PHYSICAL REVIEW A 76, 043411 共2007兲
Magneto-optical trapping of cadmium
1
K.-A. Brickman,1 M.-S. Chang,1,2 M. Acton,1 A. Chew,1 D. Matsukevich,1,2 P. C. Haljan,3
V. S. Bagnato,4 and C. Monroe1,2
FOCUS Center and Department of Physics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
2
JQI and Department of Physics, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, USA
3
Physics Department, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia V5A 1S6, Canada
4
Instituto de Fisica e Quimica de São Carlos, Caixa Postal 369, 13560 São Carlos, São Paulo, Brazil
共Received 12 June 2007; published 11 October 2007兲
We report the laser cooling and confinement of Cd atoms in a magneto-optical trap and characterize the
loading process from the background Cd vapor. The trapping laser drives the 1S0 → 1 P1 transition at 229 nm in
this two-electron atom and also photoionizes atoms directly from the 1 P1 state. This photoionization overwhelms the other loss mechanisms and allows a direct measurement of the photoionization cross section, which
we measure to be 2共1兲 ⫻ 10−16 cm2 from the 1 P1 state. When combined with nearby laser-cooled and trapped
Cd+ ions, this apparatus could facilitate studies in ultracold interactions between atoms and ions.
DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevA.76.043411
PACS number共s兲: 33.80.Ps, 32.80.Pj, 32.80.Fb
I. INTRODUCTION
The magneto-optical trap 共MOT兲 is an indispensable
source of cold atoms for a range of studies and applications
in atomic physics, from precision atomic spectroscopy 关1兴
and cold collisions 关2兴 to atom interferometry and the generation of quantum-degenerate gases 关3兴. While nearly all
cold atom experiments deal with the alkali-metal atoms,
there has been progress in the trapping of two-electron
atomic species such as Ca, Mg, Sr, and Yb 关4–7兴, mainly for
experiments involving high-resolution spectroscopy of the
1
S → 3 P intercombination lines. We report here the trapping
of neutral Cd atoms in a deep-ultraviolet MOT operating on
the 1S0 → 1 P1 transition at 229 nm.
When producing a Cd MOT, the trapping light can also
photoionize the atoms directly from the 1 P1 excited state.
While this introduces losses in the trapping process, it also
provides an opportunity to reliably create cold ions and atoms at the same location 关8兴 for the investigation of ultracold
atom-ion interactions 关9,10兴. One interesting future possibility is the transfer of coherence between ground-state hyperfine levels in a trapped ion to pure nuclear spin states in a
neutral atom lacking electron spin. Because the nuclear spin
can be extremely well isolated from environmental influences 关11兴, control of such a coherent transfer process may
have applications to the long-term storage of quantum information.
In this work we realize the first Cd MOT and characterize
the various trapping parameters. Results are compared with
simple analytic and Monte Carlo simulation models of the
trapping process. Through a detailed investigation of the loss
rate as a function of laser intensity, the absolute photoionization cross section from the 1 P1 state is determined.
II. BACKGROUND
Cadmium has eight stable isotopes, six of which are relatively abundant. Figure 1 shows the electronic structure of
Cd for both bosons 共nuclear spin I = 0, even isotopes兲 and
fermions 共I = 1 / 2, odd isotopes兲. Most of the data presented
1050-2947/2007/76共4兲/043411共8兲
here are for 112Cd. The 1S0- 1 P1 atomic transition used for the
MOT occurs at a wavelength of ␭ = 228.8 nm with an excited
state lifetime of ␶ = 1.8 ns 共radiative linewidth ␥ / 2␲
= 91 MHz兲 and saturation intensity of Isat = ␲hc␥ / 共3␭3兲
⬃ 1.0 W / cm2. The saturated photon recoil acceleration on a
Cd atom is a0 = h␥ / 2m␭ = 4.4⫻ 105g, which is 50 times that
of Rb 共here g is the acceleration due to gravity and m is the
mass of a single Cd atom兲. Note that the 228.8 nm light can
also excite atoms from the 1 P1 state directly to the ionization
continuum.
In a vapor cell, the radiative forces accumulate atoms following the rate equation
N2
dN
= L − ⌫N − ␤ ,
V
dt
共1兲
where N is the number of trapped atoms, L is the loading
rate, ⌫ is the loss rate related to single atom effects, ␤ is the
loss rate due to binary collisions within the trap, and V is the
effective volume occupied by the trapped atoms 关12–15兴.
Using simple kinetic gas theory at constant temperature one
4 3
can show that L ⬇ nV2/3
c vc / vth, where Vc is the capture volume, vc is the capture velocity 关12兴, vth is the thermal velocity, and n is the density of Cd atoms in the background vapor
关16,17兴. For comparison to the data we use a simple analytic
one-dimensional 共1D兲 laser cooling model to find the capture
velocity, as detailed in Appendix A. Appendix B presents a
3D Monte Carlo simulation, which includes magnetic field
and polarization effects, to directly estimate the loading rate.
When the MOT density is low 共⬍109 atoms/ cm3兲, the
atoms are essentially noninteracting and we expect the
density to be limited by the cloud temperature. In this regime
the spatial distribution of trapped atoms is expected to
be Gaussian with a cloud radius that is independent of
the trapped atom number. This contrasts with high-density
共⬎1010 atoms/ cm3兲 MOTs where effects such as reradiation
关18兴 must be considered. The Cd MOT reported here operates in the low-density regime, and the last term of Eq. 共1兲
can be neglected. Unlike conventional alkali-metal MOTs,
where single-atom loss mechanisms primarily involve colli-
043411-1
©2007 The American Physical Society
PHYSICAL REVIEW A 76, 043411 共2007兲
BRICKMAN et al.
(a)
(b)
continuum
continuum
~1.84eV
228 nm
P1
1
F=1
-1
0
1
F' = 3/2
P1
1
-3/2
F' = 1/2
-1/2
1/2
-1/2
1/2
3
~300 MHz
3
P0, 1, 2
228 nm
3/2
P0, 1, 2
325 nm
S0
1
S0
1
F=0
I=0
F = 1/2
-1/2
1/2
I = 1/2
111Cd, 113Cd
106Cd, 108
Cd, 110Cd, 112Cd, 114Cd, 116Cd
FIG. 1. Cadmium energy level diagram 共not to scale兲. 共a兲 The bosonic 共even兲 isotopes 共I = 0兲 of Cd. 共b兲 The fermionic 共odd兲 isotopes
共I = 1 / 2兲 of Cd, where the 1 P1 hyperfine splitting arises from L · I coupling. Individual levels are labeled with mF.
sions between trapped atoms and the background gas, Cd
共like Mg兲 has an additional single-atom loss term due to
photoionization 关19,20兴. Solving Eq. 共1兲 for the steady-state
number of trapped atoms gives Nss = L / ⌫, with the loss rate
given by
⌫ = ⌫0 + ⌫ion .
共2兲
Here ⌫0 represents the rate at which trapped atoms are
ejected due to collisions with the background vapor 共dominated by Cd兲 and ⌫ion is the photoionization rate:
⌫ion =
␴ P共I, ␦兲I
.
ប␻
共3兲
In this expression, ␴ is the photoionization cross section, ប␻
is the photon energy, I is the total MOT laser beam intensity,
and P共I , ␦兲 is the fraction of trapped atoms in the excited
state 共 1 P1兲 defined as
P共I, ␦兲 =
s
,
2共1 + s + 4␦2兲
共4兲
where ␦ = ⌬ / ␥ is the laser detuning scaled to the natural linewidth and s = I / Isat is the saturation parameter.
III. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURE
A schematic of the experimental apparatus is shown in
Fig. 2. Since Cd has a large linewidth, high magnetic field
gradients are required to shift the Zeeman levels sufficiently
for the atoms to feel a substantial trapping force at the edge
of the laser beams. We use NdFeB permanent ring magnets
with a 2.54 cm outer diameter, 0.64 cm inner diameter, and
0.95 cm thickness, which are mounted coaxially on transla-
tional stages. By adjusting the axial separation of the magnets we can achieve magnetic field gradients up to
1500 G / cm at the trap center.
The trapping beams are generated with a frequency quadrupled Ti:sapphire laser, yielding 2.5 mW at 228.8 nm. The
ultraviolet light is split into six independent trapping beams
in order to better control the intensity balance of the counterpropagating beams. We observe that the MOT can withstand an intensity imbalance of 10% between a pair of
beams, and we can balance the intensity between any pair of
counterpropagating beams to better than 5%. Typical beam
waists range from w = 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm, and the total power
ranges from P = 0.7 mW to 2.0 mW, resulting in peak intensities ranging from about 0.03 W / cm2 to 0.5 W / cm2.
Approximately 200 ␮W is split from the main laser beam
and directed to a small cadmium vapor cell to stabilize the
laser frequency. We use a dichroic atomic vapor laser lock
共DAVLL兲 关21,22兴 operating on the 1S0 → 1 P1 transition in
Cd. The cell is heated to 80 ° C to increase optical absorption
to about 80% through the 5-cm cell. A uniform magnetic
field is applied along the laser beam axis to lift the degeneracy of the 1 P1 states. When linearly polarized light is sent
through the cell, the difference between absorption of the
Zeeman-shifted ␴+ and ␴− transitions produces a dispersiveshaped signal and the laser is locked to the zero crossing
point of this signal. The capture range is determined by the
Zeeman splitting between the two transitions, or about
1.5 GHz in a 500-G field. To change the detuning we move
the zero-crossing point by attenuating the laser power in one
of the polarization paths 关共a兲 or 共b兲兴 after the cell 共see Fig. 2兲.
The lock is stable to within 30 MHz, or 0.3␥, over the 1.5GHz capture range, and the dominant sources of fluctuations
are beam-steering drifts and birefringence fluctuations of
the cell windows from temperature drifts over times greater
than1 s.
043411-2
PHYSICAL REVIEW A 76, 043411 共2007兲
MAGNETO-OPTICAL TRAPPING OF CADMIUM
to PID Lock
-
DA
A-B
DB
4.5”
to experiment
(b)
(a)
Cd cell
PBS
QWP
LBO
doubler
457 nm
200 mW
B
BBO
doubler
228 nm
2.5 mW
Nd:YVO4
532 nm, 10.5 W
to imaging system
front view
Magnet Holder
Magnets
Laser Beams
to wavemeter
BS
Ti:Sapphire
915 nm ,1.2 W
to imaging system
side view
FIG. 2. Left: schematic diagram of the laser system and the laser lock 共DAVLL兲. The laser lock consists of the Cd cell, a quarter-wave
plate 共QWP兲, a polarizing beam splitter 共PBS兲, and two photodetectors 共DA, DB兲 for paths 共a兲 and 共b兲, respectively. Right: the MOT vacuum
chamber and the laser beam geometry. The MOT is formed by six independent beams. The imaging system sits below the chamber, and the
dark shaded regions are the NdFeB magnets.
The MOT chamber contains a 1-cm-long hollow stainless
steel tube of diameter 0.1 cm packed with about 0.02 g of
pure Cd wire. We control the background Cd vapor pressure
throughout the entire chamber by heating this small oven.
When we direct the trapping beams into the chamber we see
tracks of fluorescing Cd within the extent of the laser beams.
Based on this atomic fluorescence, we estimate the background Cd vapor pressure to range from approximately
10−11 torr with the oven off to about 10−10 torr with the oven
at approximately 300 ° C. We speculate that the Cd atoms
sublimated from the oven do not readily stick to the chamber
surface, resulting in good control of the Cd vapor pressure
with the small oven. We note that the vapor pressure of Cd is
predicted to be 10−11 torr at room temperature 关23兴, which is
consistent with our observations.
The atomic fluorescence from the trapped atoms is collected with an f / 3 lens 共a solid angle of d⍀ / 4␲ = 0.6%兲 and
imaged onto an intensified charge-coupled-device 共ICCD兲
camera. Every photon incident on the camera yields ␩G
⯝ 65 counts, where ␩ = 20% is the quantum efficiency of the
camera and G is the ICCD gain factor. Including an optical
transmission of T ⬃ 50% in the imaging system, we expect a
total count rate of ␥ P共I , ␦兲G␩T共d⍀ / 4␲兲 ⬃ 107 counts/ s
from each trapped atom in the MOT. In this way, we relate
the total fluorescence count rate to the number of atoms in
the MOT, with an estimated accuracy of 50%. For various
1500
N(t)
1000
500
0
0
2
4
Time (s)
6
8
2 mm
FIG. 3. Left: typical loading curve showing the buildup in the MOT fluorescence vs time. For this data set, the MOT parameters are laser
power P = 1.45 mW, beam waist w = 1.25 mm, detuning ␦ = −0.7, and magnetic field gradient B⬘ = 500 G / cm. The steady-state MOT number
is calculated from the fluorescence signal and for these data the buildup time is 1.5 s. Right: MOT image taken with the camera for Nss
= 1200 atoms. The MOT parameters for this data set are P = 1.45 mW, w = 2.5 mm, ␦ = −0.7, and B⬘ = 500 G / cm. The integration time for the
camera was 5 ms. A 2D Gaussian fit to the image yields an rms radius of 200 ␮m and a peak atom density of 108 atoms/ cm3.
043411-3
PHYSICAL REVIEW A 76, 043411 共2007兲
BRICKMAN et al.
5
diameter (microns)
10
Nss
4
10
3
10
10
6
5
4
3
2
10
0
200
400
600
800
B'(G/cm)
1000
1200
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A typical observation of the fluorescence growth from
trapped atoms in time is shown in Fig. 3, allowing a determination of the steady-state number of atoms and the net loss
rate, ⌫, from the trap. An image of the fluorescence distribution from the trapped atoms is also shown in Fig. 3, revealing
a Gaussian-shaped atom cloud as expected from the
temperature-limited density. The typical geometric mean rms
radius of the MOT is 200 ␮m, with some dependence upon
the magnetic field gradient, laser power, and detuning. The
largest MOT we have observed held approximately 3000 atoms, with a peak density of about 108 atoms/ cm3.
Figure 4 shows the steady-state number of atoms, Nss, in
the MOT versus magnetic field gradient B⬘ for beam waist
w = 1.25 mm, detuning ␦ = −0.6, and a total power P
= 1.8 mW. Under these conditions the maximum steady-state
number is observed at 500 G / cm. At this optimal field gradient, the Zeeman shift of the excited-state levels at the edge
of the laser beam is approximately one linewidth. Above this
optimal value the steep magnetic field gradient shifts the
atoms out of resonance with the laser beams, reducing the
capture volume. At lower field gradients Nss quickly decreases, presumably due to a lower trap depth resulting from
an increased sensitivity to trapping parameters.
From the equipartition theorem we obtain a relation connecting the cloud radius and temperature, ␬r2 = kbT, where r
is the atomic cloud rms radius, kb is Boltzmann’s constant, T
is the temperature in kelvin, and ␬ is the trap spring constant
␬ = 8␮bksB⬘␦ / 共1 + s + 4␦2兲 关24兴. In this expression, ␮b is the
Bohr magneton and k = 2␲ / ␭ is the wave number. Replacing
T
with
the
Doppler
temperature
TD = ប␥共1 + s
+ 4␦2兲 / 共8kb 兩 ␦ 兩 兲 gives a relation between the temperaturelimited cloud radius and the magnetic field gradient:
ប␥共1 + s + 4␦2兲3
.
64␮b␦2ksB⬘
4
5
6
7
8
9
1000
B' (G/cm)
settings of the MOT parameters, we are able to observe between about 10–3000 atoms in the MOT.
冑
2
3
FIG. 4. Observed steady-state MOT number vs axial magnetic
field gradient B⬘ 共points兲, along with the 3D model 共solid line兲 for
P = 0.8 mW, ␦ = −0.6, and w = 2.5 mm.
r=
3
共5兲
Figure 5 shows the MOT rms radius vs magnetic field
gradient; as expected from Eq. 共5兲, the cloud gets smaller as
B⬘ increases. The MOT diameter is roughly 5 times larger
FIG. 5. MOT cloud rms diameter vs B⬘ for P = 0.8 mW,
␦ = −0.6, and w = 2.5 mm. A characterization is provided by the
longest 共circles兲 and shortest 共squares兲 rms size of the elliptical
MOT. The diameter is about 5 times larger than what Doppler
theory predicts. The solid lines show the 共B⬘兲−1/2 dependence expected from Eq. 共5兲.
than what Doppler theory predicts. Similar results were
found in Sr, where the MOT temperature exceeded the expected Doppler temperature 关6兴.
The dependence of the steady-state number of trapped
atoms on MOT detuning and laser power is shown in Figs. 6
and 7. In both figures, the experimental data are plotted
along with the 1D and 3D theoretical predictions. The observed number of trapped atoms is one to two orders of magnitude below predictions, likely due to alignment imperfections and intensity imbalances not included in the models.
Figure 8 shows how the measured atom cloud size decreases
as the MOT laser power is increased 共at a fixed beam waist兲,
as expected from Eq. 共5兲.
In Fig. 9, the filling of the MOT is shown for Cd vapor
pressures of approximately 10−10 torr and 10−11 torr. Unlike
conventional vapor cell MOTs, we find that the filling time
共loss rate兲 is independent of the background pressure, while
the steady-state number of atoms in the MOT is strongly
dependent on pressure. This indicates that collisions with the
background gas have very little effect on the loss rate and
instead we are limited by photoionization loss from the MOT
beams. This is investigated in more detail by measuring the
filling time 共loss rate兲 as the MOT laser intensity is varied, as
shown in Fig. 10. We observe a roughly quadratic dependence of loss rate on intensity, consistent with Eq. 共2兲. The
extrapolated loss rate at zero intensity is much smaller than
all of the observations, directly indicating that ⌫0 ⌫ion or
that the loss rate in this experiment is dominated by photoionization. From this measurement, we can also directly extract the photoionization cross section from the 1 P1 state,
given measurements of the intensity, excited-state fraction
P共I , ␦兲, and the known wavelength of the light. We find that
the photoionization cross section of the 1 P1 state of Cd from
the 228.8 nm light is ␴ = 2共1兲 ⫻ 10−16 cm2, with the error
dominated by uncertainties in the laser intensity and detuning. This result is within an order of magnitude of the measured cross sections of other two electron atoms 关19,25兴.
V. FERMIONIC ISOTOPES
Scanning the laser frequency allows cooling and trapping
of different cadmium isotopes, as shown in Fig. 11. We ob-
043411-4
PHYSICAL REVIEW A 76, 043411 共2007兲
10
5
10
4
10
3
10
2
10
Cloud diameter (µm)
Nss
MAGNETO-OPTICAL TRAPPING OF CADMIUM
6
5
4
3
2
10
-0.8
δ
-0.4
7
serve that the peak heights correspond to the natural abundance of each isotope, showing that the bosonic isotopes are
equally capable of being trapped. However, there is a lack of
evidence for the fermionic isotopes being loaded in the
MOT. This is due to the hyperfine structure present in the 1 P1
states of the fermionic isotopes. As shown in Fig. 1共b兲, the
two excited hyperfine states for both 111Cd and 113Cd are
separated by about 300 MHz, which is comparable to the
natural linewidth of Cd. A laser tuned to the red of the upper
hyperfine state 共F⬘ = 3 / 2兲 but to the blue of the lower hyperfine state 共F⬘ = 1 / 2兲 may drive excessive transitions to the
lower excited state, which could result in too much heating
and prevent trapping. In addition, the optical transitions between the F = 1 / 2 ground states and F⬘ = 1 / 2 excited states
do not result in spatially dependent differential optical pumping by ␴+ and ␴− transitions, a necessary condition for a
standard MOT. Similar results were reported for Yb 关7兴,
where much smaller or no MOT was observed for fermionic
isotopes. In the present case it could be that there is a very
small fermionic MOT being formed but it is not resolvable
from the background noise. It may be possible to laser cool
and trap fermionic isotopes with a dichroic MOT 关26兴. Here,
the cooling laser is tuned to the red of the lower hyperfine
transitions 共F⬘ = 1 / 2兲 to provide the major scattering force
for laser cooling and then a small fraction of the laser power
is frequency shifted to the red of the upper hyperfine state
共blue of the lower state兲. When this second laser beam is
collimated with a smaller beam waist and overlapped with
the beam of the first color, the laser-cooled atoms can be
9
2
1
FIG. 8. MOT cloud diameter vs total MOT laser power for ␦
= −0.6, B⬘ = 500 G / cm, and w = 2.5 mm. The solid lines show the
expected dependence of the MOT diameter on power from Eq. 共5兲.
trapped in the MOT by driving the upper transitions 共F
= 1 / 2 to F⬘ = 3 / 2兲. Alternatively, one can work in a much
higher magnetic field gradient to overwhelm the excited-state
hyperfine structure. In this Paschen-Back regime, one will
drive J = 0 to J = 1 transitions to produce a MOT. Given a
beam waist of 1.0 mm, the required field gradient for the
MOT will be on the order of 104 G / cm, which can be realized by a pair of needle electromagnets 关27兴. The capture
volume of the MOT will be much smaller, but this scheme
may still be useful for single-atom MOT experiments. Another alternative is to use a higher laser power, allowing one
to tune to the red of both hyperfine states. With a larger
detuning 兩␦ 兩 ␦hf , the optical excitation to the lower and
upper manifolds is driven more evenly and can produce both
cooling and trapping forces for the atoms.
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0
2
4
Time (s)
6
8
0.0
0.5
1.0
Time (s)
1.5
2.0
1000
5
10
4
100
10
10
Nss
8
Power (mW)
FIG. 6. Observed steady-state atom number vs ␦ 共points兲 along
with the 1D 共dotted line兲 and 3D 共solid line兲 models for P
= 1.8 mW, B⬘ = 500 G / cm, and w = 2.5 mm.
10
2
0.0
N(t)
-1.2
Nss - N(t)
-1.6
3
3
2
10
0.0
0.5
1.0
Power (mW)
1.5
2.0
FIG. 7. Observed steady-state atom number vs power 共points兲
for ␦ = −0.7, B⬘ = 500 G / cm, and w = 2.5 mm along with the 1D
共solid line兲 and 3D 共dotted line兲 models.
FIG. 9. Top: observed trapped atom number N共t兲 for two different Cd background vapor pressures. The top curve corresponds to a
pressure of 10−10 torr, and the lower curve corresponds to
10−11 torr. By fitting the data to a growing exponential, N共t兲
= Nss共1 − e−⌫t兲, we find that the filling time ⌫−1 is approximately 1 s
for each case. This is clear from the lower logarithmic plot of the
data. Bottom: Nss-N共t兲 plotted for both vapor pressures on a logarithmic scale. The filling times are about 1 sec for each curve.
043411-5
PHYSICAL REVIEW A 76, 043411 共2007兲
BRICKMAN et al.
4
0.07 0.08
0
FIG. 10. Observed loading rate vs the saturation parameter s
= I / Isat. The power is varied for a constant beam waist of w
= 1.25 mm. The photoionization cross section out of the 1 P1 state is
determined from a quadratic fit to s given by Eq. 共2兲. Extrapolating
the curve to zero intensity 共not shown here兲 gives information on
the loss rate due to collisions with background gas.
500
1000
29%
13%
12%
116
FIG. 11. Top: scan across frequency showing the different Cd
isotope MOTs. The underlying curve is the Doppler fluorescence
profile of the Cd atoms. At certain frequencies there is a large
buildup, due to the MOT accumulation as its resonance is crossed.
Bottom: natural abundance of neutral cadmium isotopes. Out of
these eight isotopes, we are only able to clearly observe trapping of
the four most abundant bosonic 共even兲 isotopes.
To find the capture velocity vc—that is, the maximum
velocity an atom can possess and still be slowed to rest
within the cooling laser beams—we must integrate the
velocity-dependent acceleration a共v兲:
冕
0
vc
vdv
=
a共v兲
冕
x0+l
共A2兲
dx.
x0
Here l is the laser beam diameter, x0 is defined to be the edge
of the laser beam, and
a共v兲 =
冋
册
s
បk␥
s
.
2 −
2m 1 + s + 4共␦ − u兲
1 + s + 4共␦ + u兲2
共A3兲
Solving Eq. 共A2兲 gives
− 16បk3s␦l 16 5 8
= uc + 共1 + s − 4␦2兲u3c + 共1 + s + 4␦2兲2uc .
5
3
2m␥
共A4兲
This appendix estimates the number of atoms cooled to
rest in a vapor cell. For simplicity we assume the laser beams
to have a top-hat profile.
The force on an atom moving with velocity v in two
counterpropagating laser beams is
册
s
បk␥
s
,
Fscat =
2 −
2 1 + s + 4共␦ − u兲
1 + s + 4共␦ + u兲2
This fifth-order polynomial can be solved numerically to find
the capture velocity, vc = ␥uc / k.
From the steady state solution to Eq. 共1兲 given above, we
get
Nss =
共A1兲
where the scaled velocity is defined as u⫽kv / ␥.
3000
1.2%
0.9%
APPENDIX A: ONE-DIMENSIONAL DERIVATION
OF THE STEADY-STATE NUMBER OF ATOMS
COOLED TO REST IN A VAPOR CELL
冋
2500
24%
12%
8%
VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper we present a Cd magneto-optical trap operating on the 1S0- 1 P1 transition at 228.8 nm. A characterization of the MOT as a function of magnetic field gradient,
detuning, and intensity is presented. The same beams that
form the MOT also photoionize the atoms inside the MOT.
We observe photoionization as the dominant loss mechanism
and characterize the photoionization cross section.
This system, when combined with cold ions, opens the
possibility of studying ultracold charge-exchange collisions.
One outcome of these studies is the possible transfer of coherent information from the ion to the neutral atom. A possible experiment is to prepare the ion in a quantum superposition of the hyperfine qubit states and then allow the ion to
undergo an ultracold charge exchange with a nearby neutral
atom. This results in the charge neutralization of the ion, but
could also leave some of the previously prepared quantum
information intact in the nucleus. This could allow quantum
information to be carried by pure nuclear spins with very
little interaction with the environment. Subsequent coherent
charge exchange with another ion could then allow the
nuclear quantum information to be manipulated and processed using conventional ion trap techniques. In addition to
applications for quantum information, the long-lived 3 P0
state could be of interest for optical clocks 关1兴 and the narrow linewidth of the 1S0- 3 P1 transition 共70 kHz兲 would allow for an extremely low cooling limit 关6兴.
1500
2000
frequency (MHz)
106
0.06
108
0.05
s
110
0.04
111
0.03
116
112
6
5
4
110
113
0.1
114
-1
Γ (s )
2
112
114
flouresence (arbitrary units)
3
fnប␻l2v4c
v4thប␻␴cn + v3th␴ionIP共I, ␦兲
,
共A5兲
where ␴c is the collision cross section, ␴ion is the photoionization cross section, and f is the relative abundance of the
isotope of interest.
043411-6
PHYSICAL REVIEW A 76, 043411 共2007兲
MAGNETO-OPTICAL TRAPPING OF CADMIUM
APPENDIX B: THREE-DIMENSIONAL DERIVATION
OF THE STEADY-STATE NUMBER
IN A VAPOR CELL MOT
A three-dimensional computer simulation that includes
the effects of the magnetic field to obtain the steady-state
number of atoms trapped in an even-isotope Cd MOT is
employed to compare with our data. Previous work has used
models that calculate the capture velocity for an individual
atom and extract the loading rate from vc 关28–31兴 or has
included individual photon recoil events 关32兴.
Here, we treat the atoms as noninteracting, point particles
and examine the dynamics of an ensemble of individual atoms under the application of the laser radiation. The atoms
are subjected to a time-averaged force: i.e., we do not track
individual photon absorption and reemission events and instead we calculate the averaged momentum kicks over hundreds of scattering events. The atoms’ motional behavior is
found by numerically integrating the position- and velocitydependent radiation force.
Specifically, taking the x̂ direction as an example, the net
acceleration of an individual atom is given by the sum of the
acceleration due to the +x̂ and −x̂ laser beams:
ax共rជ, vx兲 =
បk␥
sx共rជ兲
2m
−兺
q
冋兺
q
p+,q共rជ兲
1 + stot共rជ兲 + 关2␦+,q共rជ, vx兲兴2
p−,q共rជ兲
1 + stot共rជ兲 + 关2␦−,q共rជ, vx兲兴2
册
共B1兲
,
where B共rជ兲 = B⬘冑z2 + 41 共x2 + y 2兲 is the magnitude of the magnetic field written in terms of the magnetic field gradient B⬘
along the strong 共ẑ兲 axis.
The effective detuning for the atomic transition is given
by
␦±,q共rជ, vx兲 = 共⌬ ⫿ kvx兲/␥ + q
Ix −2共y2+z2兲/w2
0,
e
Isat
共B2兲
stot共rជ兲 = 2sx共rជ兲 + 2sy共rជ兲 + 2sz共rជ兲,
共B3兲
where Ix is the intensity of the ±x̂ laser beams 共here assumed
to be balanced兲 and sy共rជ兲 and sz共rជ兲 are defined analogously to
sx共rជ兲.
The fraction of the incoming laser radiation that the atom
experiences as ␴± or ␲ polarized is
p±,q共rជ兲 =
冦
冉冋
冉冋
册冊
册冊
1 xB⬘
1
1⫿
2
2 B共rជ兲
1 xB⬘
1
1±
2
2 B共rជ兲
2
, q = − 1 共␴−兲,
2
1 − 共p±,−1 + p±,+1兲,
,
q = + 1 共␴+兲,
q = 0 共␲兲,
冥
共B4兲
共B5兲
where gF = 1 is the Landé g factor. Note that for the even
isotopes of Cd, there is no Zeeman shift for ␲-polarized radiation.
Atoms are initially placed uniformly distributed in position within a simulation volume with a lateral dimension of
6w 共three beam diameters兲, and the total number of atoms is
chosen to correspond to the background density of the
atomic vapor. The atoms are given initial velocities distributed according to a Maxwell-Boltzmann velocity distribution
centered about 0. To save computation time, the atoms are
discarded if they have an initial velocity vi ⬎ 5vc, where vc
⬇ 20 m / s is the maximum capture velocity for the atoms
calculated from the one-dimensional model 共Appendix A兲.
For select parameter sets, we have checked this time-saving
assumption against a version that simulates all atoms regardless of velocity and found no difference in the obtained results.
For each time step, dt, the time-averaged acceleration of
each atom, is computed 关Eq. 共B1兲兴 and the new velocity and
position are calculated according to
where q is the polarization index and the ± subscripts correspond to the +x̂- and −x̂-direction beams, respectively.
The individual beam saturation parameter sx and the total
saturation parameter stot are given by
sx共rជ兲 =
␮BgFB共rជ兲
,
␥ប
vx = vx + axdt,
共B6兲
1
x = x + vxdt + ax共dt兲2 .
2
共B7兲
At each time step, any atoms that have left the simulation
volume are eliminated. The number of new atoms added at
each time step is calculated by considering the average number of atoms that would leave the volume at each time step
assuming no radiation forces were present. These new atoms
are added with uniformly distributed positions along one of
the 共randomly兲 chosen simulation box edges and are given
velocities that point inwards but correspond to a MaxwellBoltzmann distribution 共again discarding velocities greater
than 5vc兲.
Every 100 time steps, we count the number of atoms with
positions that are within w0 / 2 of the origin. As a function of
time, this sum produces a linear curve with a slope that corresponds to the loading rate of atoms being trapped by the
MOT. The steady-state number of atoms confined by the
MOT can then be calculated by including isotope abundance
and the background collision and photoionization loss rates
关similarly to Eq. 共A5兲兴.
043411-7
PHYSICAL REVIEW A 76, 043411 共2007兲
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