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Cross-curricular Connections
Visual Arts
Mathematics
Islamic Art and Architecture
• Illuminated manuscripts
• Domes and minarets (Dome of the
Rock, Alhambra Palace, Taj Mahal)
Geometry
• Identify and draw lines (Islamic art
and architecture)
• Identify polygons (Islamic art and
architecture)
At a Glance
The most important ideas for you are:
◗ Muslims believe that Muhammad is the last and greatest in the line of
prophets and that there is only one God (Allah is the Arabic word for
God).
◗ The Qur’an is the scripture and basis of Islam; the Five Pillars are the
basic practices of Islam.
◗ Muslim empires spread from their beginnings on the Arabian Peninsula
throughout the Middle East, west across North Africa into Europe,
through Persian lands (present-day Iran), Turkic lands (present-day
Turkey and Central Asia), and into South Asia (including present-day
Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India) and later into what are now
Bangladesh, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines.
◗ Muslim scholars and Jewish scholars working in Muslim-ruled territories
contributed to Western knowledge, not only by preserving ancient Greek
and Roman writings, but through their own original work.
◗ Cordoba in Spain was a representative center of Islamic civilization.
◗ The Holy Land is so named because of its importance to Jews,
Christians, and Muslims.
◗ Conflict over control of the Holy Land resulted in the Crusades,
assaults on Islamic territory.
◗ An unintended result of the Crusades was the rise of trade networks.
What Teachers Need to Know
A. Islam
Muhammad: The “Last Prophet”
Like Judaism and Christianity, Islam is a monotheistic religion. Indeed, Islam
accepts and builds on the revelation that forms the basis of those two earlier religions. Islamic scripture, the Qur’an, accepts the prophets of the Jewish and
Christian faiths, and especially stresses Abraham, Moses, Noah, and Jesus. The
Qur’an refers to Jesus as the Messiah and says that he was a great prophet, but not
God or the son of God. The Qur’an says that all people who believe in God and
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III. The Spread of Islam and the “Holy Wars”
the Final Judgment and who do good works will have nothing to fear in the afterlife. Muslims accept the revelations of the Old Testament, or Hebrew Bible, as well
as the New Testament, but add to these the revelations of the prophet
Muhammad. Those who practice Islam are called Muslims, and they worship
Allah (the Arabic word for God).
Muhammad was born in the Arabian city of Mecca (often spelled Makkah) in
570 CE and made his living as a merchant. A religious man, he often went to a cave
to meditate. Muslims believe that in 610 CE, Allah, through the voice of the angel
Gabriel, began to speak to Muhammad. For a time, Muhammad did not tell anyone other than his family and friends, but after a while, he was moved to preach.
His message was simple: there was only one god, Allah (local religious belief was
polytheistic, meaning that they believed in many gods), and the rich should share
their wealth with the poor. As a result, many poor people began to listen to him.
This angered and frightened the rich in Mecca, who thought they would lose their
wealth. They began to persecute Muhammad’s followers, so the growing community moved to Medina, where they could live freely and establish a society based
on Islamic teachings. This journey took place in 622 CE and is known as the Hijra
[HIJH-rah]. It marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar.
In Medina, where Muhammad settled, his message of social justice and equality gained more followers. In time, Muhammad took on both a political role, as a
leader of the city, and a military one. When Medina and Mecca went to war,
Muhammad commanded the troops from Medina, and they defeated the Meccan
troops in a series of battles. By 630 CE, Mecca agreed to submit to Muhammad’s rule,
and Muhammad marched triumphantly into the city. At the center of Mecca was a
large shrine called the Ka`bah where Arabs built shrines to many gods. Muhammad
destroyed the idols (statues and other symbols of gods that the tribes around Mecca
believed in) at the Ka`bah. Since that time, the Ka`bah has become the holiest place
in Islam, a place where every Muslim hopes to make a pilgrimage at least once.
Muhammad sent missionaries throughout Arabia to convert the tribes to Islam, and
from there the religion has spread around the world.
Allah, Qur’an, Jihad
Allah [al-LAH] is the Arabic word that Muhammad used to name the
Supreme Being, or God. According to tradition, Muslims recognize 99 names or
attributes of God, such as “the Merciful” and “the Compassionate.”
Teaching Idea
To introduce the concept of jihad to
students, you may wish to first ask students if they’ve ever heard the word
jihad and what they think it means.
Students may respond with stereotypical meanings and images, but once
these are out in the open for discussion, you can help students understand
the deeper meaning of the word.
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The Qur’an [kuh-RAN] is the holy book of Islam. Muslims believe that Allah
revealed these actual words to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. The Qur’an
contains rules for daily living, moral principles, references to events in the
Hebrew Bible and the New Testament, and descriptions of Judgment Day and of
heaven and hell. 35
Jihad [jee-HAHD] is the Arabic word for “struggle to do the will of God.” Any
serious effort to fulfill the Qur’an’s command to establish justice and intervene in
corruption and injustice is called jihad. Muslims frequently describe jihad as
being of two kinds. The “greater jihad” includes personal efforts, including controlling negative impulses like greed and anger, and pursuing knowledge in the
service of humanity. The “lesser jihad” is military struggle, to be pursued only
under certain specific circumstances. For example, military jihad must protect
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civilians, especially women, children, and the elderly. Military jihad is required
when people are attacked or are evicted from their home. One who dies in legitimate jihad is considered a martyr (shahid [sha-HEED] or shahida [f]). Although
today some terrorists call their actions jihad, they are not considered martyrs,
since terrorism does not meet the requirements for legitimate jihad. Terrorism is
waged without warning, without governmental authority, and often targets civilians. It is condemned by Islamic law. You may wish to explore the meaning of
jihad with students so that they have a better sense of the true meaning of the
word.
Islam spread rapidly in the Arabian Peninsula. In the time of Muhammad and
for some time afterward, Arabia was home to wandering tribes of Bedouins
[beh-DO-ins] (desert nomadic herders) who raided one another and the desert
towns. After Muhammad’s opponents in Mecca were defeated and joined the
Muslim community, Islam spread quickly among the tribes. Muhammad and his
immediate successors commanded loyal tribes that conquered other Bedouin
tribes, ended the fighting among the groups, established law and order, and
united the peninsula in an Islamic community.
Teaching Idea
Create an overhead and make copies
for students of Instructional Masters
19a–19b, The Expansion of Islam,
750 CE. Begin the lesson with the
overhead, and use it to introduce the
locations of the Arabian Peninsula,
Mecca, and Medina so that students
will have a frame of reference when
you teach about Muhammad’s life.
Ask students to locate Medina and
Mecca in relation to each other.
Name
Date
The Expansion of Islam, 750 CE
Study the map. Use it to answer the questions that follow.
The leaders of Islam then turned their attention outward and began to raid
the Byzantine and Persian Empires, driven by the desire to spread Islam. These
two empires had been at war with each other for years. Their power was waning,
and some of their subjects were dissatisfied with religious persecution. Finding
these empires vulnerable, the Muslims pushed forward and began to take large
portions of their territory.
N
W
EN
GL
AN
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FRANCE
CA
IAN
SP
BLACK SEA
IT
AL
Y
SPAIN
SEA
GREECE
Cordoba
PERSIA
MEDITERRANEAN SEA
Jerusalem
NORTH AFRICA
PERSIAN
GULF
Cairo
EGYPT
Medina
ARABIA
DS
A mosque is a Muslim place of worship. It usually has one or two towers
called minarets [mihn-uh-REHT], and it is from there that a muezzin
[moo-EH-zuhn] calls the faithful to prayer five times a day. The main prayer area
of a mosque faces the holy city of Mecca.
Islam has no priests and no hierarchy. Any Muslim man may lead the community of faithful in prayer. He is called the imam, or prayer leader. In Shi`i Islam,
an imam is more than a prayer leader; he is the authoritative interpreter of the
Qur’an.
Five Pillars of Islam
Islam has five basic practices, known as pillars:
• the declaration of faith: There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is the
Messenger of Allah.
Mecca
EA
Mecca, Mosques
INDIA
RE
0
0
500
500
1000 miles
1000 kilometers
Copyright ©Core Knowledge Foundation
By the late 700s CE, Muslims were encouraging people in the lands they conquered to convert, and many found Islam an attractive religion. The principles
were simple, easy to understand, and simple to follow. There were no intermediary priests and saints to pray to—only God (Allah). The Third Pillar of Islam—
which focuses on acts of charity toward those less fortunate—especially appealed
to the poor and those concerned with social responsibility.
Lands held by Muslims
by 750 CE
E
S
EUROPE
Purpose: To read and interpret a map featuring the expansion of Islam
Master 19a
Grade 4: History & Geography
Use Instructional Masters 19a–19b.
Teaching Idea
The purpose of teaching about Islam
is to explain its fundamental religious
practices and how the adherents of
this faith, acting on their beliefs,
defeated huge empires and created
a great civilization. Explain that all
religions have common elements but
that they differ in their beliefs. It is
important to understand and respect
differences.
• prayer five times a day, every day, facing the Ka`bah in the holy city of
Mecca
• charity, the payment of a portion of one’s wealth, which is used to help the
needy
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Teaching Idea
To help students understand the notion
of fasting, it may be worthwhile to
make an analogy between Ramadan for
Muslims and Lent for Christians or Yom
Kippur for Jews. Once again, explain
that all religions have common elements but differ in their beliefs.
Teaching Idea
It is a good idea when teaching the pillar about pilgrimage to show students
modern pictures of the hajj. Reinforce
that hajj for Muslims focuses on the
idea that all people are equal before
God (Allah), regardless of race, ethnicity, class, political power, etc.
• fasting during the day, between sunrise and sunset, during the month of
Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. The purpose of fasting
during Ramadan is to remind Muslims that all people are equally dependent
upon the help of Allah and that there are less fortunate people who are in
need of their help. Ramadan is a time of reflection when Muslims are called
upon to renew their faith, increase their charity, and make repentance.
• a pilgrimage to worship at the Ka`bah in the holy city of Mecca, during the
month of pilgrimage, at least once if one is physically and financially able.
During the hajj, all Muslim men dress alike in a simple cloth called an
ihram [ee-RAHM], again to stress their equality. Women wear a simpler
form of their normal dress.
Islam Spreads
Muhammad and his followers had converted much of the Arabian Peninsula to
Islam. After Muhammad’s death, leadership of the Muslim community passed into
the hands of four of Muhammad’s closest associates, or companions. They were
highly respected, and people believed they ruled in accordance with the Qur’an and
the example set by Muhammad. For that reason they were called “rightly guided”
(Rashidun) caliphs. A caliph is a successor to the prophet Muhammad.
Islam continued to spread rapidly. By 100 years after Muhammad’s death, the
Islamic empire extended from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Indus River
in the east. Between the years 632 CE, when Muhammad died, and 661 CE, when
the last of the Rashidun caliphs died, Muslim control expanded from the Arabian
Peninsula eastward through what are now the countries of Syria, Lebanon,
Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Iran, and Iraq. Some of this area was wrested from the
slowly weakening Byzantine Empire.
Teaching Idea
Teachers might like to share with students some of the tales from A
Thousand and One Arabian Nights (see
More Resources). They might enjoy
telling the adventure story of Sinbad, or
the tale about Charlemagne, who asked
Harun for an elephant as a gift since he
thought they were fine animals and
there weren’t any in Europe. (Harun
sent Charlemagne the elephant, but it
did not survive long in the harsh
European climate.)
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In 661 CE, a family known as the Umayyads took control of the caliphate
(leadership of the Muslim community) and moved the capital to Damascus, in
Syria. From there, they expanded Muslim sovereignty west across North Africa.
Between 661 CE and 750 CE, they took control of what are today the nations of
Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. From North Africa in the early 700s
CE, Muslims swept across to the Iberian Peninsula (which they called Al-Andalus)
and captured large parts of what are today Portugal and Spain. From there, they
continued into France.
In 732 CE, Charles Martel (the grandfather of Charlemagne), leader of the
Franks, defeated Islamic troops between the cities of Poitiers and Tours in modernday France. The confrontation is known as both the Battle of Poitiers and the Battle
of Tours. It was the end of Islamic expansion into Europe and a pivotal battle that,
had the outcome been different, would certainly have changed the history of the
Western world. It is possible that all, or most, of Europe might have become Muslim
territory had the Islamic troops been victorious. Even after the defeat at
Poitiers/Tours, Islamic kingdoms remained in Spain and all across North Africa.
In 750 CE, another family, the Abbasids, took control of the Islamic caliphate
and moved the capital to Baghdad, in Iraq. The empire continued to grow and
prosper, and Baghdad became famous for its wealth and sophistication. One of the
greatest Abbasid caliphs was Harun al-Rashid, whose splendid court is depicted
in the tales of A Thousand and One Arabian Nights. Harun was a contemporary of
Charlemagne, with whom he corresponded and from whom he received gifts.
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The Ottoman Empire
Teaching Idea
In the 1000s, Turkic peoples from Central Asia moved into the Middle East
and adopted Islam. The Seljuk Turks, as they were known, gained control of
Baghdad and seized much of Asia Minor from the Byzantine Empire. In 1071, the
Seljuk Turks moved on Jerusalem, which Christians considered their Holy City,
since it was the city where Jesus was arrested, tried, and crucified. The successful
expansion of Muslim sovereignty prompted the Byzantine emperor to ask the pope
in Rome for assistance against the Muslims and the nearby Normans. He particularly wanted to protect Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire, and
also hoped to drive the Muslims from Jerusalem. The pope agreed, and this was
the beginning of the Crusades. The first Crusade was launched in 1096.
Today, Constantinople, the former
capital of the Eastern Roman Empire,
the Byzantine Empire, and the
Ottoman Empire, is known as
Istanbul. Its name was officially
changed in 1930. When teaching
about how Istanbul was once
Constantinople, you may wish to play
the song “Istanbul” by They Might Be
Giants. Students will really enjoy the
song, and it is a fun way to reinforce
the history and the vocabulary.
In the 1300s, another group of Turks moved into Islamic lands and converted to Islam. They were known as the Ottomans (descendants of Osman). The
Ottoman Turks began their rise to power as mercenaries for the Seljuk Turks, who
needed protection from the Mongols, warrior nomads who were raiding Seljuk
territory. The Ottoman dynasty dates back to 1299, when Osman I began to
expand Ottoman control at the expense of the Seljuks and the Byzantine Empire.
In 1453, Constantinople, the Byzantine capital, was conquered by the
Ottomans, and the Byzantine Empire, the last remnant of ancient Roman culture,
ended. The year 1517, when the Ottomans captured Jerusalem and Cairo, is when
the Ottoman Empire consolidated, and it was then that they claimed to be the successors to the earlier Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs. The peak of Ottoman power
occurred in the early 1500s, under Süleyman I, also known as Süleyman the
Magnificent. The empire stretched from the Black Sea and the Persian Gulf in the
east to Budapest (in what is modern Hungary) in the north to Algiers in the west.
Teaching Idea
A description of the Crusades is
presented in Section C, “Wars
Between Muslims and Christians,” on
pp. 138–140. Make a cross-reference
to the origins of the Crusades in that
section.
At around the same time, the Muslim Safavid dynasty was established in
Persia (present day Iran), and the Mughal Empire was established in the Indian
subcontinent. The Safavids were Shi`i Muslims and competitors with the Sunni
Ottomans. Known as a great leader of the Safavids, Abbas I made peace with the
Ottomans and established a magnificent capital in Esfahan. Esfahan is still one of
Iran’s most beautiful cities, with many architectural structures attributed to the
Safavids, including mosques, palaces, avenues, and schools.
The Mughal Empire was established by Babur in 1526, when his troops
gained control of Delhi. The greatest of the Mughals was Akbar, a powerful and
sophisticated ruler who championed the arts and left many beautiful architectural monuments. His grandson, Shah Jahan, built the famous Taj Mahal as a mausoleum for his wife.
Diversity of Modern Muslims
Süleyman I
While the first Muslims were Arabs, Islam today counts faithful around the
world. Islam is the world’s second-largest religion and the major religion in most
of the countries of the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, Afghanistan,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Indonesia. The largest number of Muslims in a single
nation is in Indonesia, with 172 million out of a total population of about 230
million. Today, Islam is the second- or third-largest religious group in the United
States.
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Teaching Idea
When educating students about Islam
and the diversity of modern Muslims,
some myths should be debunked and
some important facts should be
stressed. Point out to students that:
1. The majority of Muslims are not Arab.
2. The majority of Muslims in the United
States are not Arab.
3. The majority of Arabs in the United
States are not Muslim.
Today, of the 1.3 billion Muslims in the world, 934 million are Sunnis and
180 million are Shi`is. There are subdivisions of Shi`i Islam, but the majority are
called Twelvers (Ithna-Ashariyah). Shi`is predominate in Iran and Iraq. You may
wish to explain to students that in the mid-600s CE, the followers of Muhammad
split into two sects, Sunnis and Shi`is. Their differences were more political than
doctrinal. Specifically, they differed over who was the rightful heir of Muhammad.
The Sunni majority believed that the people should choose a leader not based on
divine order but instead choose the person they believed was most capable of ruling in accordance with the current political situation and who could provide religious leadership and order for the community. The Shi`i Muslims believed the
community should be led by a descendant of Muhammad. Since his closest living
male relative at his death was his cousin and son-in-law, Ali, they thought he was
the rightful leader of the Muslims.
B. Development of Islamic Civilization
Teaching Idea
When explaining that there are different divisions in Islam, including Sunnis
and Shi`is, you may wish to make a
parallel with the divisions and different
interpretations of Christianity and
Judaism. There are liberal and conservative groups within each religion.
As the Muslims spread their rule across North Africa into the Iberian
Peninsula, through the Middle East, into the lands of the Byzantine Empire, and
eastward throughout Persia and India, they came in contact with many different
peoples and cultures. The result was a new civilization grounded in Islam but
incorporating elements from many other cultures, which the Muslims in turn
expanded and passed on in a cycle of cultural exchange.
Contributions to Science and Mathematics
An example of the amalgam of Islamic and non-Islamic ideas is that of
Hindu-Arabic numerals: 1, 2, 3, and so on. Some scholars believe that Hindus in
India developed the system and that Arabs transmitted it to Europe. Another theory is that Muslim scholars discovered the numbers 0–9 in India and recognized
their usefulness. Muslims also encouraged the translation of classical Greek
mathematics texts into Arabic, and developed advanced mathematics.
The term algebra comes from the Arabic word al-jabr [AHL JAH-buhr]. The
Persian (modern Iran) mathematician al-Khwarizmi developed algebra in the
800s CE and wrote a math text that was translated into Latin and used in Europe.
Muhammad al-Razi was a Persian physician who compiled a medical encyclopedia. Along with his own observations of disease were the opinions of Greek,
Syrian, Persian, and Indian scientists. Al-Razi’s work was translated into Latin and
used for centuries in Europe.
Avicenna, whose Arabic name was Ibn Sina, was a Persian physician and
philosopher. In the 1000s CE, he compiled Canon of Medicine, which, when translated into Latin, became a standard medical text in Europe and remained the standard until the 17th century. A medical encyclopedia, the Canon of Medicine contained many useful observations; for instance, Ibn Sina noted that contaminated
soil and water caused disease and that proper diet was important to good health.
He also adapted Aristotelian philosophy to Islam. His philosophical works, and
those of Spanish Muslim Ibn Rushd (known as Averroes in Europe), were the first
source of Europe’s knowledge of the ancient Greek philosophers’ works.
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Preservation of Greek and Roman Writings
By the time of the Muslim conquests, western Europe had broken up into
small feudal states with economies based on agricultural labor. There was little
time for education and the arts during the Middle Ages.
However, through conquests, various Greek, Persian, and Sanskrit writings
came into Muslim possession. Rather than destroy them, Muslim scholars carefully preserved these works, translating them into Arabic, studying them, and, in
many cases, incorporating these ideas into their own work. It should be noted
that Jewish scholars in Muslim-held areas, such as Spain and Egypt, also studied
and used Greek, Persian, and Sanskrit writings in their work. One of the best
known is Moses Maimonides, who lived in Cordoba, Spain, but then fled religious
persecution after the fall of Cordoba to a fanatical Islamic sect called the
Almohads. Maimonides and his family moved to Morocco, then Palestine, and
finally settled in Cairo, Egypt. There, Maimonides was a physician and philosopher who tried in his writings to reconcile science and religion. He was also
appointed to be the court physician to Sultan Salah al-Din and his family. Had it
not been for the effort of these scholars writing in Arabic, many works of the
ancient Greeks and Romans would not have been preserved for later Europeans.
Cities as Centers of Islamic Art and Learning
Artists and scholars were working in many Muslim cities—Baghdad,
Istanbul, Timbuktu, Esfahan, Samarkand, Damascus, and Cairo, for example. The
cities of Andalusia in southern Spain were especially rich centers of scientific
work and artistic development. Spain was a major route by which Muslim scholarship reached Europeans.
Cordoba
Of the main cities of Andalusia—Cordoba, Granada, and Seville—Cordoba is
perhaps best known for its intellectual and cultural contributions. Known
throughout Europe as a great city, Cordoba had a population of about 250,000 at
the end of the 10th century, and its library was by far the largest in Europe. It had
over 400,000 books, compared to the average collection of fewer than 100 books
in most monastery libraries at the time.
Any resident of Paris, Rome, or London in the 1000s would have marveled at
Cordoba’s paved and lighted streets, and its mosques, palaces, and other beautiful
buildings. Columns, arches, and domes became characteristic of Islamic architecture.
The Great Mosque in Cordoba is an excellent example of Islamic architecture.
Islamic art is highly stylized. Islam did not allow the use of human or animal
forms in art out of concern that people may begin to worship statues (idols) and
because it was perceived that man should not attempt to depict the likenesses of
God’s creations with their imperfect abilities. Muslim artists used curvilinear patterns, as well as Arabic script—often passages from the Qur’an—as decorative
motifs. The curvilinear form of design featuring floral and vegetal plants became
known as arabesque. However, it should be noted that despite the prohibition
against using human and animal figures in Islamic art dating back to the early
Teaching Idea
Note the information about the
Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula in
Section II, “Europe in the Middle
Ages,” on pp. 101–127 and make a
connection to it here.
Teaching Idea
Some of the designs that Muslim
artists used to decorate their buildings were tesselations, repeating
arrangements of small geometric figures, such as circles and hexagons.
Have students use pattern blocks
and/or a protractor to make their own
tesselations. Draw examples on the
board using Art Resource #9, “Oldest
Handwritten Qur’an,“ as a sample.
Students can draw the pattern in
pencil and then trace it with crayons
or markers.
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Cross-curricular
Teaching Idea
In conjunction with your discussion of
Islamic art and learning, you may wish
to teach the Visual Arts section
“Islamic Art and Architecture,” on
pp. 258–268.
days of Islam, these prohibitions varied from place to place and from time to time.
For example, Iranian artists and artists in the Mughal Empire in India developed
a style of miniature painting that included humans as subjects. The buildings in
Cordoba, like the Great Mosque, reflect the traditional Islamic style.
The architecture of Islamic civilization produced two of the most beautiful
buildings in the world. In Granada, Spain, the Alhambra is a palace and fortress
built in the 13th century that still astonishes visitors. The Mughal Empire in India
produced the Taj Mahal. For more information on these buildings, see the Visual
Arts section.
The citizens and visitors of Cordoba included the poet and theologian Ibn
Hazim and the philosopher Ibn Arabi, as well as the Jewish poet Judah ha-Levi
and philosopher and poet Ibn Gabriol.
C. Wars Between Muslims and Christians
The Holy Land and Jerusalem
The term Holy Land refers to an area off the eastern Mediterranean Sea that
comprises parts of the West Bank of the Jordan River (Palestinian territory) and
the modern nations of Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. Jews, Christians, and
Muslims consider this area sacred because it contains many sites associated with
events described in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic scripture. Jerusalem, one of
Islam’s three holy cities, is located in the Holy Land and is also considered sacred
by Jews and Christians because it is the location of many monuments associated
with scriptural events, such as the Wailing Wall (all that is left of the Second
Temple), which is sacred to Jews, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, containing the tomb of Jesus, which is sacred to Christians. These sites are also sacred to
Muslims, who accept the Jewish and Christian figures as great Islamic prophets.
Muslims also cherish the Dome of the Rock and other sites in Jerusalem. The
Dome of the Rock is a sanctuary over a spot visited by Muhammad on his spiritual night journey (see “Islamic Art and Architecture,” pp. 258–268).
The Crusades
The Crusades were invasions of the Middle East by European Christians from
the 11th–13th centuries and beyond. There were eight major Crusades fought
over 200 years. The ultimate goal of the Crusades was to free the Holy Land from
Islamic control. The First Crusade was begun by Pope Urban II to answer the
Byzantine emperor’s appeal for help in ensuring safe passage for Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem (discussed earlier on p. 135). The Seljuk Turks had captured
the Holy Land, and there was concern that they would bar Christians.
The Crusades were unsuccessful in achieving their original goal, but they did
result in increased trade between Europe and the Middle East. Many Crusaders
remained in the Middle East and established lucrative businesses. The remains of
many Crusaders’ castles can still be seen in Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. However,
the Crusades are also controversial, since they resulted in many atrocities,
including attacks on Jews and Christians, as well as Muslims.
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Crusade
Date
Outcome
First
1096–1099
Crusaders took Jerusalem, turned many Muslim
shrines into Christian churches, and established four
Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land.
Second
1147–1149
Church of the Holy Sepulchre was consecrated. Muslims
and Jews were banned from Jerusalem.
Third
1189–1191
Unable to defeat Salah al-Din, Richard I arranged a truce
with Salah al-Din to allow Christians access to Jerusalem.
Most of Holy Land remained under Muslim control.
Fourth
1202–1204
Crusaders, acting out of both religious and financial
antagonism for the Byzantine Empire, shifted their attention to Constantinople. The Byzantine emperor later
retook his empire, but the empire never recovered its
former strength.
Fifth
1218–1221
Crusaders marched on Egypt but failed to achieve
their objective and retreated.
Sixth
1228–1229
Truce was arranged and Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and
Nazareth were turned over to the Christians.
Seventh
1248–1254
After Muslim forces retook Jerusalem, the Seventh
Crusade was called but accomplished little. Jews, who had
been banned by earlier Crusaders, were allowed to return
to Jerusalem.
Eighth
1270–1272
Teaching Idea
Create overheads and make copies
for students of Instructional Masters
20a–20c, The Crusades. Use the overheads to orient students to the
magnitude of the Crusades in terms
of distances traveled. Have students
use the map scale to compute the
distance between various points in
western Europe and the Holy Land.
Note that the maps deal only with
the first four Crusades, because they
adequately convey the extent of the
Crusades.
Name
Date
The First and Second Crusades
Study the map. Then use this map when you work on Master 20c.
Crusaders attacked North Africa but withdrew. Crusaders
negotiated an 11-year truce in the Holy Land.
Of the many warriors who fought on either side in the Crusades, two stand
out: Richard the Lion-Hearted and Salah al-Din. Richard the Lion-Hearted, King
Richard I of England, led the Third Crusade against Salah al-Din—known as
Saladin to Europeans—and his Muslim forces. As one writer noted, Salah al-Din
“was famed for his chivalry.” An example is Salah al-Din’s gift of a horse to
Richard after Richard’s horse had been killed in battle. Salah al-Din said that a
warrior of Richard’s caliber should not have to fight on foot. When Richard
became ill, Salah al-Din sent him fruit and his own doctor to take care of him.
Another example of Salah al-Din’s chivalry was his toleration of Christians and his
agreement to allow pilgrims access to the holy shrines of Jerusalem. This contrasts sharply with the actions of the Christian conquerors of the First Crusade
who killed many civilians, including Jews, Christians, and Muslims. 36
Richard was an able rival to Salah al-Din but was deserted by his co-leader,
King Philip Augustus of France. Still, Richard might have prevailed, but troubling
news from England, where his scheming brother Prince (later King) John was
undermining his government, caused Richard to seek the best peace he could
make with Salah al-Din.
Copyright ©Core Knowledge Foundation
Salah al-Din (Saladin) and Richard the
Lion-Hearted
Purpose: To read a map featuring the routes of the First and Second Crusades
Master 20a
Grade 4: History & Geography
Use Instructional Masters 20a–20c.
Teaching Idea
Give students the opportunity to conduct research on people of interest,
such as Salah al-Din and Richard the
Lion-Hearted. Students can orally
share what they learned.
History and Geography: World
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III. The Spread of Islam and the “Holy Wars”
Teaching Idea
East and West: Trade and Cultural Exchange
Use the overhead of Instructional
Master 18, European Trade Networks in
the Middle Ages, and the maps from
Instructional Masters 20a–20c, The
Crusades, to compare the areas in
Europe from which Crusaders set out
for the Holy Land and the new trade
networks that grew up during and after
this period. What conclusion can students reach in comparing the two
maps? (New trade routes grew up in
areas that sent Crusaders to the Holy
Land.) Point out that students have
identified a potential cause-and-effect
relationship. Ask if this was an intended or an unintended result of the
Crusades.
After numerous attempts, the Crusaders failed to achieve their objective of taking control of the Holy Land from the Muslims. However, there were a number of
unintended benefits for the Europeans. As noted in Section II, “Europe in the
Middle Ages,” (pp. 101–127) the contact between East and West broadened the
worldview of western Europeans. The volume of trade between Europe and Asia by
way of the Middle East grew, as did the variety of goods available in Europe. Sugar,
salt, silks, rice, perfumes, and similar luxury items now appeared for sale in the
growing towns of western Europe. Western scholars began to study the writings of
Muslim and Jewish scholars and, through them, the knowledge of the ancient
Greeks and Romans. Much of the original work of the Muslim and Jewish scholars
influenced Western philosophy, medicine, science, and mathematics for centuries.
The Big Idea
in Review
Islam was founded by
the prophet Muhammad
in Arabia around 610 CE
and grew into one of the
three major Western
religions.
Review
Below are some ideas for ongoing assessment and review activities. These are
not meant to constitute a comprehensive list. Teachers may also refer to the
Pearson Learning/Core Knowledge History & Geography series for additional information and teaching ideas.
• Create an alphabet book of Islam by assigning individual students or groups
of students letters from the alphabet. They should search for an aspect of Islam to
write about using that letter. For example, the letter A could stand for Allah. Then
ask students to write a short paragraph about their topic. Collect these into a
book for the classroom.
• Ask students to search magazines or newspapers to find current events articles about some aspect of this unit of study. National Geographic magazines might
be especially useful. Have students write a paragraph summarizing the content of
the article. Pick one day a week to have a current events day and share the articles aloud. You may want to post these on an ongoing current events bulletin
board.
• The nature of Islamic art with its geometric patterns provides a way to incorporate the geometry section from Grade 4 mathematics. The lines, patterns, and
shapes that dominate the walls of mosques and other buildings are an excellent
way to introduce segments, rays, lines, and the types of lines (horizontal, vertical,
perpendicular, parallel, and intersecting). Use art from buildings to identify and
draw these shapes and lines. You may also practice finding the area of shapes and
using square units. Students may create word problems based on the art and create pictures with geometric measurements.
• Have the class write poems based on this unit of study. Create a pattern for
them to follow, such as an acrostic poem. Use the name of a place or person from
this section, such as Islam or Cordoba, to write down the left side of a piece of
paper. Brainstorm a list of words that describe the person or place and post them
at the front of the room. Then have students write sentences or phrases using the
letters of the person or place as the first letter of each sentence or phrase. Post
these around the classroom or share them with another Grade 4 class.
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II. Islamic Art and Architecture
At a Glance
The most important ideas for you are:
◗ Islamic art refers to both sacred and secular works made in Islamic
cultures or those they influenced.
◗ Islamic art is highly decorative and emphasizes the two-dimensional
quality of its surfaces.
◗ Public Islamic sacred art does not depict human figures or animals.
◗ Calligraphy and manuscript illustration are essential artistic expressions
of Islamic culture.
◗ Domes and minarets are important features of Islamic architecture.
What Teachers Need to Know
Background
Teaching Idea
Throughout this section, be sure to
include a discussion of how the culture
being studied is reflected in the artwork being studied. Additionally, be
sure to review the elements of art
(shape, line, color, design, texture, etc.)
studied in previous grades.
Cross-curricular
Teaching Idea
You may wish to teach “Islamic Art
and Architecture” while students are
studying Islam in the World History and
Geography section (pp. 128–142).
Teaching Idea
We have included an additional Art
Resource not listed in the Sequence in
this section, Layla and Majnun at
School, a small painting that shows
many of the architectural features of
Islam discussed in this section.
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Note: The descriptions and activities in the main text below are
intended to help you become familiar with the artworks before presenting them to students; however, some of the activities might be adapted for
classroom use. Activities intended specifically for students can be found
in the Teaching Idea sidebars. The Looking Questions are also printed on
the reverse side of the Art Resources and have been written with students
in mind so that they might be used as a rough plan for class discussion.
You should feel free to use these questions or develop questions of your
own. Be sure students have time to look at the reproductions carefully
before asking the Looking Questions.
The study of Islamic art offers a perfect opportunity to examine Islam’s contributions to culture (for instance, the introduction of the pointed arch), history
(for example, the translation and preservation of ancient Greek and Roman
writings), and mathematics (such as the introduction of Arabic numerals). As
you move through this section, help students understand how Islamic artworks
embody and reflect information about Islamic ideas, beliefs, and society.
Characteristics of Islamic Art
Take a look at the included reproduction of the illuminated manuscript Layla
and Majnun at School. What immediately strikes you about this work? The color,
abundant design, inclusion of writing in the form of calligraphy? How about the
architectural references? This small piece exemplifies many of the most important
characteristics of Islamic art. The term Islamic art describes both the pieces created specifically in the service of the religion of Islam as well as secular art produced in the lands it influenced.
The prophet Muhammad began spreading the religion of Islam in the early
7th century CE. Muslims believe that Allah [ah-LAH] (the Arabic word for God)
made his divine revelations to the prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632 CE) around
610 CE. These revelations were then written down, becoming the Qur’an
[kuh-RAN], the holy book that describes Islamic faith, practice, and law.
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Because the written word has long been associated with the Qur’an, calligraphy—elegant handwriting—became the supreme element of Islamic art.
Calligraphy is very important to Islamic culture; it appears in secular art, as well.
Artists included calligraphy on secular works such as metalwork, pottery, stone,
glassware, and palace architecture (see the discussion and Looking Questions for
the Court of the Lions in the Alhambra Palace on pp. 264–265).
Reexamine Layla and Majnun at School. Do the figures or the designs dominate the scene? Figures appear in this secular work, but they would not appear in
public religious art because the Qur’an forbids idolatry, or the worship of images.
As a result, purely decorative elements prevail in Islamic religious art, often filling virtually every available space. These decorative elements appear in secular
works as well. The curvilinear, ornate interweaving of abstract shapes and floral
and vegetal imagery (as seen in Layla and Majnun at School and along the walls of
the Alhambra) is called arabesque—meaning “in the Arab style.”
Islamic reliance on pattern and design heightens the flat quality of
two-dimensional surfaces. Islamic paintings, furthermore, do not employ the
illusionist, single-point perspective that is typical in Western art. Instead, a figure’s size commonly denotes its importance, as evident in Layla and Majnun at
School. Notice the large teacher in the white turban. He sits on top of the redbordered, black rug. Even though we know that the carpet lies flat on the floor, it
simultaneously appears to be an extension of the back wall.
Islamic representational painting plays with the idea of space in other ways.
The illuminator has shown us the inside, outside, and rooftop of the building. We
see consecutive events happening simultaneously in different spaces, and this
tells a narrative story of both time and space.
Teaching Idea
Have students look at an arabesque
position in ballet (use any book of
basic dance positions) and then at
the arabesque designs in any of the
included reproductions. Ask students
why they think the term is applied to
both of these artistic expressions.
(Both have an ornamental, linear
aspect.)
Islamic artistic expressions are not limited to architecture and miniatures, but
also include rugs, textiles, metalware, pottery, glassware, carved wood (doors,
panels, ceilings, etc.), and stucco (highly decorative molded plaster applied to
walls and arches). The decorations applied to these objects show a love of materials and an elegance of design.
Opulent color is another common characteristic of Islamic art. Gold shimmers on manuscript pages. Stucco, textiles, ceramics, metalwork, stone, and
glasswork are all visually splendid. Royal patrons paid for the expensive materials—and the sacred and secular art they commissioned in turn reflected their
wealth, status, and prestige.
Islamic rulers also built mosques, paying for their construction, furnishings,
and decorations. Religious buildings served the spiritual needs of the community and also functioned as headquarters for educational and charitable institutions.
Domes, minarets, and pointed arches are among the most prominent features
of Islamic architecture. The miniaturist even depicted two of these elements in
Layla and Majnun at School. Locate the blue dome and also the pointed arch created where the white and blue floral patterns meet in the central background—
right over the main action of the composition. Now examine the luminous gold
dome in the included reproduction of the Dome of the Rock. (See the discussion
and Looking Questions on pp. 263–264 for more information.) The dome reflects
the piety of the master builders Rija ibn Haya and Yazid ibn Salim, who spent all
their wealth on the monument. You’ll also find pointed arches in the included
reproduction of the Court of the Lions in the Alhambra Palace. (See the discussion and Looking Questions on pp. 264–265 for more information.)
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II. Islamic Art and Architecture
Teaching Idea
To locate more pictures of Islamic art,
do an Internet search for “minarets”
and other keywords from this section.
The third element of Islamic architecture is the minaret. Minarets are slender
towers from which a muezzin [moo-EH-zuhn] (crier) on a balcony beckons the
faithful to pray five times a day. The Taj Mahal has splendid minarets and domes.
This impressive, pure white-marble building in Agra, India, is not a mosque, but
a tomb, built in honor of and named for Mumtaz Mahal, the favorite wife of the
Muslim emperor Shah Jahan. Minarets anchor this elegant architectural testimony of love, which took over 20,000 workers approximately 20 years to complete.
Islamic architecture thrived not only in mosques and madrasahs (religious
colleges), but in secular buildings as well, such as palaces (see the discussion and
Looking Questions for the Court of the Lions in the Alhambra Palace on
pp. 264–265), khans (inns), hospitals, and sooks (bazaars).
Teaching Idea
Islamic miniatures are full of detail.
Before discussing the included reproduction of Layla and Majnun at School,
have students study it carefully and
then use their observations of the figures’ interaction and the details of the
location to inspire a story based on the
scene. Afterward, have students share
their compositions and identify the similarities and differences in their stories
and the details they observed.
5
Layla and Majnun at School (16th century, Safavid
Period)
Islamic artists excelled at book illustration. Here we find the widely popular
romantic Islamic story of Layla and Majnun, which tells of the soul’s search for
God and has inspired countless poems, legends, and epics. School plays a pivotal
role in the tale because it is here that, at the tender age of 10, the hero, Majnun,
meets his beloved, Layla.
As is typical in Islamic painting, the artist presents multiple spaces and perspectives simultaneously. The artist shows indoors and outdoors side by side;
sometimes we seem to be looking down (for example, at the figures on the rug),
and sometimes we seem to be looking up (for example, at the figure on the roof
calling the faithful to prayer). These perspectives combine into a kaleidoscopic
composition. Calligraphy fills the rectangle over the white arch-like shape and runs
along the bottom border. Decorative elements, calligraphy, and people fill every
available millimeter of space. The resulting work is densely packed with visual
information that takes considerable observation time to reveal all its complexity.
Looking questions
Note: Cover up the title on the front of the print before showing to
students.
• What are the different figures doing? The figures are reading and writing
calligraphy. The figures to the left are playing ball.
• Based on the figures’ actions, what kind of buildings do you think the
artist has depicted? The artist has depicted a school. Have students point
out clues that this is a school.
• What kinds of patterns appear on the walls and the rug? Floral and geometric patterns appear on the walls and the rug.
• What Islamic architectural element appears on the building roof? The
roof of the building is a dome.
• What do you think the man on the roof is doing? He might be calling
students to school or calling people to prayer.
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The Dome of the Rock (c. 688–691
CE)
The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is the oldest complete example of Islamic
architecture that is still standing. It was built as a shrine to mark the place from
which Muslims believe that Muhammad ascended into heaven on his “Night
Journey,” and it is also where they believe the Last Judgment will occur. Jews and
Christians revere this sacred ground as the site upon which King Solomon built a
temple to Yahweh to commemorate Abraham’s sacrifice and to house the Ark of
the Covenant between the Jewish people and God.
Abd al-Malik, a member of the first Muslim dynasty, had the shrine built
between 688 and 691 CE. Islam was still a nascent religion at the time, and the
Arabs were in the process of a military conquest that took them from the Arabian
Peninsula into Persia, North Africa, and western Europe. Before the Muslim
expansion, Jerusalem had been part of the Byzantine Empire and had attracted a
great number of Christian pilgrims. The city was full of monuments to the
Christian faith, including the impressive Church of the Holy Sepulchre and the
Chapel of Ascension. For this reason, Abd al-Malik sought not only to mark
Jerusalem as a Muslim holy place, but also to build a lasting monument for his
faith. By picking a site with religious significance for Jews, Christians, and
Muslims alike, Abd al-Malik ensured that the Dome of the Rock both celebrates
the common heritage of these religions and asserts the primacy of Islam.
For Muslims, the Dome of the Rock (also known as the Mosque of Omar)
marks the site where the prophet Muhammad ascended to the heavens to receive
Allah’s instructions, which Muhammad then delivered to his followers upon his
return to earth.
The shrine consists of an octagonal structure built on top of an elevated platform. Within this structure, 12 columns and four piers support a cylindrical drum
upon which rest two enormous domes, an internal spherical dome of wood, and
an external elliptical dome covered with gilded aluminum. Each side of the octagon measures about 66 feet (20 meters), and the top of the elliptical dome is
149 feet (45 meters) high. The plan of the shrine echoes that of several early
churches, such as the Church of St. Costanza in Rome, the Church of San Vitale
in Ravenna, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. However, the
elliptical dome was unique to Muslim architecture.
The monument is filled with rich symbolism. Its glittering dome (of wood,
originally overlaid with lead and gilding) thrusts upward, representing heaven,
Allah’s realm. Porcelain tiles today replace the original glass mosaic facing, whose
beauty indicated the magnificence of God’s earth.
The Dome of the Rock today is a shrine for pilgrims. There is a mosque adjacent to it for prayers. Slender minarets are an essential element in Islamic architecture and appear on mosques and many other Muslim religious buildings. The
prophet Muhammad’s compound in Medina was the first place Muslims gathered
for prayer. His compound, with an enclosed courtyard, a building at one end for
prayer, and arcades on the sides, became the model for all mosques.
Looking questions
• What things catch your eye about this building? The gold dome is quite
striking, as is the enormous entrance.
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II. Islamic Art and Architecture
• What does the gold tell you about the building? The expensive materials
used in this building show that it is important.
• This building is a mosque, a place of worship like a church or temple.
How does the top half of the mosque contrast with the bottom half? The
bottom half of the mosque is more decorative and has flat sides, which create
an octagonal form. The dome is round—a hemisphere on top of the vertical
lines.
• Why are the materials used in this building especially appropriate for a
desert climate? The sun reflects off the gold dome.
• Which parts of this building are symmetrical? Can you find any parts
that are not? The building is mostly symmetrical, though some of the wall
decoration is not.
Teaching Idea
Have students reexamine the pointed
arches in the Gothic architecture of
Notre Dame introduced in the included
reproductions for Section I (pp. 245–247).
Tell students that Europeans brought
this architectural feature home with
them when they returned from the
Crusades in the East. Have students
hunt for pointed arches in the included
reproduction of the Court of the Lions to
see an original Islamic version. With
students, use Instructional Master 69,
Venn Diagram, to compare and contrast
similarities and differences between
Gothic and Islamic architecture.
Name
Venn Diagram
Directions: Venn diagrams are useful for showing how things are alike in some ways, but different in others. Where the circles overlap, write or draw how both
things are alike. Where the circles don’t overlap, write or draw how two things are different.
Master 69
Use Instructional Master 69.
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7
Court of the Lions, the Alhambra Palace (mid-14th
century)
The Alhambra was the largest of the great alcazars, or fortresses, that the
Moors built in Spain. Its history, like that of most of medieval Spain, is complex
and often difficult to unravel. Indirectly, it began with the Moorish invasion from
North Africa in the 7th century CE. By 732 CE, these adherents of Islam had conquered Spain and reached Poitiers in southern France. Here, they were met and
defeated by an army of Christian defenders led by Charles Martel. For the next
700 years, Christians and Muslims fought for control of the Iberian Peninsula.
The Muslims, handicapped by internal strife and intrigue, as well as external pressures from the Moors in North Africa and the Christians in the north, began to
give way in 976 CE.
Granada, the city in southern Spain where the Alhambra was built, was not
much more than a village in the early days of Muslim dominion. By 1025 CE, however, it had grown enough to attract the attention of the Zirids, Muslim Berber
kings of one part of Muslim Spain, who began building fortifications on the site
of what later became the Alhambra. It has also been suggested that the
famous stone lions that are now part of the magnificent Court of the Lions
were built at this time.
The Alhambra consists of a vast fortified enclosure, within which an
alcazaba (military fortress with barracks, stables, etc.), a palace area, and a
craftworker’s quarter are situated. The entire complex includes a dazzling
array of domes, courts, vaults, columns, galleries, and gardens. The perimeter of the enclosure measures some 7,218 feet (2,200 meters), and is studded
with no fewer than 22 towers of various shapes and sizes. The beautifully
constructed palace area includes three main sections, the Mexuar (believed
to be where the royal court met), the Palacio de Comares (built around a
splendid rectangular pool), and the Palacio de los Leones (which surrounds
a courtyard with a fountain supported by carved stone lions).
Much of the palace area is decorated with geometric patterns and poetic
calligraphy rendered in stucco, tile, or wood paneling. This ornamentation is
often quite intricate and detailed. For example, 8,017 pieces of different-colored
woods were used in the decoration of one room alone, the Hall of Ambassadors.
In some places, the interior design of the Alhambra reflects the influence of
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Christian art on the Muslim community in Spain. Contrary to the conventions of
Islamic art, the Hall of Kings contains several ceiling paintings of men at war, all
of which appear to be in Gothic style.
The space is elegant. The slim (sometimes double) marble columns stand
below the arches—the rounded ones inspired by Roman architecture as well as
the Muslim pointed arches. Stucco (plaster used in decoration) creates a rich surface texture, filling every flat space with intricate, abstract designs. The lacy, linear patterns repeat in the calligraphy around the fountain rim. The calligraphy is
an Arabic poem that describes how the fierce lions are behaving themselves out
of respect for the king. The fountain’s burbling water adds to the beauty of the
palace.
Washington Irving, an American writer whose work students study this year
in language arts, briefly lived in the Alhambra. Irving was serving as an American
diplomat in Spain from 1826–1829, and while there, he resided in and wrote
about the Alhambra. Irving published his sketches and stories as The Alhambra in
1832 (see More Resources). Irving later returned to Spain from 1842–1846 as the
U.S. ambassador to Spain.
Looking questions
Note: Cover up the title on the front of the print before showing to students.
• If you closed your eyes in this courtyard, what sounds would you hear?
You would hear water from the fountain.
• What animals surround the fountain? Lions surround the fountain.
Teaching Idea
For more pictures of the Alhambra, do
an Internet search for “Alhambra,”
along with other keywords from this
section, e.g., “Palacio de los Leones.”
Teaching Idea
Have students make quick sketches
for a courtyard in their own invented
royal residence, creating their personal style of architecture rather than
copying the Alhambra designs. What
type of arches, wall decorations,
fountains, roofs, and so forth, will
they draw to evoke a sense of royal
chambers? Afterward, have students
write and edit a story about an event
that takes place in their courtyard,
articulating the characters and their
interaction amidst the architecture.
• What different shapes of arches are used in the building? There are both
pointed and rounded arches.
• What kind of decoration covers the walls? There are abstract patterns covering the walls.
• What examples of Islamic art and architecture do you see in the picture?
There are two types of arches and decorative mosaics along the top of the
walls. Point out the geometric patterns.
8
Taj Mahal (1630–1653)
The building of the Taj Mahal was an act of love and devotion. Shah Jahan,
one of the early Muslim emperors during the Mughal reign in India, built it as the
final resting place for his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, who died in childbirth.
During their 18 years of marriage, the couple had 14 children. Mumtaz Mahal
often accompanied Shah Jahan on his military campaigns. The pair’s love was
remarkable in an era when most royal marriages were political and/or economic
alliances, rather than matters of the heart. 47
Although the Taj Mahal is fit for royalty, it is not a palace, but a large tomb,
or mausoleum. The Taj Mahal consists of four main elements—the main gateway,
garden, mosque, and the mausoleum itself. Passages from the Qur’an decorate the
outside of the palace, along with intertwined floral mosaic designs. One of the
most striking features of the Taj Mahal is its proportionality—the calligraphy, for
example, increases in size so that it maintains its perspective relative to the position of the viewer.
Teaching Idea
Before telling students the history of
the Taj Mahal, show them a picture of
it, and ask them to write a paragraph
predicting why it was built. Ask students to share their predictions with
the class, and keep track of the predictions on the board. After everyone
has shared their prediction, tell the
class the history of the Taj Mahal.
Numerous sources cite the Indian architect of Persian descent, Ustad Ahmad
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Teaching Idea
Make a list of all the features of the
Taj Mahal that students think make it
impressive. Discuss aspects such as
color, size, shape, and design. As a
class, find a local public building to
study that is also visually impressive.
What aspects of this building contribute to its impact? Compare and contrast the two lists. Remind students that
domes, minarets, and pointed arches
are Islamic features, some of which
appear in Western architecture today.
Lahori, as the designer. Skilled masons, craftworkers, sculptors, and calligraphers
from Persia, the Ottoman Empire, and Europe all participated in the construction
of the Taj Mahal. The building took about 20,000 workers more than 20 years to
complete. Building materials, which included marble, jade, crystal, turquoise, and
sapphire, came from all over India and Asia. It is estimated that the Taj Mahal cost
more than 32,000,000 rupees—an astronomical sum for the time.
Looking questions
• What attracts your attention about this building? The colors, the dome,
and different kinds of towers in this building immediately attract your
attention.
• What do you think the building might be used for? Answers may include a
church, the home of someone important, etc. Explain that the building was
commissioned as a memorial to the wife of Emperor Shah Jahan by the
emperor himself.
• Where are examples of three important Islamic architectural features?
The domes, minarets, and pointed arches are examples of important Islamic
architectural features.
Name
• Point out the minarets. What are minarets used for? What do they tell us
about Shah Jahan? Minarets are used in Islamic culture to call people to
prayer. Shah Jahan was a Muslim.
Date
Elements of Islamic Art and Architecture
Study the pictures of art and architecture from three major Islamic buildings.
Label each picture using words from the box.
calligraphy
dome
floral designs
animal statues
minarets
pointed arch
9
The Qur’an is the cornerstone of the Muslim faith and a guide for all facets
of life. Muslims believe that the angel Gabriel transmitted its contents to the
prophet Muhammad from about 610 CE until Muhammad’s death in 632 CE. As
Muhammad received these revelations, he recited them to scribes, who kept a
written record. In 651 CE, after Muhammad’s death, the writings were collected
into a standard version of 14 suras (chapters).
1. Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem)
dome
calligraphy
2. Court of the Lions (Spain)
pointed arch
animal statues
floral designs
Copyright ©Core Knowledge Foundation
3. Taj Mahal (India)
minarets
Purpose: To identify specific features of art and architecture from three major Islamic buildings
Master 37
Grade 4: Visual Arts
Use Instructional Master 37.
Khawja Shayebhn, Oldest Handwritten Qur’an (1649)
It is the importance of the Qur’an in Muslim life that encouraged the development of the exquisite calligraphy that plays such a predominant role in Islamic art.
The calligraphy that communicates the words of the Qur’an is considered an art
form of the noblest pursuit. The prohibition against figural decoration in religious
art means that there are no pictures of Muhammad or other persons in illuminated manuscripts of the Qur’an. Rather, calligraphy is a focal point, as geometric and
floral designs enhance each page.
Looking questions
• This is a handwritten Qur’an. Can you see the handwriting? The writing
is in the center of the page.
• What kind of balance is used in the decoration of these pages? The decoration of these pages is symmetrical.
• What types of lines are used in the design? Vertical, horizontal, and curving lines are used in the design.
• What types of shapes are used? Both geometric and organic shapes are used.
• Why might the designer have used this combination of lines and shapes?
This combination of lines and shapes provides balance and structure, but
also offers variety.
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• How does the decoration send a message about the words on the page
and about the book itself? The decoration focuses attention on the words
and provides an elaborate frame for them. The decoration also emphasizes
the importance of the book.
• Compare the page from the Book of Kells with the pages of the Qur’an.
How are they similar? How are they different? Answers will vary.
Review
Below are some ideas for ongoing assessment and review activities. These are
not meant to constitute a comprehensive list.
• Show the class pictures of the three buildings, the Dome of the Rock, the
Alhambra, and the Taj Mahal. Give each student a chart divided into three
columns and ask them to write down the distinguishing characteristics of the
three buildings. After completing a column describing each building, have students write a paragraph saying which building is their favorite and why. Make
sure that they use supporting details from their observations in their paragraphs.
The Big Idea
in Review
Islamic art and architecture is highly decorative,
and much of it avoids
depictions of the human
figure.
• The nature of Islamic art with its geometric patterns provides a way to connect
with or build on the geometry section from Grade 4 Mathematics. The lines, patterns, and shapes that dominate the walls of mosques and other buildings are an
excellent way to introduce or reinforce segments, rays, lines, and the types of lines
(horizontal, vertical, perpendicular, parallel, and intersecting). Use pictures of the
walls from these buildings to identify and draw these shapes and lines. You may
also practice finding the area of shapes and using square units. Students may write
word problems based on the art and create pictures with geometric measurements.
• Give each student a long piece of paper and have them create a geometric pattern that could have been used to decorate the wall of an Islamic building. Have
students paint or color their patterns, and then post these around the top of the
classroom to form a border.
• Have students create mosaic pictures like the ones found on the walls of
Islamic buildings. Create mosaics with small pieces of construction paper glued
to a larger template drawn with pencil, or use pieces of tile. Before creating
mosaics, have the class brainstorm appropriate subjects based on their study of
Islam. When students are finished, have them write a description of their mosaic
and choose one of the buildings from this unit where they imagine it could be displayed.
• In general, the best time to ask questions about a specific work of art is while
students are looking at it. However, by the end of the unit, students should be
able to answer questions like the following:
1. Why are there no images of figures or animals in Islamic public religious
artworks?
The Qur’an warns against idolatry, or worshipping images.
2.
What type of decoration is typical in Islamic art?
Typical decoration includes floral, vegetal, and curvilinear abstract designs.
Visual Arts
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