouldvarybyfiveminutesifthetripis
completedbybike,comparedto17.1minutesif
completedbypublictransit.Itshouldbeemphasized
thatthesestandarderrorsreflectthe
variationbetweenroutesandnotthatincurredbya
riderusingthesamerouteoverandoveragain.
Additionaldiscussionoftheregressionformulais
detailedinAppendixB.
TRIP TYPE
% OF VARIATION IN TIME
EXPLAINED BY MILEAGE
STANDARD ERROR
OF ESTIMATE CTA
BIKE
90.6%
5.0 MINUTES
CTA
26.8%
17.1 MINUTES
UBERPOOL
37.2%
11.0 MINUTES
CHICAGO CONDITIONS
Unlikethetwoothermodes,theseresultsare
conditionalontheweatherbeingsuitableforbike
travel.Amajorlimitationofbikingremainsthe
effectsofinclementweather(extremetemperature,
highwind,precipitationandhighhumidity)aswellas
availablesunlight.Chicago,onaverage,has182days
peryearwhenthesunsetsafter7p.m.,andthereare
onlyfivemonthsperyearwhenaveragelow
temperaturesareabove51degrees.Asaresult,
manycommutersuncomfortablewithridingtheir
bicycleinthecoldordarkwillfinditanunattractive
transportationmodemuchofthetime.Whilethe
specificsofsuchfactorsarenotconsideredinthis
analysis,theyareworthnotingwhencomparingthe
variousmodes.
Itisalsoimportanttoacknowledgethatcyclists
benefitgreatlyfromtheavailabilityoftransitservice.
Whencyclistsfaceinclementweather,darkness,
maintenanceissues,orsufferfromaccidents,fatigue
orillness,theCTAservesasa“planB”option.Indeed,
theCTAislargelyregardedasabike-friendly
operator,oftenprovidingcoveredbikeracksat
stations,twobikeslotsperbus,andtwobikesper
traincarduringoffpeakhours(timesotherthan7–9
a.m.and4–6p.m.).vii
11
III. POLICY IMPLICATIONS
TheCityofChicago’scommitmenttoproviding
infrastructureanddedicatedlanesforcyclinghas
changedthedynamicsofbiketravelinthecity.As
notedpreviously,theMayor’sOffice,Departmentof
Transportation,andotherunitshavemadelargescaleinvestmentstosupportbiketravel.Several
findingsfromthisstudyillustratethis.Amongthe45
randomlyselectedroutesevaluated,allincluded
someuseofdesignatedbikelanesortrails.On
average,morethan60%ofthemileagewasridden
onlanesandtrailsseparatingtheriderfrommotor
traffic.Onlyadecadeago,muchofthesedesignated
bikelanesandrouteseitherdidnotexistorwerenot
strategicallyconnected.
Investmentsininfrastructurewillcontinuetofuel
bicycletravelgrowth,aswillriders’desiretoreduce
traveltimeandmaximizepredictability,evenin
transit-richneighborhoods.Inresponse,policymakers
shouldrecognizethatenhancementsto
infrastructuremustnowbeaccompaniedbystepsto
managetheflowofbicycletraffic,whichwillrequire
moreattentiontowardcreatingenforceablerules
andimprovedpoliciesforissuingcitations.
Thefollowingpolicyrecommendationsbuildonthe
findingsgeneratedfromtheaboveanalysis:
RECOMMENDATION I: EvaluatethepotentialforlegallypermittingIdaho
Stopsatintersectionswithfour-waystops,and
assessincrementalstrategiesforallowingIdaho
Stopsatsignaledintersections.
Observationsfromthisstudyshowthatenforcing
existingrulesattheseintersectionswouldseem
arbitraryandcapacious,withonlyonebicyclistin50
complyingwiththelawwhencross-trafficisnot
present.Stopsignintersections,especiallyfour-way
stops,tendtobelessriskyforcyclistspracticingthe
IdahoStopbecauseevenifcross-trafficispresent,
motoristsarerequiredtostop.Stopsignintersections
alsotendtobeinlower-trafficareas,suchas
residentialareas,wheretraffic,overall,movesat
slowerspeeds.PermittingIdahoStopsatstopsign
intersectionswouldalsohelpbikersfeelmore
confidentthatenforcementeffortsarebeingdirected
towardcyclistswhoposelegitimatesafetyrisks,and
mayhelptobolsterconfidencethatthelaw
enforcementcommunityismorewiselyallocatingits
limitedresources.
Further,apilotprogramcouldbeenactedauthorizing
IdahoStopsatselectsignaledintersectionswith
relativelylowtrafficvolumes.Thiscouldinclude
postedsignsandbelimitedtooff-peakperiods.
Alternatively,onecouldenvisionallowingIdahoStops
moregenerallyduringlate-nighthours(i.e.11p.m.–
5:00a.m.)whentrafficisverylightand,nodoubt,
veryfewcyclistsarelikelymakefullstopsatred
trafficsignals.Althoughsuchmeasureswouldrequire
furtherstudypriortoimplementation,itbehooves
thecitytograduallymovetowardrulesthatreflect
reasonabletradeoffsbetweenconvenienceand
safety.TheCitycouldalsomakeknownthatlaw
enforcementpersonnelwillavoidissuingcitationsfor
IdahoStopsasaprecursortopossiblylegalizing
them.Sucheffortswouldhelpinstillconfidence
amongbicycliststhatlawenforcementpersonnelwill
notbearbitraryinissuingcitations.
RECOMMENDATION II:
Considerloweringfinesforcyclistswhocommit
trafficviolationsandoffering“diversionprograms”,
suchasthoseofferedintheStateofCalifornia,asan
alternativetofines.
Enforcinglawsregardingbicyclesafetyisdifficultat
presentduetoboththe$50minimumfineinChicago
andthegeneralsensethatcertainruleswillnotbe
rigorouslyenforced.Toaddressasimilarchallenge,
CaliforniapassedAssemblyBill902in2015which
allowsapersonofanyagewhocommitsaninfraction
notinvolvingamotorvehicletoparticipateina
diversionprogramthatissanctionedbylocallaw
enforcement.Whilenotalwaysfree,theseprograms
offercycliststheopportunitytohavetheirfine
waivedandavoidhavingtheviolationontheirrecord
iftheyattendanin-personoronlinesafetyclass.
Diversionprogramsalsopresentanopportunityto
educatecyclistsaboutexistingtrafficlaws.Since
cyclistsdonothavetotakeanykindofcourseor
programtoride,manylikelyarenotawareofthe
detailsofspecificlawsrelatedtobikingandhowthe
Cityenforcesthem.
InChicago,suchaprogramwouldallowtheCityto
pursueheightenedenforcementoftrafficregulations
withoutincurringassharpabacklashfromthe
bicyclingcommunity.Further,adiversionprogram
and/orloweringfinesforviolationswouldmake
citationsissuedbylawenforcementpersonnelless
contentious,therebyenablingtheseofficialstostop
cyclistsasmoreofalearningopportunity.
12
RECOMMENDATION III: Prioritizelow-costinfrastructureimprovements
alongneighborhood-to-neighborhoodroutes.
Accordingtotherouteanalysis,neighborhood-toneighborhoodtripshadthehighestpercentageof
mileageriddenonconventionalunmarkedstreets
(55%onaverage)comparedtodowntown-toneighborhood(26%)andouterdowntown-toneighborhood(27%)trips.Whiletrafficvolumesand
speedsarerelativelyloweroutsideofdowntown,
cyclistsstillmayhesitatetouseneighborhood
streetsthatdonothaveadesignatedbikelane.
Improvedsignageonneighborhoodthoroughfares
thatdonothavecontinuousdesignatedbikelanes,
suchasW.RoscoeStreetwhichconnectsthe
Boystown,LakeView,andRoscoeVillage
neighborhoods,wouldhelpsignaltodriversthat,in
theabsenceofaseparatedlane,cyclistswillbe
ridingintheroad.Similareffortshavebeen
successfulelsewhere,suchasMadison’s“bicycle
boulevards”viiiwhichfeaturesharedroadsignage
andstopsignsonlyfacingcrossstreetstohalt
intersectingvehiclesandallowbicyclestocontinue
alongthemainboulevard.Thesetypesoflow-cost
interventionsencouragevehiclestobemore
attentivetothepresenceofcyclistsandadjusttheir
speedanddrivingbehavioraccordingly.
13
APPENDIX A VarianceofComplianceRatesatIntersections
Whenreviewingthecombinedresultsatintersectionsunderbothtrafficscenarios(i.e.,withandwithoutcrosstraffic),therateofnon-compliancewithexistinglawsismorethantentimesgreateratstopsignsthanattraffic
signals.Justfourpercentofcyclists--aboutonein25--compliedwithexistinglawsatstopsigns,whilealmosthalf
(49%)madeanIdahoStop.Attrafficsignals,50%madelegalstopswhile42%madeIdahoStops,andonlyeight
percentdidnotobserveeitherprecaution.Thus,itappearsthatcyclistspracticetheIdahoStopatsimilarrates
atbothstopsignandtrafficsignalintersections.
Aftertakingthetypeofintersectionintoaccount,compliancebehaviordifferssharplybetweenlocations.
AmongtheexceptionsareMilwaukee/Armitage,wheremorecyclistsmadelegalstopsduringoff-peaktimes
thanpeaktimes,contrastingsharplywithothersignaledintersectionswhichtendtoseegreatercompliance
duringcommutetimesthanoff-peaktimes.Thisvariancefromthenormcouldbeduetothefactthatthe
intersectionismoreheavily-populatedduringcommutinghoursbycyclistsfamiliarwiththetimingoftraffic
signals,givingthemaheightenedsenseofwhenthelightwillchange.Suchcyclistsmayhaveabetter
understandingofwhenitissafetoyieldandproceedthroughthelightbeforeitturnsgreen.Ofcourse,thisis
onlyaspeculativeobservation.
At55th/Cornell(afour-waystopsignintersection),cyclistsaremorelikelytopracticetheIdahoStopduring
commutetimesthanatotherintersectionswithstopsigns.Ninety-onepercentwereobservedpracticingthe
IdahoStopatthisintersection,versus57%atallthreestopsignintersectionscombined.Lightertraffic
conditionsmightbeafactor.
Forafullsummaryofcomplianceratevariationbyintersection,pleaseemailthestudyteamat
[email protected].
APPENDIX B
OverviewofRegressionAnalysis
Thisregressionmodelreinforcesthenotionthat,eventhoughpublictransitinvolvesahigherspeedoftravel,
theoveralltriptimeisslowedbytheamountoftimespentwaitingandwalking(Table3).Thefollowingfour
modelspecificationspredicttraveltimeonthethreemodesbasedonthe45matchedtripsconsidered.The
resultsshowthatexpectedtraveltimeforbiketripsrisesby5.53minutespermiletraveled,comparedtojust
threetofourminutesonpublictransit(CTA)andUberPool.Furthermore,thehigherinterceptforCTAand
UberPool,whichrangesfrom11.54to24.09minutes,demonstratesthattheaddedwaittimeforthesemodesis
appreciable.Themodelalsoindicatesthat,whenusingpublictransit,walkingadds15.84minutespermileto
expectedtraveltimewhiletheneedtomakeatransfersadds10.07minutestotraveltimes(bothcoefficients
arestatisticallysignificant).Takenasawhole,theseresultsillustratethatbiketraveltimesaremoreclosely
relatedtotheassociatedmileagethantheothertwomodes,andthattheslowerrateofspeedofbiketravelcan
beoffsetbylesstimespentwaitingand(inthecaseoftransit)walking.
Additionalanalysisexploringtraveltimesisaddressedinaworkingpaper,availableuponrequest.Email
[email protected].
14
Table 3: Dependent Variable – Minutes of Travel Time
Variable
INTERCEPT
TRANSFERS
MILEAGE
WALK
R2
ADJ. R2
STD. ERROR
OF ESTIMATE
Bike Travel
TRAVEL MODE
CTA 1
CTA 2
UberPool
Coeff. Pvalue
1.85
(.372)
5.53**
(.000)
0.385 0.365 Coeff.
Pvalue
25.09**
(.000)
3.68**
(.000)
0.386
0.360
Coeff. Pvalue
11.54
(.127)
10.07*
(.000)
2.99**
(.000)
15.84*
(.042)
0.420 0.389 Coeff. Pvalue
17.09* (.000)
3.00** (.000)
0.468
0.428
5.00
17.15
13.99
10.97
**significantat.01level.
*significantat.05level.
15
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i
Foraninformalsummaryoftheseefforts,see“BikingtheBoulevardswithGeoffreyBaer,onwttw.com,availableathttp://interactive.wttw.com/a/bikingthe-boulevards-cycling-mayors
ii
JennaCaldwellandDanaYanocha,“IsitTimetoReexamineYourBikeCode?AReviewofCyclingPoliciesinIllinoisMunicipalities,”IllinoisMunicipalPolicy
Review,Volume1(Issue1),December2016,pp.109-121
iii
DetailscanbefoundatBicycling.comathttp://www.bicycling.com/culture/news/the-50-best-bike-cities-of-2016/slide/1
iv
SeecityofChicagomunicipalcode,Section9-4-025
http://library.amlegal.com/nxt/gateway.dll/Illinois/chicago_il/municipalcodeofchicago?f=templates$fn=default.htm$3.0$vid=amlegal:chicago_il
v
Foranillustrationofthis,seeJohnGreenfield,CopsServeandProtectbyTicketingCyclistsforTotallyHarmlessBehavior,StreetsblogChicago,availableat
http://chi.streetsblog.org/2016/11/29/cops-serve-and-protect-by-ticketing-cyclists-for-totally-harmless-behavior/
vi
AsnotedinthepreviouslycitedCaldwellandYanochaarticle,theNewYorkCitypoliceissued51,841ticketstocyclists,about47perdayoverathree
yearperiodendinginearly2015.Averagedannually,oneticketisissuedfortheequivalentofeveryfivecyclistswhocommuteinthatcity,comparedtoa
mereonein35inChicago.FordetailsofthetrendsinNewYork,see“ThisNYPDofficerhashandedoutthemostbicyclesummonsesinthecity,”DNAInfo.
Retrievedfromhttps://www.dnainfo.com/new-york/20150630/upper-west-side/this-nypd-officer-has-handed-out-most-bicycle-summonses-city
vii
ForadditionaldetailsonCTA’srulesandregulationsforridingpublictransitwithabike,visit:
http://www.transitchicago.com/riding_cta/how_to_guides/biketrain.aspx
viii
DetailsandassociateddiagramsforMadison’sBicycleBoulevardscanbefoundontheCity’swebsiteat
http://www.cityofmadison.com/bikemadison/planning/modal/boulevards.cfm
17