English Comparatives and
Superlatives: Emergence of the
Double-Marked
Vincent Porretta - Univ. of Alberta
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Comparative
– Inflectional:
– Periphrastic:
– Double marked:
X-er
more X
more X-er
Superlative
– Inflectional:
– Periphrastic:
– Double marked:
X-est
most X
most X-est
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
English Grammar (Bache, 2000)
– Most monosyllabic adjectives normally require
inflection for comparative and superlative forms
• Fine Finer Finest
• Kind Kinder Kindest
– For these, inflectional marking is considered
standard and periphrastic marking is non-standard
– Double-marked forms not mentioned
• More kinder / most kindest
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Previous studies
– Diachronic relationship between inflectional and
periphrastic forms (Bax, 2008; Kytö & Romaine,
2000)
– Emergence of periphrastic construction (Mondorf,
2009)
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Goal: Examine contemporary corpus data in
order to determine the synchronic structure
that exists in the distribution of inflectional,
periphrastic, and double-marked
comparatives and superlatives
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
COCA – Corpus of Contemporary American
English
– Size
• 410 million words and growing
– Registers
• spoken, fiction, magazines, newspapers, and academic
– Years
• 1990-2010
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Adjectives
• Black
• White
• High
• Low
• Small
• Large
• Big
• Thick
• Thin
• Long
• Short
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tall
Hard
Soft
Weak
Strong
Kind
Nice
Mean
Quick
Fast
Slow
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Analysis of Frequency (Bybee, 2006)
– Base-form adjective vs. Comparatives/Superlatives
– Standard vs. Non-Standard Comparatives/Superlatives
Analysis of Concordance lines (Hunston, 2002)
Analysis of Register (Biber, 2001)
– Non-standard comparative/superlative
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Raw frequencies
Adj
High
Large
Strong
Hard
Big
Kind
Small
Low
Long
Quick
Fast
Short
Slow
Soft
Thin
Tall
Thick
Weak
White
Black
Nice
Mean
Base
Comp_inflect Comp_peri Comp_double Sup_inflect Sup_peri Sup_double
184929
66126
109
16
20803
178
2
119992
36800
53
11
31554
174
1
69137
13664
29
11
5372
12
1
79012
1632
81
8
4467
22
5
187641
20864
202
3
31352
139
2
2195
754
11
3
231
27
1
165347
27868
128
16
3970
136
0
63527
52538
29
8
8205
12
0
253174
68727
85
6
4782
18
0
31731
2596
107
4
722
3
0
13388
5808
19
3
3525
5
0
66687
6515
34
2
979
8
0
28953
3965
21
2
437
3
0
26749
2107
25
1
248
13
0
23126
1968
9
1
211
1
0
21746
3413
9
1
1251
3
0
21746
1690
9
1
553
0
0
14628
2738
13
1
907
1
0
192434
349
183
0
112
145
0
165163
261
403
0
146
185
0
46531
1121
8
0
853
1
0
15504
346
2
0
285
3
0
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Relative frequencies of base-forms and other forms (combined)
Slow
Fast
Quick
Mean
Nice
Kind
Strong
Weak
Soft
Hard
Thin
Base%
Thick
Other%
Big
Large
Small
Low
High
White
Black
Tall
Short
Long
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Relative frequencies among comparative forms
Slow
Fast
Quick
Mean
Nice
Kind
Strong
Weak
Soft
Hard
Comp_inflect%
Thin
Comp_peri%
Thick
Big
Comp_double%
Large
Small
Low
High
White
Black
Tall
Short
Long
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Relative frequencies among superlative forms
Slow
Fast
Quick
Mean
Nice
Kind
Strong
Weak
Soft
Hard
Sup_inflect%
Thin
Sup_peri%
Thick
Big
Sup_double%
Large
Small
Low
High
White
Black
Tall
Short
Long
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Examples of “More Black” and “More White”
More black
one morning There are more opportunities to shoot black bear, since there are more black bears in the
park. For all bear photographs, I used a long lens
Bustamante, Assembly Speaker Robert Hertzberg and others have demanded that the UC admit more
black and Hispanic students and hence fewer Asians and whites. They've threatened his budget
. # Instead he published a series of essays with titles like " No More Black Jeans, " " No More James Dean
T-Shirts, " " No More Tattoos
, " he says. " Maybe one out of 20. We need more Black writers and directors to tell our stories. We can't
complain, we've
" says Dr. Poussaint. " And just from observation, I also see more Black women marrying Latino men. Black
women want someone with whom they have something culturally
More white
You know, I played in the country club crowd, so it's more white collar. You know, here you get white
collar, you also get hippies
more " both brained. " Women have more gray matter. Men have more white matter thus preferring
action. They tend to think more linearly while women use more
though somewhat cynical definition. # The Holzer room in this show contains four more white marble
benches veined in gray and studded with her word-art. It all makes you
out toward his open top roadster, listened to the constant knock, saw more white objects fly in a sky
where the moon was slowly rising, and drove away
situation? We would have a totally different system. If we were subjecting more white, middle-class young
men to the correctional system that has now become identified with young
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Examples of “Most Black” and “Most White”
Most black
But it is not Eurocentric features and long hair weaves that define beauty for most Black men. " A woman
doesn't have to be pretty in what you might
There are some private educational institutions that are open to all races, but most black families can not
afford to send their children to these institutions. Even those that
time, and soon would be booming; still, on the whole, most black Americans remained focused on the
domestic struggle for full citizenship. # Yet, the
majority are citizens and voting on the same scale as blacks. Hicks says most black officeholders are
probably safe until the city election in 2005. # Need for selflessness
, distrust was so deep that black combat battalions often trained without weapons and most black soldiers
served as stevedores and dock workers. Blacks and American Society on the Eve
Most white
, topped with fresh fruit or with a dollop of sweetened whipped cream. Most white dessert wines,
including demi-sec sparkling wine, pair well with this cake. #
. # " Black families have been infected by the American Dream just like most white people. They want to
live in their own home, be independent, "
the poor, especially children, more than Republicans. " # But among most white voters, little sympathy is
expressed for the poor. These voters express strong support
mother but with the uglier stuff that would seep out of the hearts of most white Americans in the same
situation. And when, as luck would have it,
mother but with the uglier stuff that would seep out of the hearts of most white Americans in the same
situation. And when, as luck would have it,
liberalism and the Democratic party, " he writes. Adds Brown: " Most white politicians were afraid to
examine why blacks were unable to climb the economic ladder as
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Raw frequencies
Adj
High
Large
Strong
Hard
Big
Kind
Small
Low
Long
Quick
Fast
Short
Slow
Soft
Thin
Tall
Thick
Weak
White
Black
Nice
Mean
Base
Comp_inflect Comp_peri Comp_double Sup_inflect Sup_peri Sup_double
184929
66126
109
16
20803
178
2
119992
36800
53
11
31554
174
1
69137
13664
29
11
5372
12
1
79012
1632
81
8
4467
22
5
187641
20864
202
3
31352
139
2
2195
754
11
3
231
27
1
165347
27868
128
16
3970
136
0
63527
52538
29
8
8205
12
0
253174
68727
85
6
4782
18
0
31731
2596
107
4
722
3
0
13388
5808
19
3
3525
5
0
66687
6515
34
2
979
8
0
28953
3965
21
2
437
3
0
26749
2107
25
1
248
13
0
23126
1968
9
1
211
1
0
21746
3413
9
1
1251
3
0
21746
1690
9
1
553
0
0
14628
2738
13
1
907
1
0
192434
349
183
0
112
145
0
165163
261
403
0
146
185
0
46531
1121
8
0
853
1
0
15504
346
2
0
285
3
0
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Raw Frequencies by instances of double-marked
Adj
High
Large
Strong
Hard
Big
Kind
Small
Low
Long
Quick
Fast
Short
Slow
Soft
Thin
Tall
Thick
Weak
White
Black
Nice
Mean
Base
Comp_inflect Comp_peri Comp_double Sup_inflect Sup_peri Sup_double
184929
66126
109
16
20803
178
2
119992
36800
53
11
31554
174
1
69137
13664
29
11
5372
12
1
79012
1632
81
8
4467
22
5
187641
20864
202
3
31352
139
2
2195
754
11
3
231
27
1
165347
27868
128
16
3970
136
0
63527
52538
29
8
8205
12
0
253174
68727
85
6
4782
18
0
31731
2596
107
4
722
3
0
13388
5808
19
3
3525
5
0
66687
6515
34
2
979
8
0
28953
3965
21
2
437
3
0
26749
2107
25
1
248
13
0
23126
1968
9
1
211
1
0
21746
3413
9
1
1251
3
0
21746
1690
9
1
553
0
0
14628
2738
13
1
907
1
0
192434
349
183
0
112
145
0
165163
261
403
0
146
185
0
46531
1121
8
0
853
1
0
15504
346
2
0
285
3
0
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Register Distribution
Spoken
Fiction
Magazine
Newspaper
Academic
More higher
4
1
4
4
3
More larger
4
1
1
3
2
More stronger
11
0
0
0
0
More harder
8
0
0
0
0
More bigger
3
0
0
0
0
More kinder
3
0
0
0
0
Most highest
2
0
0
0
0
Most largest
1
0
0
0
0
Most strongest
1
0
0
0
0
Most hardest
4
0
0
1
0
Most biggest
1
1
0
0
0
Most kindest
0
1
0
0
0
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Examples of “More higher” and “More larger”
More higher
largest U.S. carrier, has fuel surcharges on five routes that are 90% or more higher than they
were a year ago, FareCompare.com's analysis shows. For example,
results were for factual recall (multiple-choice questions), cooperation tended to promote more
higher level reasoning than individualistic learning did. This finding supports previous research
indicating that high-ability
found that areas subjected to repetitive stress may show temperatures 5 degrees Centigrade or
more higher than similar unstressed areas and that differences in temperature of as little as 1
degree
More larger
grand sagas, epic explorations, daunting quests, and perilous adventures. The more larger than
life, the more fascinating the story - And the more Travis's own
soldier; 36 others were found primed, but their timers failed. Three more larger rockets were
fired Aug. 5.' # Still, other charges have not stuck
less populous, counties in the far north of the state into one or more larger and more populous
counties? It would certainly be cheaper. # SANFORD H. MARGOLIN
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Conclusions
- Monosyllabic comparatives/superlative generally
behave as described, though non-standard forms
also occur.
- Comparative forms are generally more frequent
than superlative forms.
- Inflectional marking is most frequent.
- Of non-standard forms, periphrastic marking is
more frequent than double-marking.
- Double-marking is an emergent spoken form not
yet fully entrenched and constrained by an
implicational hierarchy.
Description > Methods > Data > Conclusions > Questions
Moving forward:
- Further corpus analysis of issues raised here
- Studies into the processing of double-marked
forms
- Inclusion of double-marked in standard and
usage-based grammars
- Inclusion of double-marked in didactic
materials for language learners
Thank you! Any questions?
References:
• Bache, C. (2000). Essentials of mastering English: A concise grammar. Berlin: de Gruyter.
• Biber, D. (1999). Investigating language use through corpus-based analyses of association
patterns. In M. Barlow & S. Kemmer (Eds.), Usage based models of language (pp. 287-313).
Stanford, CA: CSLI Publications.
• Biber, D. (2001). Using corpus-based methods to investigate grammar and use: Some case
• studies on the use of verbs in English. In R. C. Simpson & J. M. Swales (Eds.), Corpus linguistics
in North America: Selections from the 1999 Symposium (pp. 101-115). Ann Arbor: The
University of Michigan Press.
• Bybee, J. (2006). Sequentiality as the basis of constituent structure. In J. Bybee (ed.):
Frequency of use and the organization of language, (pp. 313-335). Oxford University Press.
• Davies, M. (2008-) The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA): 410+ million
www.americancorpus.org.
words, 1990-present. Available online at http://
•
•
•
Hunston, S. (2002). Methods in corpus linguistics: Interpreting the concordance lines. In S.
Hunston, Corpora in applied linguistics (pp. 38-66). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kytö, M., & Romaine, S. (2000). Adjective comparison in American and British English. In L.
Wright, The Development of Standard English 1300-1800: Theories Descriptions Conflicts (pp.
171-194). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mondorf, B. (2009). More Support for More-Support: The role of processing constraints on
the choice between synthetic and analytic comparative forms. Philidelphia: John Benjamins.