Expository
Comprehension
Kitty Voos
&
Susan Santarpia
Definitions
•
Cause-effect (or causation) – showing how one event leads to another
•
Cloze- A technique involving short passages with approximately 1/5 of the words
presented as blanks to be filled in.
•
Comparison – also known as compare/contrast
•
Expository Text- text written to inform the reader in a particular subject or
content area. Expository text may prove challenging even for accomplished
readers of narrative text due very different organizational structures used in to
convey ideas.
•
Expository Text Patterns – Five typical patterns of organization used in
expository text include time order, cause-effect, problem-solution, comparison,
listing.
•
Listing (or collection) – simple lists of information to be learned
•
Problem-Solution – presenting a problem with its solution
•
Maze – A variation on cloze, with three alternatives provided for each blank
space.
•
Reciprocal Teaching – A strategy involving four techniques (prediction,
question gene ration, clarifying and summarization) where students take turns
acting as instructors to teach each other aspects of the text.
•
Time Order – sequential listing of events
Assessment Listings
Informal
•
Cloze Passages
•
Content Reading Inventory (CRI)
•
Expository Text Frames
•
Idea Mapping
•
Maze Passages
•
Reciprocal Teaching
•
Self- Rating Checklists
•
Semantic Feature Analysis
•
Semantic Webs
Links
•
•
•
www.intervention.org - has interactive probe generators; cloze passage
generators; lots of good links.
www.sedl.org - the Southeast Education Development Laboratory – has a
searchable assessment database.
www.school.discovery.com/teachingtools - worksheet generators, text scrambler
Informal Assessments
Expository Text Frames
Cloze Test
Maze Passages
Content Reading Inventory (CRI)
Expository Text Frames
(Reutzel & Cooter, 1999)
Expository text frames are useful in identifying types of expository text patterns that
may be troublesome for students. Based on the "story frames" concept (Nichols,
1980; Fowler, 1982), expository text frames are completed by the student after
reading an expository passage. Instruction can be focused much more precisely, based
on student needs, as a result of this procedure.
Materials:
• You will need the textbook, a computer and word processing program, and means by
which to copy the expository text frames for students. Abbreviated examples of
expository text frames for each of the primary expository text patterns are shown in
Figures 11.1 through 11.5.
Procedure:
•
•
Before reading the selection, list the major vocabulary and concepts. Discuss
what students already know about the topic and display it on the chalkboard or
on chart paper. Next, have students read an expository selection similar to the
one you will ask them to read in class. Once the passage has been read, model
the process for completing expository text frames using mock examples. Now
have them read the actual selection for the unit of study. Finally, have students
complete the expository text frame(s) you have prepared for this passage.
For students who have trouble with any of the frames, conduct a one-on-one
reading conference to determine the thinking processes going on as the
student completed the expository text frame.
Cloze Test
(Mariotti & Homan, 2001)
The cloze test is an informal technique used to determine (1) the readability of written
material; (2) an individual's reading level on specific material; (3) an individual's
vocabulary level in a specific subject or topic area; (4) an individual's language skills;
and (5) an estimate of an individual's general comprehension level. Cloze can also
provide a reading level profile of a class or small group.
Cloze uses student materials-that is, materials used in the classroom, such as content
textbooks, workbooks, or other required reading. With a standard cloze, the selected
passage is duplicated and words at regularly spaced intervals are omitted from the
passage. These omitted words are called cloze units. The reader's task is to supply the
cloze units from the remaining context.
The appropriateness of the material for each student depends on the percentage of
correct answers. Criteria have been developed to help the teacher determine if the
material used in the classroom will be suitable for the students.
Constructing the Cloze Test:
•
•
To construct a standard cloze test, select a passage unfamiliar to the students
that is approximately 250 to 300 words in length. The passage should come
from the students' content textbooks or other required reading material. The
first sentence is left intact. Beginning with the second sentence, count and
delete every fifth word if the test is to be used in grades 4 and up. However, if
a cloze is constructed for the primary grades, eliminate every seventh or tenth
word. Proper nouns (Dan, Tampa, Lincoln, etc.) are skipped, and the next
word is deleted. Words are eliminated until there are a total of 50 deletions.
With primary students, you may need to have two passages of 25 deletions
administered on different days for a total of 50 deletions. The last sentence is
left intact. Deleted words are replaced with a blank line approximately fifteen
typed spaces in length. For example:
Administering the Cloze Test:
Before administering the test, provide the students with five to ten practice sentences
so they can familiarize themselves with the procedure. Directions to the students
should include the following:
1. They are to write only one word in the blank space, even though there may be
many words that "fit" the meaning of the passage.
2. They are to pick the word that they feel best completes the sentence and "fits" the
meaning of the passage.
3. They are not expected to get all the answers correct; if they do not know an answer
on the first try, they should skip it and come back to it later.
4. They should first read the entire passage quickly, and then read it a second time to
fill in the blanks.
5. There is no time limit to the test.
Scoring the Cloze Test:
Only the exact replacement is scored as a correct response-that is, only the deleted
word is acceptable, not a synonym or another form of the correct word. Although
more than one word might easily make sense for a specific cloze unit, only the
deleted word should be counted as an accurate response when using cloze to
determine a student's reading level or the appropriateness of materials for students.
Accepting synonyms or other forms for the required words drastically reduces the
reliability of the cloze test. If the purpose of the cloze is instructional (for example, 'to
practice use of context or to work on vocabulary development) synonyms and other
forms of the extracted word are acceptable. Look at the following excerpt from a
completed cloze test:
This student had 2 exact replacements in the first 5 deletions. City makes sense and
even fits the sense of the passage but cannot be counted as correct because it is not an
exact replacement. Burned, although a form of the deleted word, cannot be counted as
correct because the exact replacement is burning.
To determine the percent of correct responses, divide the number of correct responses
by the total number of blanks. So, if a student correctly replaced twenty-five of the
fifty possible cloze units, his or her score would be 50 percent.
Criteria for Evaluating Cloze Test Scores:
While 50% may seem low, for cloze criteria it is an acceptable rate of correct
response. There are several criteria for judging doze scores; the most widely used was
developed by Rankin and Culhane (1969). Their guidelines, presented below, relate to
independent, instructional, and frustration reading levels.
Percent of Correct Responses
Reading Level
60% and above
40-59%
below 40%
Independent
Instructional
Frustration
When the cloze is given to an entire class or a group of students, the scores can be
summarized on a chart. Because the cloze was developed from classroom reading
material, the teacher can readily see which students will be able to handle the text
material independently, which will need guidance, and which will need considerable
assistance.
Analyzing Cloze Test Responses:
When the cloze test is employed to examine the comprehension strategies of
individual students, an applied error analysis is used much the same way as the error
analysis in Chapter 6. Each response can be categorized to determine the possible
strategies a child is using. One category system the teacher can utilize in the
classroom was developed by Shearer (1982).
1. Count the number of exact replacements (ER), and determine the percent correct.
exact replacements (ER)/ total deletions = percent correct
2. Examine the errors, and categorize them according to the following descriptions:
a. Synonyms (SYN): Words that mean the same as the deleted word.
b. Semantically Appropriate (SEM): Words that make sense in the sentence but
not necessarily in the context of the passage. The word may not reflect the
intended meaning of the author.
c. Semantic/Not Syntactic (SEM/NStc): Words that indicate meaning but are not
syntactically appropriate. May not be the same part of speech or agree in number
or tense with the deleted word.
d. Syntactically Appropriate (STC): Words that are the same part of speech as the
deleted words and agree in number and tense, where appropriate, but are not
semantically appropriate.
e. Nonsense Errors (NON): Nonwords or words that do not make sense in the
sentence and are not syntactically appropriate.
f. Omissions (OM): No response.
3. Determine the percent for each category of error:
error category/total errors= percent of error category in total errors
For example, a student has 15 exact replacements and 35 total errors.
The percent correct is 30. The errors fell into the following categories:
Category
SYN
SEM
SEM/NStc
STC
NON
OM
Number of Errors
5
10
1
8
6
5
Percentage
14%
28%
3%
23%
17%
14%
Interpreting Cloze Test Responses:
By looking at the percent of each type of error, the teacher determines that this
student is using language cues during reading even though the passage is at a
frustration reading level. The high percent of semantically and syntactically
appropria te errors indicate the student is gaining meaning and reads contextually. It
may also indicate the student has highly developed schemata for the content.
Maze Passages
(Reutzel & Cooter, 1999)
Maze passages (Guthrie, Seifert, Burnham, & Caplan, 1974) are a modification of
cloze strategies that may be easily adapted to content classroom needs. Maze
passages tend to be less frustrating to students because the students have three
possible answers to choose from; thus, students tend to get a larger percentage of the
items correct. The purpose of maze passages is otherwise identical to cloze.
Materials:
•
You will need the textbook, a computer and word processing program, and
means by which to copy the doze passage for students.
Procedure:
• In our adaptation of maze the criteria for the independent reading level is 85%
or greater, the instructional reading level is 50% to 85%, and the frustration
level is less than 50%. The procedure for constructing maze passages is
identical to the construction of cloze passages, with the exception that,
following each blank, three fill- in choices are included. One choice is a word
that is the same part of speech as the missing word, but does not make sense; a
second choice is usually one that does not make sense and is a different part of
speech from the missing word; and the third choice is, of course, the correct
choice. An example of a maze sentence follows (Berger & Berger, 1974, p.
183) using the content area of sociology and discussing the topic of
conformity:
conformist
A straight ____________ control
is the individual who has learned his
ever
place, has accepted it, and acts accordingly.
Content Reading Inventory (CRI)
(Mariotti & Homan, 2001)
The content reading inventory (CRI) is an informal assessment technique that
provides information on students' knowledge of book parts, reference aids,
vocabulary, and comprehension of text material. It is a silent, group-administered test
that is easily constructed, given, and scored. Its value to the classroom teacher is that
the student's reading ability is measured on the text used for class instruction. It is
most appropriate for students in grade 4 or higher.
There are three major sections of the CRI: (1) use of book parts and study aids; (2)
vocabulary knowledge; and (3) comprehension. The following is a representative
outline of a CRI (Readence, Bean, & Baldwin, 1995):
I. Textbook Aids/Study Aids
A. Using book parts (table of contents, index, glossary, graphic aids, chapter
introduction/summary, appendices, etc.)
B. Using references (card catalog, encyclopedia, atlas, etc.)
II. Vocabulary Knowledge
A. Recall of word meanings
B. Use of context for word meanings
III. Comprehension
A. Literal meanings
B. Inferential meanings
C. Passage organization
A CRI can be any le ngth; however, the suggested maximum number of questions is
between 20 and 25 in one inventory. The age and reading ability of the students
should determine the length of the inventory. There should be a maximum of 8 to 10
questions in section 1,4 to 6 in section II, and 7 to 9 in section III.
Procedure:
• To construct the inventory, the teacher picks a three- to four-page selection
from the text the students will be using. It should be a passage that the
students have not read previously.
• To administer the inventory, the teacher should read the questions orally to the
students before they begin to ensure that they understand the questions.
• Students are told that the test does not count as part of their grade and that the
information from the test will be used by the teacher in planning instruction.
• The CRI can be introduced as a class assignment for the purpose of
familiarizing students with the text and, thus, alleviate any test anxiety.
• Depending on the length of the inventory, it can be given on one or over two
different days. If the inventory is given over two days, section I is given first,
with sections II and III administered on the following day. To score the CRI,
determine the percent of correct responses by dividing the number of correct
responses by the total number of items. Judge each student's ability to read the
text on the following criteria (McWilliams & Rakes, 1979):
Percent Correct
86-100%
64-85%
below 63%
Text Difficulty
Too easy
Adequate for instruction
Too difficult
If the text is deemed too difficult for a large portion of the group, the teacher will
need to stress vocabulary and background development before the lesson. In addition,
the inventory may identify students who miss a majority of questions within one
section, such as study aids. These students, then, may benefit from direct instruction
in that area.
Example of a Content Reading Inventory (Grade 4)
I. Textbook Aids/Study Aids
Directions: Using your textbook or your previous knowledge, answer each of the
following questions on a separate sheet of paper.
A. Using Book Parts
1. Where would you look to find information on "communities"?
2. What topics does the book cover? Where did you find the information?
3. What does Chapter 6 cover?
4. Use the glossary to write a definition of goods.
B. Using References
5. What library aids would help you in locating a book on our nation's capital,
Washington, DC?
6. If you were going to give an oral report in class about government, would an
encyclopedia help you? Why, or why not?
7. Imagine that you want to make a time line of the life of Abraham Lincoln.
Where would you look first for help?
II. Vocabulary Knowledge and III. Comprehension
Directions: Read the section in your text entitled "Building Our Capital City" (pages
60-63). Using the information from your reading, answer the questions below on a
separate sheet of paper.
II. Vocabulary Knowledge
8. Define the term district as used in this text (page 62).
9. What do the letters DC stand for in Washington, DC?
10. Define the term capital city. Provide two examples of capital cities.
11. In the following sentence, what does the word founded mean? "The United
States was founded more than 200 years ago."
III. Comprehension
12. In how many cities was our capital located? Name them.
13. Why did the leaders choose the area they did to put the capital?
14. Why did the people need a city specially built to be the nation's capital?
15. Look at the time chart on page 63. Was the White House built before or after
the Washington Monument?
16. On the map on page 61, use the key to locate the Lincoln Memorial.
On what street is it located? What building is directly east of the Lincoln
Memorial?
Instructional Techniques
Learning Logs
(Reutzel & Cooter, 1999)
One of the problems students frequently have with expository texts is monitoring
their own comprehension-they often do not know what they know or don't know.
Journal writing has been effective with many students, probably because it causes
students to be more directly engaged with the subject being studied (Emig, 1983;
Strong, 1983). Learning logs, as described by Commander and Smith (1996), are
a form of structured journal writing that not only can aid a student's ability to gain
new information from expository texts, but also can help him develop better
awareness of his own comprehension (metacognition).
Materials:
You will need to develop a learning log assignment sheet similar to the one shown below
that is keyed to the requirements of the unit of study. Also needed are about ten enlarged
examples (overhead transparencies or on poster board) of learning log entries that
conform to your expectations for students of this developmental level, for use in
modeling activities.
Learning Log Assignment Sheet
What is a Learning Log?
• This learning log assignment will help you find out more about how you
learn.
• We all learn in many different ways - listening, doing, thinking about what
we already know, and learning from others. You will be able to use all of
these ways of learning in your log.
Purpose of the assignment
• Your daily entries will help you to know what it is you are learning and
what you still need to learn. This will also help you to be able to share
what you know with other students, and the teacher. You will also learn
important steps in knowing more about this subject, and how to be a better
student in other subjects, as well.
Grade
• Here are the important procedures for using your learning log as part of
your grade this term:
• All learning logs will be collected each Tuesday at the beginning of the
class period. They will not be accepted late, so be sure to have it ready to
turn in
• You can make log entries either daily or every other day. It is usually
easier, though, to do it daily so that you do not fall behind.
• There will be ten separate topics assigned for you to respond to in your
learning log each week. They will be awarded anywhere from 0 to 1 0
points based on the quality of your response. How much thought you put
into your answers will be an important factor in determining your grade
each time.
Format
• Your response to the weekly question should be from one to two pages on
notebook paper, or the same number double-spaced using a 12-point
"Geneva" font on the computer. Again, quality of ideas, not quantity of
pages, will determine your grade on this assignment.
Topics
• Topics will be assigned each Tuesday, and your learning log entry must
directly address the topic. Your response should include information from
class discussions, cooperative learning activities, library assignments,
presentations in the multimedia lab, and any other learning experience we
have during that week.
Examples of learning logs
•
We will work through several learning log entries the first week to help
you better understand what we are doing. Then, each Tuesday, the teacher
will show you another example from the previous week's topic to better
help you learn the process. The goal here is to get better at this as we go
along. Please do not hesitate to ask a classmate or your teacher for help
whene ver you have a problem. Together we can learn a great deal this
term!
Procedure:
Pass out the Learning Log Assignment Sheet you created for this unit. After discussing
the assignment sheet, walk students through several examples using the enlarged versio ns
to model the thinking processes. Then distribute the first week's topic and discuss it.
Follow the remaining procedure as described in the Learning Log assignment sheet
example above.
The Keyword Strategy
(Wright, 2003)
In this mnemonic (memorization) technique, students select the central idea of a passage
and summarize it as a 'keyword'. Next, they recode the keyword as a mental picture and
use additional mental imagery to relate other important facts to the keyword. They can
then recall the keyword when needed, retrieving the related information.
Materials:
•
Procedure :
•
. Overhead transparencies of sample passages taken from expository texts,
transparency markers. Student copies of Memorizing Facts: The
Keyword Strategy (see below) and practice expository passages
(optional) or text books
Prepare overheads of sample expository passages.
•
Review the procedures in the worksheet Memorizing Facts: The Keyword
Strategy
Intervention Script:
1. Tell students that a good way to remember lots of facts is to us e keywords. With the
keyword approach, students:
• highlight important facts or ideas in a passage
• write a "gist" sentence that summarizes the highlighted ideas or facts
• select a 'keyword' that will help them to recall a central idea about the article or
passage.
• create a mental picture to remember the keyword, and then
• add details to the mental picture or create a story around the keyword to memorize
additional facts or ideas.
If you have younger students (e.g., 5th grade or below), read through several sample
passages with the group. Then display a drawing or collage that represents your own
representation of the passage's main ideas as mental imagery. Using a "think-aloud"
approach, explain the mental imagery of the picture and show how it encapsulates the
main facts of the original passage. Show students how they can more easily recall facts
using this approach.
If you have older students (e.g., 6th grade or above), read through several sample
passages with the group. Write a description of the mental imagery that you used to
memorize the keyword and related facts. Using a "think-aloud" approach, explain the
mental imagery of your keyword and related story and show how the imagery
encapsulates the main facts of the original passage. Show students how they can more
easily recall facts using this approach.
2. Pair students off and give them a sample passage. Assign each pair of students to:
• identify the main idea of the passage
• write a "gist" sentence to summarize the passage's main idea and related important
facts
• select a keyword based on the main idea
• write out a description (or draw a picture) of the mental imagery that they will use
to recall the main idea and important facts of the passage.
3. When students are able to use the keyword strategy independently, have them use the
technique when reading through expository passages. Monitor students' use of the
method and their accuracy in recalling key facts. Conference individually with those
students needing additional guidance and support.
Memorizing Facts: The Keyword Strategy
In most of your school courses, you are probably expected to remember lots of important
facts and ideas. One useful method that can help you to do a better job of memorizing
facts is called the 'keyword' strategy. With this technique, you:
• highlight important facts or ideas in a passage
• write a "gist" sentence that summarizes the highlighted ideas or facts
• select a 'keyword' that will help you to recall a central idea about the article or
passage.
• create a mental picture to help you to remember the keyword, and then
• add details to the mental picture or create a story around the keyword to
memorize additional facts or ideas.
The keyword strategy can seem a bit silly when you first try it-but it works! Here are the
main steps of the keyword strategy-along with two examples:
Step 1: Read a passage from a textbook or article and highlight the most important
ideas or facts. The first trick in effective memorization is to decide what facts are
important enough to remember. Read the passage carefully and note what ideas, terms, or
phrases are most important. Highlight only these important ideas.
Here is a sample passage from a history text. The student has read through the passage
and highlighted the main points (underlined text):
"Long before the start of the classical period, Greeks had spread beyond the limits of Old
Greece. After the great migrations to the coasts of Asia Minor and the Aegean Islands (c.
1000- 800 BC) there were extensive colonizing movements, in which settlers from
individual Greek cities founded a new city either in a different part of Greece or in a
barbarian land. The main colonizing age lasted from the eighth century to the sixth
century BC, although colonies were still being founded in the classical period"
- from Hooker, JT. (1995). Hellenic Civilization. In A. Cotterell (Ed.) The Penguin encyclopedia of
classical civilizations (pp. 1-40). London: Penguin Books.
Step 2: Write or think about a summary ("gist") sentence that captures the
important ideas of the passage. The "gist" sentence reduces the original passage to the
bare essentials-just the information that you want to memorize.
In our example, the student wrote a "gist" sentence that sums up the central facts from the
longer passage on the move ment of peoples in ancient Greece:
The Greeks spread beyond the limits of Old Greece, migrating first to Asia Minor and the
Aegean Islands and later founding new cities in other parts of Greece or in barbarian
lands.
.
Step 3: Write (or think of) a keyword that provides a mental picture to represent a
main idea in the passage. Add details to the mental picture or create a story around the
keyword to memorize the facts or ideas. (Feel free to use silly keywords or stories, as
silly examples can stand out and be easier to recall.)
In our example, the student selected the keyword "old geese" (to represent the term "Old
Greece" that appears in the original passage). The student then weaves a story around the
keyword to make it easier to remember the main facts of the passage:
A flock of old geese [keyword: represents Old Greece] left their pen ["great migrations"]
and flew off to a tiny Chinese restaurant [Asia Minor] on a giant island [Aegean Islands].
There the geese found an undiscovered city [founded new cities ] filled with other geese
["in a different part of Greece"] and cavemen ["or in a barbarian land"].
In the next example, the student uses the keyword strategy to remember facts from a
textbook on natural ecology:
Step 1: Read a passage from a textbook or article and highlight the most important
ideas or facts.
"Three major classes of processes cause the cycling of carbon in aquatic and terrestrial
systems. The first includes the assimilatory and dissimilatory reactions of carbon in
photosynthesis and respiration. The second class includes the physical exchange of
carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and oceans, lakes, and streams. The third type of
process that drives the cycling of carbon consists of the dissolution and precipitation
(deposition) of carbonate compounds as sediments, particularly limestone and dolomite"
-from Ricklefs, RE. (1993). The economy of nature. (3rd ed.) New York: W.H.Freeman
Step 2: Write or think about a summary ("gist") sentence that captures the
important ideas of the passage.
Carbon cycles through ecological systems in three ways: (1) photosynthesis and
respiration, (2) physical exchange between the atmosphere and bodies ofwater, and (3)
depositing or dissolving of mineral sediments such as limestone.
Step 3: Write (or think of) a keyword that provides a mental picture to represent a
main idea in the passage. Add details to the mental picture or create a story around the
keyword to memorize the facts or ideas.
A man on a sooty bicycle [keyword: represents "carbon cycles"] rode into a greenhouse
["photosynthesis and respiration"]. The man put on an air tank and jumped into a pool of
water ["physical exchange between atmosphere and bodies of water"], where he chiseled
limestone off the bottom of the pool ["depositing or dissolving of mineral sediments such
as limestone"].
Main Idea Maps
(Wright, 2003)
This simple strategy teaches students to generate a graphic organizer containing the main
ideas of an expository passage.
Materials:
• Overhead transparencies of practice expository passages, transparency markers .
Student copies of practice expository passages (optional) or reading/text books,
Main Idea Graphic Organizer
Procedure:
• Prepare overheads of sample passages.
Intervention Script :
1. Introduce the strategy by telling students that we can draw pictures, or Main Idea
Maps, that help us to understand how the ideas of a multi- paragraph passage fit together.
Present these three steps for mapping out the main ideas of an expository:
•
Locating the Main Ideas of Paragraphs . Read through a short (2-6 paragraph)
practice expository passage with students.
On a blank overhead transparency or chart paper, begin building a graphic
organizer by writing the title of the passage in the center. Draw a box around the
title. (If the passage has no title, query the class and make up a suitable title based
on their suggestions.) NOTE: Instead of drawing your own map, you can use the
preformatted Main Idea Graphic Organizer that is included with this strategy.
Tell students that some paragraphs have summary sentences that state the main
idea or "gist" of the paragraph or passage. Other paragraphs have implied main
ideas, which the reader must figure out, based on key facts or ideas that they
contain.
Go through each paragraph in the practice passage and identify the paragraph's
main idea. Demonstrate how to summarize that main idea as a single, succinct
phrase.
•
Building the Main Idea Graphic Organizer. As you summarize each
paragraph's main idea, write the number of the paragraph and main- idea summary
phrase on the graphic organizer. (Start writing at the upper left comer of the
organizer sheet and continue clockwise around the page. Space the summary
phrases to allow space to write under each. See the sample "Main Idea Graphic
Organizer.").
•
Adding Key Facts. When you have written the main idea for all of the
paragraphs onto the graphic organizer, return to the passage. For each paragraph,
pull out 2-3 important facts, ideas, or supporting details. On the graphic organizer,
write these key pieces of additional information under the main- idea phrase for
that paragraph. Then draw a box around the main- idea and supporting details and
move on to the next paragraph.
2. Practice Using the Graphic Organizer as a Study Tool. Demonstrate how the
completed Main Idea Graphic Organizer can be a useful method to summarize and
review the content of expository passages. Give students new practice passages and have
them create their own graphic organizers. Provide feedback and encouragement as
needed.
Tips:
Use a Giant 'Main Idea Map' to Teach The Strategy. You can make the teaching of this
strategy fu and highly interactive by drawing a giant version of the Main Idea Graphic
Organizer onto newsprint and laying it on the floor. Assign each individual in the class to
read through a practice passage and write out a summary main- idea phrase and key ideas
or facts for each paragraph. Review the passage with the group. For each paragraph,
invite a volunteer to stand on the space on the giant organizer that corresponds to the
paragraph and read aloud his or her summary for class feedback. Continue through the
passage until all paragraphs have been reviewed and student volunteers have occupied
each point on the graphic organizer.
Main Idea Graphic Organizer
Question-Generation
(Wright, 2003)
Students are taught to boost their comprehension of expository passages by (1) locating
the main idea or key ideas in the passage and (2) generating questions based on that
information.
Materials:
• Overhead transparencies of practice reading passages, transparency markers .
Student copies of practice reading passages (optional) or reading/text books
Preparation:
• Prepare overheads of sample passages.
Intervention Script:
1. Introduce this strategy to the class:
A. Locating Explicit Main Idea: Tell students that some passages have summary
sentences that state the main idea or "gist" of the paragraph or passage. Using
examples of passages with explicit main ideas, train students to identity and
underline main- idea sentences.
B. Finding Key Facts. In some passages, the main idea is implied rather than
explicitly stated. Readers must first identify the key facts or ideas of the passage
before they can summarize the passage's main idea.
Using examples of passages with implied main ideas, locate and circle key facts
or ideas. Describe to students how you distinguished this central information from
less important details. Have students practice this skill on additional practice
passages.
C. Writing a "Gist" Sentence. Show students a passage with an implied main
idea. Circle all key ideas or facts. Demonstrate how to write a "gist" sentence (one
that is built from the identified key ideas and summarizes the paragraph's main
idea). Emphasize that the reader may have link information from different
sections of the passage to build a gist Sentence. Have students practice this skill
on additional practice passages.
D. Generating Questions. Tell students that careful readers often construct
questions about what they are reading to help them learn. Put up a list of 'signal
words' that can be used as question-starters: e.g., who, what, where, when, why,
how. Using sample passages, show students how to convert explicit main- idea
sentences or reader-created "gist" sentences into questions. Point out that these
questions can be a good study tool because they are linked to answers that the
student has already located in the passage.
2. Give students selected practice passages and instruct them to apply the full questiongeneration strategy. Provide feedback and encouragement as needed.
Tips:
Use "Gist" Sentences to Organize Student Research Notes. When students are writing
research papers, they often find it challenging to synthesize their scattered research notes
into an orderly outline with sequentially presented main ideas. Students who have
mastered the skill of assembling key ideas into "gist" sentences can identify their most
important research notes, copy these notes individually onto index cards, and group cards
with related notes. The student can then write a single "gist" sentence for each pile of
note cards and use these sentences as the starting point for a paper outline.
Collect Exemplary Examples of Student-Generated Questions as Study Aids .
If your class is using an assigned textbook, you may want to collect well- written studentgenerated questions and share them with other students. Or assign students different
sections of an article or book chapter and require that they 'teach' the content by
presenting their text - generated questions and sharing the correct answers.
Select Student Questions As Quiz or Test Items . You can build classroom interest (and
competition!) in using this question-generation strategy by occasionally using one or
more student text-questions as quiz or test items.
Reciprocal Teaching
(Wright, 2003)
The intervention package teaches students to use reading comprehension strategies
independently, including text prediction, summarization, question generation, and
clarification of unknown or unclear content.
Materials:
• Overhead transparencies of practice reading passages, transparency markers .
Student copies of Be a Careful Reader!: Four Strategies to Better Understand
What You Are Reading, Reciprocal Teaching Strategies Worksheet, and practice
reading passages (optional) or reading/text books
Preparation:
• Prepare overheads of sample passages.
Intervention Script:
1. Set aside at least four successive instructional days to introduce each of the
following comprehension strategies: Day 1: prediction, Day 2: summarization
("list main ideas"), Day 3: question generation, Day 4: clarifying. As you
introduce each strategy, "think aloud" as you apply the technique to a sample
passage, write down responses on the Reciprocal Teaching Strategies Worksheet,
and check for student understanding of key concepts.
2. After students have been introduced to the key strategies, the group is now
ready to apply all four strategies from the Reciprocal Teaching package to a
sample reading passage. For each strategy (prediction, summarization, question
generation, clarifying), briefly review the technique. Then randomly select a
student "instructor" to guide the group to apply the strategy and complete the
relevant section of the Reciprocal Teaching Strategies Worksheet. (Be prepared to
offer assistance to the student "instructor" as needed.) Give specific praise to
students for appropriately using comprehension strategies.
3. As the group shows an increased mastery of the strategies, assign students
to read text segments silently. Then take the students as a group through the four
strategies, calling on different students to discuss how they applied the strategies
to the passage.
4. Give students copies of the Reciprocal Teaching Strategies Worksheet and
instruct them to read a passage silently without interruption. Prior to their
starting, remind students to take time occasionally during reading to make
predictions about the text, note main ideas, formulate key questions, and clarify
unclear material.
Tips:
Let students select Reciprocal Teaching passages. Allow the group to vote for a
preferred passage from among several possible choices. Choice often increases student
motivation and investment.
Start a 'Reciprocal Teaching' Tutoring Program. Once students become proficient in
using the Reciprocal Teaching package, consider assigning them as peer tutors to train
other students to use Reciprocal Teaching Strategies.
Troubleshooting:
• While they participate in the large-group instruction, some students do not
appear to use the comprehension strategies in their independent reading.
After independent reading assignments, pair students off to compare their
completed Reciprocal Teaching worksheets. Have individuals in each student pair
alternate in discussing how they applied the strategies. Walk around the room
observing discussion. If you notice that a student has failed to complete his or her
worksheet, pull him or her aside later for a private conference to discover what
problems might be preventing the student from using these strategies.
•
Students do not use the Reciprocal Teaching strategies across instructional
settings. Let other teachers know that you have taught your students to use this
package of comprehension strategies. Share copies of the Reciprocal Teaching
Strategies Worksheet with your fellow instructors and invite them to use it. Share
a copy of the worksheet with students' parents and encourage them to see that
their child uses it for all reading assignments.
Be a Careful Reader!: Four Strategies to Better Understand What You
Are Reading
When you are reading an article, book chapter, or story, you can use these four simple techniques
to be sure that you fully understand the content.
Prediction. Before you begin to read the selection, look at the main title, scan the pages to read
the major headings, and look at any illustrations. Based on these clues, try to predict what the
article or story is about.
Now read the selection to see whether it turns out as you predicted! Stop at several points during
your reading and ask yourself how closely the content of the actual story or article fit your initial
prediction. How do the facts and information that you have read change your prediction about
what you will find in the rest of the story or article?
List Main ideas . Stop after each paragraph or major section of the passage. Construct one or two
complete sentences that sum up only the most important idea(s) that appear in the section. (Good
summary sentences include key concepts or events but leave out less important details!)
Write these summary (main idea) sentences down and continue reading.
Question Generation. Look at the ideas that you have summarized as you read the passage. For
each main idea listed, write down at least one question that the main idea will answer. Good
questions should include words like "who, "where", "when", "why", and "what".
For example, if you are reading an article about the extinction of the dinosaurs, you might list the
following main idea: "Most scientists now believe that the extinction of the dinosaurs was caused
by a large meteor striking the earth." You could then write this question: "What event do most
scientists now believe caused the mass extinction of the dinosaurs?"
Clarifying. Sometimes in your reading you will run into words, phrases, or whole sentences that
really don't make sense. Here are some ways that you can clarify the meaning of your reading
before moving on:
Unknown words. If you come across a word whose meaning you do not know, read the sentences
before and after it to see if they give you clues to the word's meaning. If the word is still unclear,
look it up in a dictionary.
Unclear phrases or sentences. Reread the phrase or sentence carefully and try to understand it. If
it contains words such as "them", "it" or "they", be sure that you know what nouns (persons,
places, or things) to which these words refer.
If all else fails, ask another student or an adult to help you to clarify the meaning of a confusing
word, phrase, or sentence.
Text Lookback
(Wright, 2003)
Text lookback is a simple strategy that students can use to boost their recall of expository
prose by looking back in the text for important information.
Materials:
• Overhead transparencies of short (100- 200 word) passages from expository text
and teacher-prepared text and lookbacklthink questions, transparency markers .
Student copies of expository text passages and text- lookback /think questions
Preparation:
• Create at least 3 lookback questions and one think question for each expository
text passage selected
Intervention Script:
1. Introduce the text- lookback strategy by telling students that people cannot
always remember everything that they read. If we read an article or book chapter,
though, and are asked a 'fact' question about it that we cannot answer, we can
always look back in the article to find the information that we need.
2. Describe for the class the difference between lookback and think questions. An
example of an explanation that you might use is:
"When we are asked questions about an article, sometimes the answer can be
found directly in the article and sometimes it cannot be found directly. "
"Lookback questions are those that tell us that the answer can be found right in
the article. For example, if a question uses phrases such as in the article or in the
author's words, these phrases would be clues that the question is a lookup
question and that we can find the answer in the article. "
"Think questions are those that ask you to give your own opinion, beliefs, or
ideas. Our answers to these questions are based on our own ideas or thoughts
about the topic. For example, if a question uses phrases such as in your opinion or
what do you think, these phrases would be clues that the question is a think
question and that the answer cannot be found in the article. "
3. Read aloud through the sample expository passage. Then read the series of 4
text lookback/think questions to the class. As you read each question, highlight
for students the word clues that indicate whether the question is a think or text
lookback question.
4. Tell students that they must reread carefully to find the answer to a textlookback question. However, they can save time by first skimming the article to
get to the general section where the answer to the question is probably located. To
skim, the student should:.
o read the text - lookback question carefully and underline the section that
tells the reader what to look for (e.g., "What does the article say are the
five most endange red species of whales today?").
o look for titles, headings, or illustrations in the article that might tell the
reader where the information that he or she is looking for is probably
located
o look at the beginning and end sentences in individual paragraphs to see if
that paragraph might contain the desired information.
5. "Thinking aloud", demonstrate for students how to skim the example article to
locate efficiently the answer to each text -lookback question.
6. Present additional example articles with text- lookback questions and monitor
student mastery of the technique. Assign students to use the strategy
independently when, under your supervision, they can distinguish reliably
between think and text- lookback questions and are able to find the answers to text
-lookback questions in the text.
Tips:
Have Students Write Text-Lookback Questions for Assigned Reading. For homework,
encourage students to compose several challenging text-lookback questions based on
their assigned reading. Use these questions later for class review.
More Recommendations
(McCarney, 1993)
1. Make certain the student always considers the first sentence of a paragraph as a
possible topic sentence and main idea.
2. Make certain the student understands that a topic sentence or main idea for a paragraph
always will contain one or more of the following, which will be the whole idea of the
paragraph:
Who, What, Where, When, How.
3. Make certain the student understands that the topic sentence or main idea can be
determined by choosing the one sentence in a paragraph that makes sense when it stands
alone (e.g., in the process of elimination, isolate each sentence and decide if it tells what
the whole paragraph is about).
4. Have the student write a paragraph about a favorite topic and use a triangle to
determine the hierarchy of sentences:
(1) Most important (topic), (2) Most important detail, (3) Less important detail, and (4)
Incidental detail (e.g., could be left out without changing the paragraph meaning).
5. Have the student employ the "satellite system" to identify the main idea of a paragraph.
The student should choose the one word or / phrase around which the entire paragraph is
built. Then the student should name the other details that describe that central figure. This
allows the student to focus on the subject in order to spot the main idea.
6. Reinforce the student for identifying the topic sentence and/or main idea: (a) give the
student a tangible reward (e.g., classroom privileges, line leading, passing out materials,
five minutes free time, etc.) or (b) give the student an intangible reward (e.g., praise,
handshake, smile, etc.).
7. Speak to the student to explain: (a)what the student is doing wrong and (b) what the
student should be doing.
8. Write a contract with the student specifying what behavior is expected and what
reinforcement will be made available when terms of the contract have been met. (See
Appendix for Behavioral Contract.)
9. Have the student question any directions, explanations, and instructions not
understood.
10. Communicate with parents (e.g., notes home, phone calls, etc.) in order to share
information concerning the student's progress and so that they can reinforce the student at
home.
11. Evaluate the appropriateness of the task to determine: (a) if the task is too difficult
and (b) if the length oftime scheduled to complete the task is appropriate.
12. Identify a peer to act as a model for the student to imitate and also to assist the student
with directions, etc.
13. Specify exactly what is to be done for the completion of the task (e.g., indicate
definite starting and stopping points, indicate a minimum requirement, etc.).
14. Have the student act as a peer tutor to teach another student a concept he/she has
mastered.
This can serve as reinforcement for the student.
15. Provide practice in identifying the topic sentence and/or main idea using a computer
software program that gives the student immediate feedback.
16. Make certain the student has mastery of reading concepts at each level before
introducing a new skill level.
17. Make certain the student is not required to learn more information than he/she is
capable of at anyone time.
18. Reduce the emphasis on competition. Competitive activities may cause the student to
hurry and commit any number of errors.
19. Reduce the amount of information on a page if it is causing visual distractions for the
student (e.g., have less print to read, isolate information that is presented to the student).
20. Highlight or underline important informa tion the student reads (e.g., directions,
assignments, etc.).
21. Stop at various points during the presentation of information to check the student's
comprehension.
22. Give the student time to read a selection more than once, emphasizing comprehension
rather than speed.
23. Use reading series materials with high interest (e.g., adventures, romances, mysteries,
athletics, etc.) and low vocabulary.
24. Write paragraphs and short stories requiring skills the student is currently developing.
These passages should be of high interest to the student using his/her name, family
members, friends, pets, and interesting experiences.
25. Make certain that the reading demands of all subjects and assignments are within the
ability level of the student. If not, modify or adjust the reading material to the student's
ability level. A lower-grade- level text may be an alternative.
26. Reduce the amount of material the student reads at one time (e.g., reduce reading
material to single sentences on a page, a single paragraph, etc.). Gradually increase the
amount of material as the student experiences success.
References
Mariotti, A.S. & Homan, S.P. (2001). Linking Reading Assessment to Instruction (3rd
Ed.). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
McCarney, S., Wunderlich, K.C., & Bauer, A.M. (1993). Pre-Referral Intervention
Manual (2nd Ed.). Columbia, MO: Hawthorne Educational Services, Inc.
Miller, W.H. (1995). Alternative Assessment Techniques for Reading & Writing. New
York: The Center for Applied Research in Education.
Reutzel, D.R. & Cooter, R.B. (1999). Balanced Reading Strategies and Practices. New
Jersey: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Wright, J. (2003). The Savvy Teacher’s Guide: Reading Interventions That Work.
http://www.jimwrightonline.com/pdfdocs/brouge/rdngManual.PDF
Appendices
Appendix A – Checklists to assess multiple aspects of narrative and expository
comprehension as well as study skills and silent reading skills.
Appendix B – Glossary of reading and assessment related terms.
Appendix C – The National Reading Panel Subgroup Report on Text Comprehension
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