Donald Poland, MS, AICP
Introduction
Introduction to Geography
Lecture Notes
Chapter 1
The Nature of Geography
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Geography as the spatial science
The study of spatial variation
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How & why things differ from place to place on the
surface of the earth
Spatial
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Essential modifier
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Meaning
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Location
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Absolute Location
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Latitude & longitude
Other grid systems
Relative Location
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The way things are distributed
The way movements occur
The way processes operate over the whole or part
of the earth’s surface
Site & Situation
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Mathematical location
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“Spatial behavior”
“Spatial process”
Site
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The physical & cultural characteristics & attributes
of the place itself
Situation
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The external relations of a locale
Spatial interconnection & interdependence
1
Direction
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Absolute Direction
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Physical Attributes
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Climate, soil, water supply, mineral resources,
terrain features
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Uniformity in one or a limited number of related
physical or cultural features
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Time
“20 minutes from here”
Places
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Attributes of places are always changing
Interrelations between places
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Accessibility
Connectivity
Spatial diffusion
Globalization
“cultural landscape”
Areas of spatial similarity
Formal Regions
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Standard units such as miles or kilometers
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“natural landscape”
Regions
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Relative Distance
Language, religion, agricultural patterns, food,
music
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Cultural Attributes
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Absolute Distance
“Out West”
“Back East”
Physical & Cultural Attributes
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Cardinal points (N,S,E,&W)
Relative Direction
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Distance
Geography Themes &
Standards
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Five Fundamental Themes
National Standards
Four Traditions
“Columbia Plateau” or “The Corn Belt”
Functional Regions
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A spatial system
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Trade areas or transportation networks
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Five Fundamental Themes
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Location
Place
Relationships within places
Movement
Regions
Four Traditions
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Earth-Science Tradition
Culture-Environment Tradition
Locational (or Spatial) Tradition
Area Analysis (or Regional) Tradition
Maps
Fig.1.14
The Grid System
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Poles
Equator
Latitude
Longitude
Chapter 2
Latitude
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Angular distance north or south of the
equator
Measured in degrees
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Each degree of latitude = 69 miles
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0°-90° North or South
Slightly longer near the poles
Slightly shorter near equator
Minutes (’) 1.15 miles & seconds (”) 101 feet
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Latitude (Continued)
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Prime Meridian
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Longitude
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Passes through the Royal Observatory at
Greenwich, England
Selected at an International Conference in 1884
Angular distance east or west of the Prime
Meridian
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Other meridians
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True N-S lines connecting the poles
Farthest apart at equator
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Distance between lines decreases towards
the poles
Time depends on longitude
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Map Projections
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Transforming a globe surface to a flat surface
always results in distortion
Properties of Map Projections
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Area
Shape
Distance
Direction
Shape
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No map can provide correct shape for large
areas, but some can accurately portray
shapes for small areas
Maps that have true shapes are known as
conformal
A map cannot be both conformal and
equivalent (equal-area)
0°-180° East or West
International Date Line generally follows the 180th
meridian
Each time zone ≈ 15° of longitude
Area
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Equal-area or equivalent projections
represent areas in correct proportion to the
earth’s area
But, the shape of the area is distorted to
achieve this
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See Figure 2.5
Distance
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Distance relationships are almost always
distorted on a map
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Some maintain true distances along one direction
or along certain lines
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Equidistant projections show true distances in
all directions, but only from one or two central
points
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A map cannot be both equidistant and equalarea
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See Figure 2.9
4
Direction
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Directions between all points cannot be
shown without distortion
Azimuthal projections enable a map user to
measure the distance from a single point to
any other point
Azimuthal projections may also be
equivalent, conformal, or equidistant
Types of Projections
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Globe properties
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Cylindrical Projections
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Mercator Projection
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A lot of distortion towards the poles
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Conic Projections
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Shapes are fairly accurate, but areas are widely
distorted
Plane tangent to the surface
Planar projections are equidistant from the
tangent point
Commonly used for polar areas
Gnomonic projections show all great circles
as straight lines
The cone is closest in form to ½ of a globe
Conic projections are widely used to depict
hemispheres or smaller parts of the earth
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Great Circle
Rhumb lines – straight line is true compass
bearing – the only projection
Planar Projections
All meridians are equal in length
All meridians converge at the poles
Lines of latitude are parallel to the equator and to
each other
Parallels decrease in length as one nears the
poles
Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles
The scale on the surface of the globe is the same
everywhere in all directions
See Figure 2.6a
Other Projections
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Goode’s Homolosine
Robinson
Ovals, hearts, trapezoids, stars, etc.
5
Scale
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Ratio between the measurement of
something on a map and the corresponding
measurement on the earth
Represented in three ways
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Topographic
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Very detailed
Very generalized
Types of Maps (continued)
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Thematic Maps
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Point symbols
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Area symbols
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z Choropleth maps
Line symbols
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z Flow-line maps
Satellite Imagery
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Landsat
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First launched 1972
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Orthophotomaps
False-color images
Nonphotographic imagery
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Shaded relief
Detecting the nature of an object from a
distance
Aerial photography
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NRCAN in Canada
Remote Sensing
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Small-scale maps show large areas
Contour lines & intervals
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Surface areas in relatively high detail
Physical & human features
USGS quadrangles
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Large-scale maps show a small area
1:25,000 or 1/25,000
Types of Maps
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Verbally
Graphically
Representative fraction (RF)
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Scale (continued)
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1 hour 40 minute orbit
Earth coverage every 16 days
50 ft. resolution
SPOT
Thermal scanners
Radar
Satellites
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Geographic Information
Systems (GIS)
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Five major components
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Data input
Data management
Data manipulation
Analysis functions
Data output
Physical Geography:
Landforms
Chapter 3
Igneous Rocks
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Cooling & solidification of molten rock
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Underground molten rock is magma
Above ground molten rock is lava
Composition of magma & lava + cooling rate
determines the minerals that form
Granite, basalt, pumice, obsidian
Civilian Spy Satellites
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Do you think that the availability of the new, detailed
satellite images is a potential threat to national security?
Might access to images of their enemies make
belligerent countries more dangerous than they already
are? Why or why not?
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In what ways might access to satellite imagery stem the
tides of environmental and social destabilization and
foster peace.
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Should the federal government, which licenses the
satellites, be allowed to exercise “shutter control”, cutting
off image sales during wartime? Why or why not?
Earth Materials
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Igneous Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
Metamorphic Rocks
Sedimentary Rocks
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Composed of particles of gravel, sand, silt, &
clay
Pressure & cementing processes cause
rocks to form
Large particles form conglomerates
Sand forms sandstone
Silt & clay form shale or siltstone
Organic materials form limestone or coal
7
Metamorphic Rocks
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Formed from igneous or sedimentary rocks
by earth forces that produce heat, pressure,
or chemical reactions
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Shale becomes slate
Limestone can become marble
Granite may become gneiss
Movements of the Continents
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Plate tectonics theory
Earth’s crust is outer, lighter portion of the
lithosphere
Lithosphere broken into 12 large and
numerous small plates that slide & drift over
the asthenosphere
Plate movement may be caused by
convection
Convergent Movement
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Convergent plates can cause deep-sea
trenches and continental-scale mountain
ranges
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Heavy, but thin, oceanic crust tends to be forced
under continental crust
Deep trenches form at these subduction zones
Volcanoes and earthquakes are common in
subduction zones
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Geologic Time
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Earth formed 4.7 billion years ago
Current landforms are often millions of years
old
Early 20th century work by geologist Alfred
Wegener on continental drift helped to
explain how landforms developed over time
Plate Boundaries
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Divergent plate boundaries
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Transform boundaries
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Convergent boundaries
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Plate collisions can cause earthquakes along
faults
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Plates move away from each other
Plates slide by each other horizontally
Plates move towards each other
Tectonic Forces
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Diastrophism
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Great pressure causing plates to fold, twist, warp,
break, and compress
Volcanism
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The force that transports heated material to or
toward the earth’s surface
For example, the Ring of Fire
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Diastrophism
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Broad warping
Folding
Faulting
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Reduction of the land’s surface
Types
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Strato or composite volcano
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Shield volcano
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Escarpments
Rift valleys
Tsunami
Gradational Processes
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Volcanism
Weathering
Mass movement
Erosion
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Mechanical
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“Mass wasting”
Downslope movement of material due to
gravity
Accumulation of rock particles at the base of
hills is talus
Frost action
Salt crystals
Root action
Chemical
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Gentle slopes
No explosion
Weathering
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Mass Movement
Steep sides
Oxidation
Hydrolysis
Carbonation
Erosional Agents & Deposition
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Running water
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Amount of precipitation
Length & steepness of the slope
Kind of rock & vegetation
Forms landscapes such as deltas
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Stream Landscapes
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Humid areas
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Waterfalls
V-shaped channels
Floodplains
Meandering streams
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levees, flooding
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Groundwater
Arid areas
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Lack of vegetation
increases erosional
forces
Temporary lakes
Alluvial fans
Deep, straight-sided
arroyos (wadi)
Buttes & mesas
Glaciers
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Covered a large part of the planet only 1015,000 years ago
Large body of ice moving down a slope or
spreading outward on a land surface
Can move as much as 1 meter per day
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Aquifers form in zone of saturation
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Can dissolve soluble materials to form
stalactites, stalagmites, & sinkholes
Karst topography
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Glacial Landforms
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Waves
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Forms beaches & spits
U-shaped valleys
Fiords
Tarns
Cirques
Arêtes
Outwash plain
Moraines
Wind
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Abrasive action of sand & dust sculpts the
landscape
Dunes
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Loess
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Longshore currents
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Deposition & erosion
Sandbars
Glacial troughs
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Waves, Currents, & Coastal
Landforms
Upper zone is the water table
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Barchan
Coral reefs & atolls
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Formed by the secretion of calcium carbonate by
coral organisms in sunny, warm water areas
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Landform Regions
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Physical Geography:
Weather & Climate
A large section of the earth’s surface where a
great deal of homogeneity occurs
Chapter 4
Air Temperature
Solar energy
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Insolation
Sun angle
Number of daylight hours
Amount of water vapor
Cloud cover
Land vs. water
Elevation above sea level
Degree & direction of air movement
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Reflection & Reradiation
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Clouds & light surfaces reflect energy
Reradiation also contributes to lost energy
Water stores more energy than land
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Land heats & cools more rapidly
Water heats & cools more slowly
Earth inclination
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Axis of the earth tilts at ≈ 23.5°
Rotation once every 24 hours
21 June / summer solstice
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21 December / winter solstice
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Vertical rays of the sun at 23.5 ° N
z Tropic of Cancer
Northern hemisphere tilted towards the sun
Vertical rays of the sun at 23.5 ° S
z Tropic of Cancer
Equinoxes on March 21 & September 21
The Lapse Rate
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6.4°C per 1000 meters
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Temperature inversions
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3.5°F per 1000 feet
Cooler air trapped below warmer air
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Can contribute to smog problems
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Air Pressure & Winds
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Air pressure is higher near the earth’s surface
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Pressure measured by a barometer
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Warm air rises
Cool air sinks
Global Air-Circulation Pattern
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Equatorial low pressure
Northeast trades
Westerlies
Subpolar low
Polar easterlies
Polar high
Moisture in the Atmosphere
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Precipitation
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Rain, sleet, snow, or hail
Supersaturation leads to droplets if condensation
nuclei are present
Relative humidity
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A percentage measure of moisture content of the
air, expressed as the amount of water vapor
present relative to the maximum that can exist at
the current temperature
Land & sea breezes
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Warmer air over land replaced by cooler air
over water
Mountain & valley breezes
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Pressure gradient forces air to blow from high
to low pressure areas
Convection
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Cooler air in mountains sinks into valley
(often at night)
Warmer air in valleys rises into mountains
(often during the day)
Coriolis effect
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Wind veers towards the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere
Ocean Currents
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Roughly corresponds to global wind direction
patterns
Differences in water density also cause
movement
Coriolis effect
Landmasses are a barrier to currents
Types of Precipitation
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Convectional precipitation
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Orographic precipitation
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Cyclonic, or frontal precipitation
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Results from rising, heated, moisture-laden air
Warm air is forced to rise by hills or mountains
Where cool and warm air masses meet
Air Masses: Large bodies of air with similar
temperature and humidity – Leading edge of an
air mass as it moves is a front
12
Storms
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Midlatitude cyclones
Hurricanes
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Soil Properties
Composition
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Organic & inorganic
Texture
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A generalization based on daily & seasonal
weather conditions
Typhoons
Variation in soil types due to five major factors
z Geology – Underlying rock
z Climate – Effects of temperature & precipitation
z Topography – Elevation of land & slope
z Biology – Living & dead plants & Animals
z Time – Length of time the four above factors have
been interacting
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Blizzards
Tornadoes
Soil Formation
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Climate
Proportion of sand, silt, & clay
Structure
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Size, shape, and alignments of clumps
Soil Profile & Horizons
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O-horizon – Surface layer – organic manterial
A-horizon – Fertile topsoil
E-horizon – Water removes minerals/lighter
B-horizon – deposits from the E-horizon
C-horizon – Were weathering erodes bedrock
R-horizon – Bedrock - unaltered
Natural Vegetation
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Natural Vegetation Regions
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Soil Classification
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Tropical rain forest
Mediterranean or chaparral
Semidesert
Desert
Prairie / steppe
Deciduous woodlands
Coniferous woodlands
Tundra
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Climate Classification
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Köppen Climate Types
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Tropical Climates (A)
A - Tropical
B – Semidesert & Dryland
C – Humid Midlatitude
D – Humid Midlatitude
E – Arctic & Subarctic
H - Highlands
Tropical Rain Forest (Af)
Savanna (Aw,Am)
Dryland Climates
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Hot Deserts (BWh)
Midlatitude Deserts & Semideserts (BWk,
BS)
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Humid Midlatitude Climates
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Mediterranean (Cs)
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Climate Change
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Cold, wet winters & dry, hot summers
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Humid Subtropical (Cfa)
Marine West Coast (Cfb)
Humid Continental (Dfa,Dfb)
The Geography of
Natural Resources
Chapter 5
Steppe
Long cycles
Quicker changes
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Small changes in upper-air wind movements
Volcanic eruptions
Human activity
Resource Terminology
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Renewable resources
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Nonrenewable resources
Resource reserves
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Potentially renewable resources
Proven reserves
14
Nonrenewable Energy
Resources
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Crude Oil
Coal
Natural Gas
Oil Shale & Tar Sands
Nuclear Energy
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Geography & Public Policy
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Which of the following Statements do you agree
with: (from text)
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Do you think Congress should raise CAFÉ
standards?
Should SUV’s and minivans be subject to less
stringent standards than passenger cars?
Do you think SUV’s should be exempt from the Fuel
Standards?
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Fission vs. fusion
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Renewable Energy Resources
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Biomass Fuels
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Wood
Waste
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Dammed Trouble
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Questions in Book
Hydroelectric Power
Solar
Geothermal
Wind
Food Resources
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Geography & Public Policy
Food is plentiful but poorly distributed
worldwide
Shortages can lead to malnutrition, which can
have health, social, and political
consequences
Expansion of cultivated areas
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Most of the planet is not suitable
Much of available land is in tropical rainforest
areas
Food Resources (continued)
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Increasing yields
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Wheat, rice, & corn are key
Improved yields account for most of the gains in
food supply since the 1950s
Increasing yields is more costly
Yields in many irrigated or fertilized areas have
already been maximized
Increasing fish consumption may help solve
widespread protein deficiencies
15
Land Resources
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Resource Management
Soils
Wetlands
Forests
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Environmentally sustainable economies
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Domestic forests
Tropical forests
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Soil erosion cannot exceed formation
Forest destruction cannot exceed regeneration
Species extinction cannot exceed evolution
Fish catches cannot exceed the regenerative
capacity of fisheries
Pollutants cannot exceed the capacity of the
system to absorb them
Population Geography
Population Geography
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Focuses on the number, composition, and
distribution of human beings in relation to
variations in the conditions of earth space.
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Demography: Is the statistical study of human
population, in its concern with spatial
analysis, the relationship of numbers to
areas.
Chapter 6
Population Growth
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Over 6.4 billion people
About 77 million increase per year since 1990
China & India account for 38% of the world’s
population
U.S. to hit 300 million tomorrow @ 7:46 AM
Population Definitions
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Rate
Cohort
Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
Crude Death Rate (mortality rate) (CDR)
Infant Mortality Rate
16
Population Pyramids
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Rapid growth
Stability
Decline
Disrupted growth
Demographic Transition Model
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Western Experience
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Stage 1: High births, high deaths
Stage 2: High births, declining deaths
Stage 3: Declining births, low deaths
Stage 4: Low births, low deaths
(Stage 5: Deaths higher than births)
Growth
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A Divided World Converging
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Demographic Equation
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Regional population change is a function of
natural change (difference between births &
deaths) and net migration (differences
between in-migration and out-migration).
Births – Deaths + Immigration – Emigration =
Population Growth. When this equals out, it is
known as zero population growth.
Rate of natural increase
Doubling times
The population history of Europe is not
necessarily predictive of what will happen in
the developing world
Western technologies, medicines, & public
health lower death rates quicker today than in
the past
Still some areas with very high fertility rates
World Population Distribution
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90% of all people live north of the equator,
2/3 in midlatitudes
A large majority occupies a small part of the
land surface
People congregate in lowland areas
More people live on the continental margins,
near oceans
17
Population Concentrations
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East Asia Cluster
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The relationship between number of
inhabitants and the area they occupy
Crude density
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Physiological density
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Agricultural density
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China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan
South Asia Cluster
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Population Density
India, Bangladesh, Pakistan
Europe
Northeastern United States / SW Canada
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Overpopulation
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A value judgment reflecting an observation or
a conviction that an environment or territory is
unable adequately to support its population.
Overpopulation is a reflection of carrying
capacity
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Can be equated with conditions of life
Accurate & precise data is often difficult to
obtain, but census quality is slowly improving
worldwide
Projections are based on assumptions and
are not forecasts
# of people per unit of arable land
Excludes city population from the physiological
density calculation
Urbanization
The # of people an area can support on a
sustained basis given the prevailing technology
Population Data & Projections
# of people per unit of land
Cities have grown rapidly in the past 50 years
Urban growth raises issues of housing,
sanitation, employment, transportation, etc.
Some of the developing world cities, often
surrounded by concentrations of people living
in uncontrolled settlements, slums, and
shantytowns, are among the most densely
populated areas in the world.
Population Controls
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Malthus / Neo-Malthusians
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Population will outstrip food
Population growth must be controlled
Fertility can be difficult to control
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Cultural preferences for large families
Rejection of Western plans
Belief that technology will provide more food
18
Components of Culture
Cultural Geography
Chapter 7
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Culture is learned, not biological
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Culture traits
Culture complexes
Culture regions
Culture realm
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Interaction of People &
Environment
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Environmental Determinism
Possibilism
Cultural landscapes
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Subsystems of Culture
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The Technological Subsystem
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The Sociological Subsystems
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The Ideological Subsystems
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The earth’s surface as modified by human action
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Culture Change
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Innovation
Spatial Diffusion
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Syncretism
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Amalgamation theory
Assimilation
Artifacts
Sociofacts
Mentifacts
Language
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Language families
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Language spread & change
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Acculturation
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A complexly interlocked web of behaviors
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Indo-European, etc.
Word meaning, pronunciation, vocabulary, &
syntax
Standard & variant languages
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Dialects
19
Language & Culture
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Gender differences
Language as a unifying force
Bilingualism / Multilingualism
Classification of Religions
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Universalizing
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Strong territorial & cultural ties
Judaism, Hinduism, Shinto
Tribal or Traditional
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Dominant in some societies, less so in others
Affects social roles, economics, politics, etc.
Judaism
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Monotheistic
Ethnic religion
Origins in Southwest Asia about 3,000-3,500
years ago
Dispersion after 1st century AD (CE)
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Synagogues are centers of worship
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Known as the Diaspora
Small, ethnic religions
Christianity
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Ethnic
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Seek to transmit beliefs to others
Buddhism, Christianity, Islam
Religion
Origins in Southwest Asia 2,000 years ago
Grounded in Jewish religious beliefs
Universalizing; grew rapidly
Split by dissolution of the Roman Empire
Reformation in the 15th & 16th centuries
Islam
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Judeo-Christian roots
Mohammed lived in the early 7th century in modernday Saudi Arabia
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Islamic calendar begins in 622 AD with the flight to Medina
(Hegira)
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Five Pillars
Koran
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Succession disputes led to Sunni / Shi’ite split
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Worship centered on the mosque
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Should be read in Arabic
Sunnis account for 80-85% of Muslims
20
Hinduism
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Possibly 5,000 years old
1 billion adherents
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80% of Indians
Spread into Southeast Asia
No single creed or doctrine
Caste system
Dharma
A lot of rites, ceremonies, festivals, and gatherings
Temples & shrines are important
Ethnicity
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Refers to the ancestry of people who share
some common characteristic
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Language, religion, race, national origin, customs
Territorial segregation
Buddhism
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Began in the 6th century BC in what is now
northern India
Siddhartha Gautama was the Buddha,
“Enlightened One”
Four noble truths
Universalizing
Spread to Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, China,
Korea, & Japan
Gender & Culture
z
Gender is a social term, not biological
z
Traditional roles changed by industrial
revolution & modern society
z
Greatly affected by culture
Culture Realms
z
Regionally discrete areas that are more alike
internally than they are like other realms
Spatial Interaction
Chapter 8
21
Distance & Spatial Interaction
z
Spatial Interaction
Barriers to Interaction
z
Distance
Cost
Physical environment
Culture
z
Psychological
z
z
z
z
Distance decay
Critical distance
Individual Activity Space
z
z
z
z
z
z
Territoriality
Activity space
Mental Maps
Stage in Life
Mobility
Opportunities
Spatial Interaction &
Technology
z
z
Automobiles
z
Diffusion & Innovation
z
Contagious diffusion
z
Hierarchical diffusion
Migration
z
z
z
Religion, language, gender, political systems
A relocation of both residential environment
and activity space
The decision to migrate
z
Telecommunications
z
z
z
Push factors
Pull factors
Place utility
Migration issues
z
Anti-immigration laws
22
Barriers to Migration
z
z
z
z
z
Physical barriers
Economic barriers
Cost factors
Cultural factors
Political barriers
Patterns of Migration
z
z
z
z
Migration fields
Channelized patterns
Return migration
Hierarchical migration
Globalization
z
z
The increasing interconnection of all parts of the
world
Economic Integration
z
z
z
z
International banking
Transnational corporations (TNCs)
Global marketing
Chapter 9
Political Integration
z
z
z
z
Political Geography
Supranationalism
Nongovernmental organizations
News media & Internet
Cultural Integration
States, Nations, & NationStates
Geographic Characteristics of
States
Political Geography
z
Size
z
z
z
z
State
Nation
Nation-State
z
z
z
Binational or multinational state
Part-nation state
z
Ministates
Shape
z
z
z
z
z
Compact
Elongated
Prorupt
Fragmented
Perforated
z
z
Location
Cores & Capitals
z
z
z
z
z
Core areas
Primate cities
Unitary states
Federal states
Forward-thrust capitals
Stateless nation
23
Boundaries
z
z
z
z
z
z
Natural (physical) boundaries
Artificial (geometric) boundaries
Antecedent boundary
Subsequent boundary
Consequent boundary
Superimposed boundary
Centripetal Forces
z
z
z
z
Nationalism
Unifying Institutions
Organization & Administration
Transportation & Communication
Boundaries as Sources of
Conflict
z
z
z
z
Centrifugal Forces
z
z
z
Supranationalism
z
z
ƒ
ƒ
Territorial Seas
Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ)
High Seas
Economic Alliances
z
z
Law of the Sea
ƒ
Subnationalism
Regionalism
Devolution
Regional Alliances
United Nations (UN)
z
Organized religion
Nationalism
z
z
z
Cooperation Among States
Landlocked states
Waterbodies
Minority-group identification
Resource disputes
z
z
European Union (EU)
NAFTA
ASEAN
Military & Political Alliances
z
z
z
z
NATO
Warsaw Pact
Commonwealth of Nations
Organization of American States (OAS)
24
The Geography of
Representation
z
Electoral geography
Redistricting
z
Gerrymandering
z
z
z
Voting rights & race
Primary activities
z
Secondary activities
z
Tertiary activities
z
Manufacturing
Quaternary activities
z
Quinary activities
z
Processing & dissemination of information
Subsistence economies
z
Commercial economies
z
Planned economies
High-level decision-making jobs
Agriculture
z
z
Services
z
z
Types of Economic Systems
Hunting, gathering, grazing, agriculture, fishing, forestry,
mining
z
z
Chapter 10
Stacked, excess vote, & wasted vote methods
Classification of Economic
Activities
z
Economic Geography
The growing of crops & the tending of
livestock
Subsistence Agriculture
z
Extensive Subsistence Agriculture
z
Nomadic herding
z
Shifting cultivation
z
z
z
Transhumance
Swidden or shifting cultivation
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
z
z
z
Rice farming
Urban farming
Green Revolution gains
25
Commercial Agriculture
z
z
z
z
z
Production Controls
Von Thünen Model
z Land near markets is used intensively for high-value crops & is divided
into small units
z Land far from markets is used extensively
Intensive Commercial Agriculture (Large Investment – Near Market)
z Dairy & truck farms
z Livestock-grain farming
Extensive Commercial Agriculture (Far from Market – Cheap Land)
z Large-scale wheat farming
z Livestock ranching
Special Crops (Climate – Not distance to market)
z Mediterranean
z Plantations
Manufacturing
z
Industrial Location Models
z
z
Least Cost Theory
z Alfred Weber
z Agglomeration
z
z
z
z
Many of the world’s largest economies are
corporations
75 million employees
z
10% of worldwide, nonagrarian employment
Fordist vs. flexible manufacturing
z
Transport Characteristics
Agglomeration Economies
z
Comparative Advantage
z
Fishing & Forestry
Mining & Quarrying
Transnational Corporations
(TNCs)
Other Considerations
z
z
Other Primary Activities
External economies
Geography & Public Policy
Contests and Bribery
z Do you think it is appropriate to spend public
money to attract new employment to your
state or community? Why or why not?
z If yes, what kinds of inducements and what
total amount offered per job seems
appropriate to you?
World Manufacturing Patterns
& Trends
z
Small number of areas dominate
z
z
z
z
Eastern Anglo America
Western & Central Europe
Eastern Europe
Eastern Asia
26
High Tech Patterns
z
z
Tertiary & Beyond
Major factor in employment growth & an
increasing share of industrial output
Regionally concentrated
z
z
Silicon Valley
Location tendencies
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
ƒ
z
z
z
Proximity to universities
Avoidance of areas with strong unions
Locally available venture capital
Areas with favorable quality of life
Good communication & transportation infrastructure
z
Over 80% of all workers in U.S.
Distribution of services must match effective
demand
Tourism an important sector
Quaternary & Quinary increasingly important
Services in World Trade
z
Nearly ¼ of all world trade
z
z
z
Developing countries can benefit
Foreign Direct Investment
The Functions of Urban Areas
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
Urban Geography
Financial, brokerage, & leasing services
Retailing
Wholesaling
Manufacturing
Business Services
Entertainment
Political & Official
Administration
Military Defense Needs
Social & Religious
Service
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
Public Services
Education
Transportation &
Communications
Meeting Places
Recreation
Visitor Services
Residential Areas
Chapter 11
The Location of Urban
Settlements
z
Site
z
Break-in-bulk locations
z
z
River crossings, head-of-navigation locations,
railheads
Situation
27
The Economic Base
z
Basic sector
z
z
z
z
z
Rank-Size Rule
Primate cities
World cities
Urban influence zones
Towns in Agricultural Areas
z
Network cities
z
z
Support the urban area, but do not bring in
outside money
z
z
Multiplier effect
Central Place Theory
z
The Urban Hierarchy
z
Basic/nonbasic ratio
z
z
z
Workers engaged in “export” activities
Nonbasic sector
z
z
Systems of Urban Settlements
Walter Christaller (1933)
A model for helping to explain town
interdependence
Threshold & range
A hierarchy exists of numerous small towns
offering basic goods and services and fewer
large towns offering a wider range of goods
Models of Urban Land
Structure
z
Concentric Zone Model
z
Sector Model
Inside the City
z
z
Competitive bidding for land determines
much of the land use within the city
In general, population density & land values
decrease as distance from the CBD
increases
z
z
Multiple-Nuclei Model
Peak-value intersections
Population densities tend to show a hollow center
Social Areas of Cities
z
City residents, especially in larger, more
complex cities, will often segregate
themselves based on:
z
z
Central Place Theory
z
z
Social status
Family status
Ethnicity
28
Institutional Controls
z
Local & national governments pass laws to
control urban life
z
z
z
z
z
Zoning and other non-market controls
Ambler V’s Euclid 1926
Euclidian Zoning – Segregated use
Exclusionary Zoning
Zoning Out Kids
Suburbanization in the U.S.
z
z
z
z
Metropolitanization & suburbanization after
WWII
Housing developments served as a pull factor
to the suburbs
Industries followed the trend
Suburbs began to rival the power of the
central city
z
Central City Change
z
Constricted central cities
z
z
z
Suburbanization reduced the economic base of
the central city and isolated its residents
Immigration & gentrification have revived many
urban areas
Expanding central cities
z
Cities have expanded automobile linkages to
keep the suburbs within the sphere of the central
city
Edge Cities
World Urban Diversity
z
z
z
z
U.S. & Canadian cities
West European cities
East European cities
Cities in the Developing World
z
z
z
Latin America
Asia
Africa
29