The nature of discourse
Written discourse
Lesson 02
21 February 2017
The nature of written discourse
The mode of a text (a subcategory of register) also
includes its channel: speaking vs writing.
What makes writing different from speaking?
The nature of written discourse
Writing tends to be… permanent.
Writing is usually static and relatively space-bound. We
commit writing to paper or technological substitutes.
Writing provides concrete proof/record
that we can refer back
again and again.
Rosetta stone
The nature of written discourse
Writing tends to be… distant.
There is often distance between producers and receivers
of written texts. This means that there is no immediate
feedback: we compose, we trust that the message
conveys what we intended and that the response is the
one desired.
The nature of written discourse
Writing tends to be… planned.
Written texts are usually produced (and received) at a
slower pace than spoken ones. When writing, we try to
anticipate the situation in which the text will be read,
which leads to careful organisation.
On the side of the receiver, written texts allow repeated
reading and close analysis.
The nature of written discourse
Writing tends to be… organised.
Written texts are usually organised in units that are easy
to identify (e.g. sentences, paragraphs, chapters, etc.).
Unique features of writing include pages, lines,
punctuation and capitalisation.
The nature of written discourse
Writing tends to be… formal.
Because of all the previous attributes, writing is often used
to convey important messages. Therefore, the style
tends to be formal (complex sentence construction, lexical
richness, respect for genre conventions, etc.).
The nature of written discourse
We said that writing tends to be permanent, distant,
planned, organised and formal. But is it always the case?
No, it isn’t!
For example, CMC
(computer-mediated
communication), especially
if quasi-synchronous, has
features of both written and
spoken language.
Analysing written discourse
Let us now consider the language of written discourse.
Based on the example below, what appear to be its key
aspects (from the micro to the macro level)?
Taken from Tor Vergata University’s website.
Analysing written discourse
Form: print; standard typeface (font).
Spelling, grammar, punctuation: conventional/standard.
Lexis: professional vocabulary, high degree of content words
(especially nouns = nominalisation).
Sentence structure: complex sentences with dependent clauses
(hypotaxis); use of cohesive devices.
Style/register: professional, formal.
Purpose: informative text.
Genre: institutional website.
Analysing written discourse
Now take a look at the note below. How does it differ from
the previous example?
Taken from The language
of speech and writing, p. 8.
Analysing written discourse
Form: handwritten; personal handwriting style.
Spelling, grammar, punctuation: conventional (with contractions,
e.g. can’t; one slip).
Lexis: everyday vocabulary, low degree of nominalisation.
Sentence structure: simple sentences without dependent clauses
(parataxis).
Style/register: semi-formal.
Purpose: excusing one’s absence (to a teacher).
Genre: excuse note.
Analysing written discourse
A comprehensive analysis of written discourse should also
consider aspects that go beyond the language, as they
help to set the texts within a particular genre:
● Physical aspects such as shape, size, material, etc.
● Typographical features such as formatting, layout,
positioning.
● Graphics/visuals such as photos, figures, symbols, etc.
These are called supporting features, and they create
certain expectations in the reader (see next slides).
Analysing written discourse
Take a look at the front
cover of our textbook and
identify its main supporting
features.
What does the cover tell
you? What expectations
does it set up?
Analysing written discourse
What the authors think:
“The words in the title communicate to the reader the
subject content of the book itself but there are more than
just words there. The images reinforce visually the subject
matter contained in the book, covering both aspects of
speech and writing in a modern context. More subtly, they
convey a number of skills: speaker as listener, writer as
reader. At first glance, you should get the impression of a
factual book but not a heavy scholarly tome. Does it appeal
to the intended audience? That’s for you to decide.” (p. 35).
Analysing written discourse
Now take a look at the front
cover of Agatha Christie’s
mystery novel.
What expectations does it
create in you? Based on
what supporting features?
Analysing written discourse
As we have seen, written texts can be very different from
each other. How can we account for these differences?
We already know the answer from Lesson 1: they depend
on the elements of the CPPR framework: context,
purpose, producer (i.e. the writer, actual and implied),
and receiver (i.e. the reader, actual and intended).
The differences also depend on the chosen register, as
well as on the genre and its conventional stylistic features.
Analysis of a written genre
Letter is a macro-genre: there are different types of
letters which vary in terms of CPPR. These are the main
differences between a personal and a formal letter:
Personal letter
Formal letter
Context
Introductory, reply, series… Institutional, business,
customer care…
Purpose
Chat, invite, thank, inform… Request, inform,
complain…
Producer
Friend, relative, partner…
Customer, employer,
organisation…
Receiver
Friend, relative, partner…
Customer, employer,
organisation…
Analysis of a written genre
Take a look at Handout L02 (first page). These are two
examples of a letter of complaint from a private
consumer to a large company.
What are the main similarities and differences?
The two texts follow the same genre conventions (layout,
use of formulaic expressions for openings and closings,
complex sentence structure, standard grammar).
However, there is a clear variation in register: in letter 1,
it becomes closer to informal spoken language.
Analysis of a written genre
How can we explain the difference in register? Let us use
the CPPR framework for analysis...
Letter 1
Letter 2
Context
Customer care
Customer care
Purpose
Complaint (followed by
request for further action)
Complaint (followed by
request for further action)
Producer
Ellie Miller (age 7)
Sue Simner
Receiver
Company
Company
The difference largely depends on the producer (that is,
on his/her identity and on how it is projected in the text).
Analysis of a written genre
Now look at the two replies to the letters (second page).
What are the main similarities and differences?
Both letters follow similar genre conventions (layout,
address, greetings). Also, similar functions are expressed:
concern to hear the problem, appreciation at being alerted
to the problem, attempt at appeasement through
reimbursement.
However, reply no. 2 is much longer because it includes a
detailed explanation of what might have happened.
Analysis of a written genre
How can we explain this important difference?
Reply 1
Reply 2
Context
Customer care
Customer care
Purpose
Response to complain,
appeasement
Response to complain,
appeasement
Producer
Company
Company
Receiver
Ellie Miller (age 7)
Sue Simner
It depends on the intended receiver, that is, on the
author’s assessment of the reader’s capacity to correctly
interpret the message.
How genres construct their audiences
In Lesson 1, we discussed how texts construct implied
producers and intended receivers, who may differ from
the actual ones (hologram metaphor).
The construction of the implied producers and intended
readers also depends to a great extent on the genre of
that particular text. The reason is that different genres
project different (intended) audiences.
Consider the previous examples: our textbook addresses
an audience of students, while Agatha Christie’s novel
projects an audience of mystery fans.
How genres construct their audiences
We said that different genres construct different intended
audiences. However, small details of the language, the
style and the supporting features of texts can also have
significant effects!
These two signs belong to the same genre, but construct
quite different audiences. How? Based on what specific
features?
How genres construct their audiences
Compare these
two newspaper
front pages.
What are the main
supporting features?
What types of
audiences do the
two newspapers
construct/address?