Philosophical terms dictionary
The Absolute is the concept of an unconditional reality which transcends limited,
conditional, everyday existence. It is often used as an alternate term for "God" or
"the Divine", especially, but by no means exclusively, by those who feel that the
term "God" lends itself too easily to anthropomorphic presumptions. The concept
of The Absolute may or may not (depending on one's specific doctrine) possess
discrete will, intelligence, awareness or even a personal nature. It contrasts with
finite things, considered individually, and known collectively as the relative.
Agnosticism (Greek: α- a-, without + γνώσις gnōsis, knowledge; after Gnosticism)
is the philosophical view that the truth value of certain claims — particularly
metaphysical claims regarding theology, afterlife or the existence of deities, ghosts,
or even ultimate reality — is unknown or, depending on the form of agnosticism,
inherently impossible to prove or disprove. It is often put forth as a middle ground
between theism and atheism[1], though it is not a religious declaration in itself.
Agnosticism does not preclude religious belief; that is to say, an agnostic must be a
theist or an atheist, but can be 'agnostically' so.
Demographic research services normally list agnostics in the same category as
atheists and/or non-religious people,[2] using 'agnostic' in the sense of
'noncommittal'.[3][dubious – discuss] However, this can be misleading given the
existence of agnostic theists, who identify themselves as both agnostics in the
original sense and followers of a particular religion. Some authors assert that it is
possible to be both an atheist and an agnostic[4] and some nontheists self-identify
as agnostic atheists.
Philosophers and thinkers who have written about agnosticism include Thomas
Henry Huxley, Albert Einstein, Robert G. Ingersoll, and Bertrand Russell.
Religious scholars who wrote about agnosticism are Peter Kreeft, Blaise Pascal
and Joseph Ratzinger, later elected as Pope Benedict XVI.
Analysis (from Greek ἀνάλυσις, "a breaking up") is the process of breaking a
complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it.
The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before
Aristotle, though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.
As a formal concept, the method has variously been ascribed to Ibn al-Haytham,[1]
René Descartes (Discourse on the Method) and Galileo Galilei. It has also been
ascribed to Isaac Newton, in the form of a practical method of physical discovery
(which he did not name or formally describe).
Analogy is both the cognitive process of transferring information from a particular
subject (the analogue or source) to another particular subject (the target), and a
linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. In a narrower sense, analogy
is an inference or an argument from one particular to another particular, as opposed
to deduction, induction, and abduction, where at least one of the premises or the
conclusion is general. The word analogy can also refer to the relation between the
source and the target themselves, which is often, though not necessarily, a
similarity, as in the biological notion of analogy.
Antinomy (Greek αντι-, against, plus νομος, law) literally means the mutual
incompatibility, real or apparent, of two laws. It is a term used in logic and
epistemology.
The term acquired a special significance in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, who
used it to describe the equally rational but contradictory results of applying to the
universe of pure thought the categories or criteria of reason proper to the universe
of sensible perception or experience (phenomena). Empirical reason cannot here
play the role of establishing rational truths because it goes beyond possible
experience and is applied to the sphere of that which transcends it.
Anthropology (/ˌænθ ɹəˈ pɒlədʒi/, from Greek ἄνθρωπος, anthrōpos, "human";
and -λογία, -logia) [1] is the study of the man and the humanity in its totality.
Anthropology has origins in the natural sciences, and the humanities.[2] In Great
Britain it was originally divided into physical anthropology and cultural
anthropology, which itself was divided into archaeology, technology, ethnology
(the comparative study of different peoples, focusing on material culture, language,
religion and other social institutions) and sociology (the comparative study of
social phenomena).[3] In the United States anthropology traditionally has been
comprised of four fields: physical anthropology, archaeology, linguistics and
cultural anthropology. Today, in Britain, Archaeology and Sociology are generally
taught as separate subjects, and ethnology was renamed social anthropology and
emerged as the leading focus of anthropology. Anthropology in other countries
generally follows one or both of these models
Anthropomorphism is the attribution of uniquely human characteristics to nonhuman creatures and beings, natural and supernatural phenomena, material states
and objects or abstract concepts. Subjects for anthropomorphism commonly
include animals and plants depicted as creatures with human motivation able to
reason and converse, forces of nature such as winds or the sun, components in
games, unseen or unknown sources of chance, etc. Almost anything can be subject
to anthropomorphism. The term derives from a combination of the Greek
ἄνθρωπος (ánthrōpos), "human" and μορφή (morphē), "shape" or "form".
Anthropocentrism (from Greek: άνθρωπος, anthropos, "human being"; and
κέντρον, kentron, "center") is the belief that humans must be considered at the
center of, and above any other aspect of, reality.[1] This concept is sometimes
known as humanocentrism or human supremacy.
Apologists are authors, writers, editors of scientific logs or academic journals, and
leaders known for taking on the points in arguments, conflicts or positions that are
either placed under popular scrutinies or viewed under persecutory examinations.
The term comes from the Greek word apologia (απολογία), meaning a speaking in
defence.
Aporia (Ancient Greek: ἀπορία: impasse; lack of resources; puzzlement;
embarrassment ) denotes, in philosophy, a philosophical puzzle or state of
puzzlement, and, in rhetoric, a rhetorically useful expression of doubt
In the ancient Greek philosophy, arche (ἀρχή) is the beginning or the first
principle of the world. The idea of an arche was first philosophized by Thales of
Miletus, who claimed that the first principle of all things is water. His theory was
supported by the observation of moisture throughout the world and coincided with
his theory that the earth floated on water.
Atheism, as an explicit position, can be either the assertion that there are no
deities,[1] or the rejection of theism.[2] It is also[3] defined more broadly as an
absence of belief in deities, or nontheism.[4]
Many self-described atheists are skeptical of all supernatural beings and cite a lack
of empirical evidence for the existence of deities. Others argue for atheism on
philosophical, social or historical grounds. Although many self-described atheists
tend toward secular philosophies such as humanism[5] and naturalism,[6] there is
no one ideology or set of behaviors to which all atheists adhere;[7] and some
religions, such as Jainism and Buddhism, do not require belief in a personal god.
Atman may refer to a concept in several Indian religious traditions, including
Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism:
· Atman (Hinduism)
· Atman (Buddhism)
The atom is a basic unit of matter consisting of a dense, central nucleus
surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The atomic nucleus
contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons
(except in the case of Hydrogen-1, which is the only stable isotope with no
neutron). The electrons of an atom are bound to the nucleus by the electromagnetic
force. Likewise, a group of atoms can remain bound to each other, forming a
molecule. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is
electrically neutral, otherwise it has a positive or negative charge and is an ion. An
atom is classified according to the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus:
the number of protons determines the chemical element, and the number of
neutrons determine the isotope of the element.
Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices considered by most to be a religion
and is based on the teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, commonly known
as "The Buddha" (the Awakened One), who was born in what is today Nepal.He
lived and taught in the northeastern region of the Indian subcontinent and likely
died around 400 BCE.
Buddhists recognize him as an awakened teacher who shared his insights to help
sentient beings end their suffering by understanding the true nature of phenomena,
thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth (saṃsāra), that is, achieving
Nirvana. Among the methods various schools of Buddhism apply towards this goal
are: ethical conduct and altruistic behaviour, devotional practices, ceremonies and
the invocation of bodhisattvas, renunciation of worldly matters, meditation,
physical exercises, study, and the cultivation of wisdom.
Brahmin (Brāhmaṇa,
) is the class of educators, law makers, scholars and
preachers of Dharma in Hinduism. It is said to occupy the highest position among
the four varnas of Hinduism.
The English word brahmin is an anglicised form of the Sanskrit word Brāhmana
(Brāhman also refers to a sanskrit word Brahma- meaning 'knowledge', Brahman
(noun form) who possesses the 'knowledge.' Brahmins are also called Vipra
"learned",or Dvija "twice-born".
Faith is the confident belief in the truth of or trustworthiness of a person, idea, or
thing.[1] It is also used for a belief, characteristically without proof.[2] Informal
usage of the word "faith" can be quite broad, and may be used standardly in place
of "trust", "belief", or "hope". For example, the word "faith" can refer to a religion
itself or to religion in general. As with "trust", faith involves a concept of future
events or outcomes.
The English word faith is dated from 1200–50, from the Latin fidem, or fidēs,
meaning trust, akin to fīdere to trust.[3]
Faith is often used in a religious context, as in theology, where it almost
universally refers to a trusting belief in a transcendent reality, or else in a Supreme
Being and said being's role in the order of transcendent, spiritual things. In
Christianity it derives from the Greek pistis or root word peitho, meaning to trust,
to have confidence, faithfulness, reliable, to assure.[4] In the Jewish scriptures it
refers to how God acts toward His people and how they are to respond to him:[5]
Vitalism, as defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary,[1] is
a doctrine that the functions of a living organism are due to a vital principle
distinct from biochemical reactions
a doctrine that the processes of life are not explicable by the laws of physics
and chemistry alone and that life is in some part self-determining
Where vitalism explicitly invokes a vital principle, that element is often referred to
as the "vital spark," "energy" or "élan vital," which some equate with the "soul."
Vitalism has a long history in medical philosophies: most traditional healing
practices posited that disease was the result of some imbalance in the vital energies
which distinguish living from non-living matter. In the Western tradition founded
by Hippocrates, these vital forces were associated with the four temperaments and
humours; Eastern traditions posited similar forces such as qi and prana. Vitalistic
thinking has also been identified in the naive biological theories of children.[2]
Voluntaryism the philosophical position that the only legitimate interactions
between and among people are those freely assented to by all parties concerned
Will or willpower, is a philosophical concept that is defined in several different
ways
Hedonism is a type of philosophy for that the pleasure is an ultimate importance
and the most important pursuit for the man. The name derives from the Greek word
for "delight" (ήδονισμός hēdonismos from ήδονή hēdonē "pleasure", a cognate of
English sweet + suffix ισμός ismos "ism").
A genius is an individual who successfully applies a previously unknown
technique in the production of a work of art, science or calculation, or who masters
and personalizes a known technique. A genius typically possesses great
intelligence or remarkable abilities in a specific subject, or shows an exceptional
natural capacity of intellect and/or ability, especially in the production of creative
and original work, something that has never been seen or evaluated previously.
Traits often associated with genius include strong individuality, imagination,
uniqueness, and innovative drive[citation needed].
The term may be applied to someone who is considered gifted in many subjects[1]
or in one subject.
A hypothesis (from Greek ὑπόθεσις) consists either of a suggested explanation for
an observable phenomenon or of a reasoned proposal predicting a possible causal
correlation among multiple phenomena. The term derives from the Greek,
hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to suppose." The scientific method
requires that one can test a scientific hypothesis. Scientists generally base such
hypotheses on previous observations or on extensions of scientific theories. Even
though the words "hypothesis" and "theory" are often used synonymously in
common and informal usage, a scientific hypothesis is not the same as a scientific
theory. A Hypothesis is never to be stated as a question, but always as a statement
with an explanation following it. It is not to be a question because it states what
he/she thinks or believes will occur.
The term gnosiology (μελέτη της γνώσης) is derived from the Greek words gnosis
('knowledge', γνώση) and logos ('word' or 'discourse', λόγος). Linguistically, one
might compare it to epistemology, which is derived from the Greek words episteme
('knowledge') and logos (idea). As a philosophical concept, gnosiology broadly
means the theory of knowledge, which in ancient Greek philosophy was perceived
as a combination of sensory perception and intellect and then made into memory.
Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and
worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing
to universal human qualities, particularly rationality, without resorting to the
supernatural or alleged divine authority from religious texts.[1][2] It is a
component of a variety of more specific philosophical systems. Humanism can be
considered as a process by which truth and morality is sought through human
investigation and as such views on morals can change when new knowledge and
information is discovered. In focusing on the capacity for self-determination,
humanism rejects transcendental justifications, such as a dependence on belief
without reason, the supernatural, or texts of allegedly divine origin. Humanists
endorse universal morality based on the commonality of the human condition,
suggesting that solutions to human social and cultural problems cannot be
parochial.[3]
Darwinism is a term used for various movements or concepts related to ideas of
transmutation of species or evolution, including ideas with no connection to the
work of Charles Darwin. The meaning of Darwinism has changed over time, and
varies depending on who is using the term.[4]
Deduction can refer to one of the following usages:
· Deductive reasoning, inference in which the conclusion is of no greater
generality than the premises
Deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek δέον, deon, "obligation, duty";
and -λογία, -logia) is an approach to ethics that focuses on the rightness or
wrongness of intentions or motives behind action such as respect for rights, duties,
or principles, as opposed to the rightness or wrongness of the consequences of
those actions.[1]
It is sometimes described as "duty" or "obligation" based ethics, because
deontologists believe that ethical rules "bind you to your duty".[2] The term
'deontological' was first used in this way in 1930, in C. D. Broad's book, Five
Types of Ethical Theory.
Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human
cognition and behavior, decision and action, is causally determined by an unbroken
chain of prior occurrences.[1] With numerous historical debates, many varieties
and philosophical positions on the subject of determinism exist from traditions
throughout the world.
Dialectic (also called dialectics or the dialectical method) is a method of argument,
which has been central to both Eastern and Western philosophy since ancient
times. The word "dialectic" originates in Ancient Greece, and was made popular
by Plato's Socratic dialogues. Dialectic is rooted in the ordinary practice of a
dialogue between two people, each of whom holds different ideas and wishes to
persuade the other. The presupposition of a dialectical argument is that the
participants share at least some meanings and principles of inference in common,
even if they do not agree. Different forms of dialectical reason have emerged in the
East and in the West, as well as during different eras of history (see below).
Among the major forms of dialectic reason are Hindu, Buddhist, Socratic,
Medieval, Hegelian, Marxist, and Talmudic.
A dialogue is a conversation between two or more people. It is also a literary form
in which two or more parties engage in a discussion.
Dogma is the established belief or doctrine held by a religion, ideology or any kind
of organization: it is authoritative and not to be disputed, doubted or diverged
from. The term derives from Greek δόγμα "that which seems to one, opinion or
belief"[1] and that from δοκέω (dokeo), "to think, to suppose, to imagine"[2]. The
plural is either dogmas or dogmata , from Greek δόγματα.
The English word "spirit" comes from the Latin "spiritus" (breath). The term is
commonly used to refer to a supernatural being which is transcendent and therefore
metaphysical in nature. For many people, however, spirit, like soul, is a natural
part of a being, and is identified with mind, or consciousness, or the brain
In many religions and parts of philosophy, the soul is the immaterial part of a
person. It is usually thought to consist of one's thoughts and personality, and can be
synonymous with the spirit, mind or self.[1] In theology, the soul is often believed
to live on after the person’s death, and some religions posit that God creates souls.
In some cultures, non-human living things, and sometimes inanimate objects are
said to have souls, a belief known as animism.[2]
The terms soul and spirit are often used interchangeably, although the former may
be viewed as a more worldly and less transcendent aspect of a person than the
latter.[3] The words soul and psyche can also be treated synonymously, although
psyche has relatively more physical connotations, whereas soul is connected more
closely to metaphysics and religion.[4]
Heuristic (hyu-ˈris -tik) is an adjective for methods that help in problem solving,
in turn leading to learning and discovery. These methods in most cases employ
experimentation and trial-and-error techniques. A heuristic method is particularly
used to rapidly come to a solution that is reasonably close to the best possible
answer, or 'optimal solution'. Heuristics are "rules of thumb", educated guesses,
intuitive judgments or simply common sense.
In the scientific kumquat inquiry, an experiment (Latin: ex- periri, "to try out") is
a method of investigating causal relationships among variables. An experiment is a
cornerstone of the empirical approach to acquiring data about the world and is used
in both natural sciences and social sciences. An experiment can be used to help
solve practical problems and to support or negate theoretical assumptions.
In philosophy, empiricism is a theory of knowledge which asserts that knowledge
arises from experience. Empiricism is one of several competing views about how
we know "things," part of the branch of philosophy called epistemology, or "theory
of knowledge". Empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence,
especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, while discounting the
notion of innate ideas (except in so far as these might be inferred from empirical
reasoning, as in the case of genetic predisposition).[1]
In the philosophy of science, empiricism emphasizes those aspects of scientific
knowledge that are closely related to evidence, especially as discovered in
experiments. It is a fundamental part of the scientific method that all hypotheses
and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world, rather than
resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation. Hence, science is
considered to be methodologically empirical in nature
Aesthetics or esthetics (also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study
of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment
and taste.[1] More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as "critical
reflection on art, culture and nature."[2][3] Aesthetics is a subdiscipline of
axiology, a branch of philosophy, and is closely associated with the philosophy of
art.[4] Aesthetics studies new ways of seeing and of perceiving the world.[5]
Ethics is the major branch of philosophy that encompasses proper conduct and
good living. It is significantly broader than the common conception of ethics as the
analyzing of right and wrong. A central aspect of ethics is "the good life", the life
worth living or that is simply satisfying, which is held by many philosophers to be
more important than moral conduct.
Law[2] is a system of rules, usually enforced through a set of institutions.[3] It
shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as the
foremost social mediator in relations between people. Writing in 350 BC, the
Greek philosopher Aristotle declared, "The rule of law is better than the rule of any
individual."[4]
Idealization is the process by which scientific models assume facts about the
phenomenon being modeled that are certainly false. Often these assumptions are
used to make models easier to understand or solve. Many times idealizations do
not harm the predictive accuracy of the model for one reason or another. Most
debates surrounding the usefulness of a particular model often are about the
appropriateness of different idealizations.
Idealism is the philosophical theory which maintains that the ultimate nature of
reality is based on mind or ideas. It holds that the so-called external or "real world"
is inseparable from mind, consciousness, or perception.
In the philosophy of perception, idealism is contrasted with realism in which the
external world is said to have a so-called absolute existence prior to, and
independent of, knowledge and consciousness. Epistemological idealists (such as
Kant), it is claimed, might insist that the only things which can be directly known
for certain are just ideas.
In the philosophy of mind, idealism is contrasted with materialism in which the
ultimate nature of reality is based on physical substances. Idealism and materialism
are both theories of monism as opposed to dualism and pluralism.
An ideology is a set of aims and ideas, especially in politics. An ideology can be
thought of as a comprehensive vision, as a way of looking at things (compare
Weltanschauung), as in common sense (see Ideology in everyday society below)
and several philosophical tendencies (see Political ideologies), or a set of ideas
proposed by the dominant class of a society to all members of this society. The
main purpose behind an ideology is to offer change in society through a normative
thought process. Ideologies are systems of abstract thought (as opposed to mere
ideation) applied to public matters and thus make this concept central to politics.
Implicitly every political tendency entails an ideology whether or not it is
propounded as an explicit system of thought.
As commonly used, individual refers to a person or to any specific object in a
collection. In the 15th century and earlier, and also today within the fields of
statistics and metaphysics, individual means "indivisible", typically describing any
numerically singular thing, but sometimes meaning "a person." (q.v. "The problem
of proper names"). From the seventeenth century on, individual indicates
separateness, as in individualism.[1] Individuality is the state or quality of being an
individual; a person separate from other persons and possessing his or her own
needs, goals, and desires
Intelligence (also called intellect) is an umbrella term used to describe a property
of the mind that encompasses many related abilities, such as the capacities to
reason, to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend ideas, to use
language, and to learn. There are several ways to define intelligence. In some
cases, intelligence may include traits such as creativity, personality, character,
knowledge, or wisdom. However, most psychologists prefer not to include these
traits in the definition of intelligence.
Intuition has many related meanings, usually connected to the meaning "ability to
sense or know immediately without reasoning", and is often regarded as a divine or
prophetic power, including:
· Intuition is the philosophical method of Henri Bergson.
· Intuition (philosophy)
· In psychology, intuition may mean:
· Intuition (knowledge) - understanding without apparent effort, quick
and ready insight seemingly independent of previous experiences or
empirical knowledge.
· Intuition is one of the four axes of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator,
opposite sensing.
Irony (from the Ancient Greek εἰρωνεία eironeía, meaning hypocrisy, deception,
or feigned ignorance) is a literary or rhetorical device, in which there is an
incongruity or discordance between what one says or does and what one means or
what is generally understood. Irony is a mode of expression that calls attention to
the character's knowledge and that of the audience.
There is some argument about what qualifies as ironic, but all senses of irony
revolve around the perceived notion of an incongruity between what is said and
what is meant; or between an understanding of reality, or an expectation of a
reality, and what actually happens.
The term Socratic irony, coined by Aristotle, refers to the Socratic Method, and is
not irony in the modern sense of the word.[1]
Meanings for the word truth extend from honesty, good faith, and sincerity in
general, to agreement with fact or reality in particular.[1] The term has no single
definition about which a majority of professional philosophers and scholars agree,
and various theories of truth continue to be debated. There are differing claims on
such questions as what constitutes truth; how to define and identify truth; the roles
that revealed and acquired knowledge play; and whether truth is subjective,
relative, objective, or absolute. This article introduces the various perspectives and
claims, both today and throughout history.
Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate")[1]
is difficult to define. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn
compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of
Concepts and Definitions.[2] However, the word "culture" is most commonly used
in three basic senses:
· excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities
· an integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends
upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning
· the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an
institution, organization or group.
Liberalism is a broad class of political philosophies that considers individual
liberty and equality to be the most important political goals.[1]
Liberalism emphasizes individual rights and equality of opportunity. Within
liberalism, there are various streams of thought which compete over the use of the
term "liberal" and may propose very different policies, but they are generally
united by their support for constitutional liberalism, which encompasses support
for: freedom of thought and speech, limitations on the power of governments, the
rule of law, an individual's right to private property,[2] and a transparent system of
government.[3][4][5] All liberals, as well as some adherents of other political
ideologies, support some variant of the form of government known as liberal
democracy, with open and fair elections, where all citizens have equal rights by
law.[6]
Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and inference. Logic is a
branch of philosophy, a part of the classical trivium. The word derives from Greek
λογική (logike), fem. of λογικός (logikos), "possessed of reason, intellectual,
dialectical, argumentative", from λόγος logos, "word, thought, idea, argument,
account, reason, or principle".[
Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl
Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism holds at its core a critical analysis of
capitalism and a theory of social change. The powerful and innovative methods of
analysis introduced by Marx have been very influential in a broad range of
disciplines. In the 21st century, we find a theoretical presence of Marxist
approaches in the western academic fields of anthropology,[1][2] media studies,[3]
theater, history, Sociological theory, education, economics,[4] literary criticism,
aesthetics, and philosophy.[5]
The philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven
to exist is matter, and is considered a form of physicalism. Fundamentally, all
things are composed of material and all phenomena (including consciousness) are
the result of material interactions; therefore, matter is the only substance. As a
theory, materialism belongs to the class of monist ontology. As such, it is different
from ontological theories based on dualism or pluralism. For singular explanations
of the phenomenal reality, materialism would be in contrast to idealism.
In common usage, matter is anything that has both mass and volume (takes up
space). A more rigorous definition is used in science: matter is what atoms and
molecules are made of. Matter is commonly said to exist in four states (or phases):
solid, liquid, gas and plasma; other phases, such as Bose–Einstein condensates,
also exist. In everyday human environments, matter is closely related to (and in
many contexts equivalent to) mass.
Metaphysics investigates principles of reality transcending those of any particular
science. Cosmology and ontology are traditional branches of metaphysics. It is
concerned with explaining the ultimate nature of being and the world.[1] Someone
who studies metaphysics can be called either a "metaphysician" or a
"metaphysicist."[2]
The word derives from the Greek words μετά (metá) (meaning "beyond" or "after")
and φυσικά (physiká) (meaning "physical"), "physical" referring to those works on
matter by Aristotle in antiquity. The prefix meta- ("beyond") was attached to the
chapters in Aristotle's work that physically followed after the chapters on
"physics", in posthumously edited collections. Aristotle himself did not call these
works Metaphysics. Aristotle called some of the subjects treated there "first
philosophy."
A model is a pattern, plan, representation (especially in miniature), or description
designed to show the main object or workings of an object, system, or concept
Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice.
More specifically, the term describes both a set of cultural tendencies and an array
of associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and farreaching changes to Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
century. The term encompasses the activities and output of those who felt the
"traditional" forms of art, architecture, literature, religious faith, social organization
and daily life were becoming outdated in the new economic, social and political
conditions of an emerging fully industrialized world.
Monism is any philosophical view which holds that there is unity in a given field
of inquiry, where this is not to be expected. Thus, some philosophers may hold that
the Universe is really just one thing, despite its many appearances and diversities;
or theology may support the view that there is one God, with many manifestations
in different religions.
In theology, monotheism (from Greek μόνος "only" and θεός "god") is the belief
that only one god exists.[1] The concept of "monotheism" tends to be dominated
by the concept of God in the Abrahamic religions, such as Judaism, Christianity
and Islam, and the Platonic concept of God as put forward by Pseudo-Dionysius
the Areopagite
A moral is a message conveyed or a lesson to be learned from a story or event.
The moral may be left to the hearer, reader or viewer to determine for themselves,
or may be explicitly encapsulated in a maxim. As an example of the latter, at the
end of Aesop's fable of the Tortoise and the Hare, in which the plodding and
determined tortoise wins a race against the much-faster yet extremely arrogant
hare, the moral is "slow and steady wins the race". The use of stock characters is a
means of conveying the moral of the story by eliminating complexity of
personality and so spelling out the issues arising in the interplay between the
characters, enabling the writer to make clear the message. With more rounded
characters, such as those typically found in Shakespeare's plays, the moral may be
more nuanced but no less present, and the writer may point it up in other ways
(see, for example, the Prologue to Romeo and Juliet.)
Naturalism (as distinct from Naturalist, Nature and Natural) refer to various topics
within philosophy and science, environmental movements, and other areas.In
philosophy and science, naturalism may refer to:
· Naturalism (philosophy), any of several philosophical stances wherein all
phenomena or hypotheses commonly labeled as supernatural, are either false
or not inherently different from natural phenomena or hypotheses
In sramanic thought, Nirvana (Sanskrit:
, Nirvāṇa; Pali:
, Nibbāna;
Prakrit:
) is the state of being free from both suffering and the cycle of
rebirth. It is an important concept in Buddhism and Jainism.
Ontology in philosophy (from the Greek ὦν, genitive ὄντος: of being <part. of
εἶναι: to be> and -λογία: science, study, theory) is the study of the nature of being,
existence or reality in general, as well as of the basic categories of being and their
relations. Traditionally listed as a part of the major branch of philosophy known as
metaphysics, ontology deals with questions concerning what entities exist or can
be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped, related within a hierarchy,
and subdivided according to similarities and differences.
Description is one of four rhetorical modes (also known as modes of discourse),
along with exposition, argumentation, and narration. Each of the rhetorical modes
is present in a variety of forms and each has its own purpose and conventions.
Pantheism (Greek: πάν (pan) = all and θεός (theos) = God, literally "all God" ism) is the view that everything is part of an all-encompassing immanent abstract
God. In pantheism the Universe, or nature, and God are equivalent. More detailed
definitions tend to emphasize the idea that God is better understood as an abstract
principle representing natural law, existence, and the Universe (the sum total of all
that is, was, and shall be) than an anthropomorphic entity.
The word paradigm (Greek:παράδειγμα (paradigma), composite from para- and
the verb δείχνυμι "to show", as a whole -roughly- meaning "example") (IPA:
/ˈpær əda ɪm/) has been used in linguistics and science to describe distinct
concepts.
Patristics or Patrology is the study of early Christian writers, known as the
Church Fathers. The names derive from the Latin pater (father). The period is
generally considered to run from the end of New Testament times (around 100
AD) until around the 8th century.
Personalism is the school of thought that consists of three main principles, and
which can broadly be qualified as species of Humanism :
Only persons are real (in the ontological sense),
Only persons have value, and
Only persons have free will.
Polytheism is the belief in or worship of multiple deities, such as gods and
goddesses. These are usually assembled into a pantheon, along with their own
mythologies and rituals. Many religions, both historical and contemporary, have a
belief in polytheism, such as Hinduism, Buddhism,Shinto, Ancient Greek
Polytheism, Chinese folk religion, Neopagan faiths and Anglo-Saxon paganism.
A policy is typically described as a deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and
achieve rational outcome(s). However, the term may also be used to denote what is
actually done, even though it is unplanned.
The term may apply to government, private sector organizations and groups, and
individuals. Presidential executive orders, corporate privacy policies, and
parliamentary rules of order are all examples of policy. Policy differs from rules or
law. While law can compel or prohibit behaviors (e.g. a law requiring the payment
of taxes on income) policy merely guides actions toward those that are most likely
to achieve a desired outcome.
Postmodernism literally means 'after the modernist movement'. While "modern"
itself refers to something "related to the present", the movement of modernism and
the following reaction of postmodernism are defined by a set of perspectives. It is
used in critical theory to refer to a point of departure for works of literature, drama,
architecture, cinema and design, as well as in marketing and business and the
interpretation of history, law and culture in the late 20th century.
In philosophy and models of scientific inquiry, postpositivism (also called
postempiricism) is a metatheoretical stance following positivism. Postpositivists
believe that human knowledge is not based on unchallengeable, rock-solid
foundations; rather it is conjectural. But they think we do have real grounds, or
warrants, for asserting these beliefs or conjectures, although these warrants can
be modified or withdrawn in the light of further investigation.
Pragmatism is the philosophy of considering practical consequences or real
effects to be vital components of meaning and truth. Pragmatism is generally
considered to have originated in the late nineteenth century with Charles Peirce,
who first stated the pragmatic maxim. It came to fruition in the early twentiethcentury philosophies of William James and John Dewey and, in a more unorthodox
manner, in the works of George Santayana. Other important aspects of pragmatism
include anti-Cartesianism, radical empiricism, instrumentalism, anti-realism,
verificationism, conceptual relativity, a denial of the fact-value distinction, a high
regard for science, and fallibilism.
Pragmatism is the philosophy of considering practical consequences or real
effects to be vital components of meaning and truth. Pragmatism is generally
considered to have originated in the late nineteenth century with Charles Peirce,
who first stated the pragmatic maxim. It came to fruition in the early twentiethcentury philosophies of William James and John Dewey and, in a more unorthodox
manner, in the works of George Santayana. Other important aspects of pragmatism
include anti-Cartesianism, radical empiricism, instrumentalism, anti-realism,
verificationism, conceptual relativity, a denial of the fact-value distinction, a high
regard for science, and fallibilism.
Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund
Freud and his followers, which is devoted to the study of human psychological
functioning and behavior.
It has three applications:
a method of investigation of the mind;
a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and
a method of treatment of psychological or emotional illness.
In epistemology and in its modern sense, rationalism is "any view appealing to
reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286). In more technical
terms it is a method or a theory "in which the criterion of the truth is not sensory
but intellectual and deductive" (Bourke 263). Different degrees of emphasis on this
method or theory lead to a range of rationalist standpoints, from the moderate
position "that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge" to
the radical position that reason is "the unique path to knowledge" (Audi 771).
Given a pre-modern understanding of reason, "rationalism" is identical to
philosophy, the Socratic life of inquiry, or the zetetic interpretation of authority
(open to the underlying or essential cause of things as they appear to our sense of
certainty). In recent decades, Leo Strauss sought to revive Classical Political
Rationalism as a discipline that understands the task of reasoning, not as
foundational, but as maieutic.
Rationality as a term is related to the idea of reason, a word which following
Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to thinking itself as
from giving an account or an explanation. This lends the term a dual aspect. One
aspect associates it with comprehension, intelligence, or inference, particularly
when an inference is drawn in ordered ways (thus a syllogism is a rational
argument in this sense). The other part associates rationality with explanation,
understanding or justification, particularly if it provides a ground or a motive.
'Irrational', therefore, is defined as that which is not endowed with reason or
understanding.In philosophy, rationality and reason are the key methods used to
analyze the data gathered through systematically gathered observations.
Understanding (also called intellection) is a psychological process related to an
abstract or physical object, such as, person, situation, or message whereby one is
able to think about it and use concepts to deal adequately with that object.
An understanding is the limit of a conceptualization. To understand something is to
have conceptualised it to a given measure.
In ordinary usage, skepticism or scepticism (Greek: 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to
look about, to consider; see also spelling differences) refers to:
· (a) an attitude of doubt or a disposition to incredulity either in general or
toward a particular object;
· (b) the doctrine that true knowledge or knowledge in a particular area is
uncertain; or
· (c) the method of suspended judgment, systematic doubt, or criticism that is
characteristic of skeptics (Merriam–Webster).
In philosophy, skepticism refers more specifically to any one of several
propositions. These include propositions about:
· (a) an inquiry,
· (b) a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and
continual testing,
· (c) the arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values,
· (d) the limitations of knowledge,
· (e) a method of intellectual caution and suspended judgment.
Sophism can mean two very different things: In the modern definition, a sophism
is a confusing or illogical argument used for deceiving someone. In Ancient
Greece, the sophists were a group of teachers of philosophy and rhetoric.
The term sophism originated from Greek sophistēs, meaning "wise-ist", one who
"does" wisdom, one who makes a business out of wisdom (sophós means "wise
man").
The term synthesis (from the ancient Greek σύνθεσις σύν "with" and θέσις
"placing") is used in many fields, usually to mean a process which combines
together two or more pre-existing elements resulting in the formation of something
new. The verb would be to synthesize meaning to make or form a synthesis.
Synthesis may refer to:
· Philosophy, the end result of a dialectic as in thesis, antithesis, synthesis
Sociology is a branch of the social sciences that uses systematic methods of
empirical investigation[1][2] and critical analysis[3] to develop and refine a body
of knowledge about human social structure and activity, and to apply such
knowledge to the pursuit of social welfare. Its subject matter ranges from the micro
level of face-to-face interaction to the macro level of societies at large.
Stoicism was a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded in Athens by Zeno of
Citium in the early third century B.C. The stoics considered passionate emotions to
be the result of errors in judgment, and that a sage, or person of "moral and
intellectual perfection," would not have such emotions.[1] Stoics were concerned
with the active relationship between cosmic determinism and human freedom, and
the belief that it is virtuous to maintain a will (called prohairesis) that is in accord
with nature. Because of this, the Stoics presented their philosophy as a way of life,
and they thought that the best indication of an individual's philosophy was not
what a person said but how they behaved.[2] Later Roman Stoics, such as Seneca
and Epictetus, emphasized that because "virtue is sufficient for happiness," a sage
was immune to misfortune. This belief is similar to the meaning of the phrase 'stoic
calm', though the phrase does not include the "radical ethical" Stoic views that only
a sage can be considered truly free, and that all moral corruptions are equally
vicious.[3]
Structuralism is an approach to the human sciences that attempts to analyze a
specific field (for instance, mythology) as a complex system of interrelated parts. It
began in linguistics with the work of Ferdinand de Saussure. But many French
intellectuals perceived it to have a wider application, and the model was soon
modified and applied to other fields, such as anthropology, psychoanalysis, literary
theory and architecture. This ushered in the dawn of structuralism as not just a
method, but also an intellectual movement that came to take existentialism's
pedestal in 1960s France
Scholastica (c. 480 - February 10, 547) is a Catholic saint. Born in Italy, she was
the twin sister of St. Benedict of Nursia.
St. Gregory the Great, in his Dialogues, tells us that she was a nun and leader of a
community for women at Plombariola, about five miles from Benedict's abbey at
Monte Cassino. We do not know what rule this community followed, although it
seems most likely it was the Rule of St. Benedict.
Scholastica was dedicated to God from a young age (some tellings of her story
indicate that she preceded Benedict in godliness, and he came to holiness after she
did). The most commonly told story about her is that she would, once a year, go
and visit her brother at his abbey, and they would spend the day worshiping
together and discussing sacred texts and issues.
A society is a group of humans characterized by patterns of relationships between
individuals that share a distinctive culture and/or institutions. More broadly, a
society is an economic, social and industrial infrastructure, made up of a varied
multitude of people. Members of a society may be from different ethnic groups. A
society may be a particular ethnic group, such as the Saxons, a nation state, such as
Bhutan, or a broader cultural group, such as a Western society.
Theology is the study of the existence or attributes of a god or gods, or more
generally the study of religion or spirituality. It is sometimes contrasted with
religious studies: theology is understood as the study of religion from an internal
perspective (e.g., a perspective of commitment to that religion), and religious
studies as the study of religion from an external (e.g., a secular) perspective.[1]
Theologians use various forms of analysis and argument (philosophical,
ethnographic, historical, and others) to help understand, explain, test, critique,
defend or promote any of myriad religious topics. It might be undertaken to help
the theologian.
The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of knowledge,
depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Definitively
speaking, a theory is a unifying principle that explains a body of facts and the laws
based on them. In other words, it is an explanation to a set of observations.
Additionally, in contrast with a theorem the statement of the theory is generally
accepted only in some tentative fashion as opposed to regarding it as having been
conclusively established. This may merely indicate, as it does in the sciences, that
the theory was arrived at using potentially faulty inferences (scientific induction)
as opposed to the necessary inferences used in mathematical proofs. In these cases
the term theory does not suggest a low confidence in the claim and many uses of
the term in the sciences require just the opposite.
Technology is a broad concept that deals with an animal species' usage and
knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it affects an animal species' ability to
control and adapt to its environment. Technology is a term with origins in the
Greek "technologia", "τεχνολογία" — "techne", "τέχνη" ("craft") and "logia",
"λογία" ("saying").[1] However, a strict definition is elusive; "technology" can
refer to material objects of use to humanity, such as machines, hardware or
utensils, but can also encompass broader themes, including systems, methods of
organization, and techniques. The term can either be applied generally or to
specific areas: examples include "construction technology", "medical technology",
or "state-of-the-art technology".
Totemism (derived from the root -oode- in the Ojibwe language, which referred to
something kinship-related, c.f. odoodem, "his totem") is a religious belief that is
frequently associated with shamanistic religions. The totem is usually an animal or
other naturalistic figure that spiritually represents a group of related people such as
a clan.
Utopia is a name for an ideal community or society, taken from the title of a book
written in 1516 by Sir Thomas More describing a fictional island in the Atlantic
Ocean, possessing a seemingly perfect socio-politico-legal system. The term has
been used to describe both intentional communities that attempted to create an
ideal society, and fictional societies portrayed in literature. "Utopia" is sometimes
used pejoratively, in reference to an unrealistic ideal that is impossible to achieve,
and has spawned other concepts, most prominently dystopia.
The word comes from Greek: οὐ, "not", and τόπος, "place", indicating that More
was utilizing the concept as allegory and did not consider such an ideal place to be
realistically possible. It is worth noting that the homophone Eutopia, derived from
the Greek εὖ, "good" or "well", and τόπος, "place", signifies a double meaning that
was almost certainly intended. Despite this, most modern usage of the term
"Utopia" assumes the later meaning, that of a place of perfection rather than
nonexistence.
A fetish (from the French fétiche; which comes from the Portuguese feitiço; and
this in turn from Latin facticius, "artificial" and facere, "to make") is an object
believed to have supernatural powers, or in particular, a man-made object that has
power over others. Essentially, fetishism is the attribution of inherent value or
powers to an object.
Fideism is a school of thought which maintains that faith is independent of reason,
or that reason and faith are hostile to each other and faith is superior at arriving at
particular truths (see natural theology). The word fideism comes from fides, the
Latin word for faith, and literally means "faith-ism."
Fundamentalism refers to a belief in, and strict adherence to a set of basic
principles (often religious in nature), a reaction to perceived doctrinal compromises
with modern social and political life
Chaos (derived from the Ancient Greek Χάος, Chaos) typically refers to
unpredictability, and is the antithesis of cosmos. The word χάος did not mean
"disorder" in classical-period ancient Greece. It meant "the primal emptiness,
space" (see Chaos (mythology)). Chaos is derived from the Proto-Indo-European
root ghn or ghen meaning "gape, be wide open": compare "chasm" (from Ancient
Greek χάσμα, a cleft, slit or gap), and Anglo-Saxon gānian ("yawn"), geanian,
ginian ("gape wide"); see also Old Norse Ginnungagap.
A civilization is a society or culture group normally defined as a complex society
characterized by the practice of agriculture and settlement in towns and cities.
Compared with other cultures, members of a civilization are organized into a
diverse division of labor and an intricate social hierarchy.
Time is a component of the measuring system used to sequence events, to compare
the durations of events and the intervals between them, and to quantify the motions
of objects. Time has been a major subject of religion, philosophy, and science, but
defining time in a non-controversial manner applicable to all fields of study has
consistently eluded the greatest scholars.
The earliest recorded African philosophy of time was expounded by the ancient
Egyptian thinker Ptahhotep (c. 2650–2600 BC), who said: "Do not lessen the time
of following desire, for the wasting of time is an abomination to the
spirit."[citation needed] The Vedas, the earliest texts on Indian philosophy and
Hindu philosophy dating back to the late 2nd millennium BC, describe ancient
Hindu cosmology, in which the universe goes through repeated cycles of creation,
destruction and rebirth, with each cycle lasting 4,320,000 years. Ancient Greek
philosophers, including Parmenides and Heraclitus, wrote essays on the nature of
time.
Honour or Honor (see spelling differences), (from the Latin word honos, honoris)
is the evaluation of a person's trustworthiness and social status based on that
individual's espousals and actions. Honour is deemed exactly what determines a
person's character: whether or not the person reflects honesty, respect, integrity, or
fairness. Accordingly, individuals are assigned worth and stature based on the
harmony of their actions, code of honour, and that of the society at large. Honour
can be analysed as a relativistic concept, i.e., conflicts between individuals and
even cultures arising as a consequence of material circumstance and ambition,
rather than fundamental differences in principle. Alternatively, it can be viewed as
nativist — that honour is as real to the human condition as love, and likewise
derives from the formative personal bonds that establish one's personal dignity and
character.
Dr Samuel Johnson, in his A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), defined
honour as having several senses, the first of which was "nobility of soul,
magnanimity, and a scorn of meanness." This sort of honour derives from the
perceived virtuous conduct and personal integrity
Senses are the physiological methods of perception. The senses and their
operation, classification, and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of
fields, most notably neuroscience, cognitive psychology (or cognitive science), and
philosophy of perception. The nervous system has a specific sensory system, or
organ, dedicated to each sense.