AMERICA
: THE LAST BEST HOPE
CHAPTER 12
An Age More Golden
Then Gilded?
(1877-1897)
Presidential Terms
Rutherford B. Hayes
1877-1881
James A. Garfield
1881
Chester A Arthur
1881-1885
Grover Cleveland
1885-1998
Benjamin Harrison
1889-1893
Grover Cleveland
1893-1897
TEACHER
The fact that the title for this chapter appears in the form a question alerts
the reader to the fact that Dr. Bennett wants to challenge conventional
historical wisdom. This provides an opportunity for teachers to remind
students of the term “historiography,” and that historians vigorously disagree
about the true nature of the past. Here, he argues that the sense that this
was a “gilded age” and an era dominated by corruption and weak leadership
might be more a creation of writers and historians than reality. A theme
throughout is that although there were no presidents in this period that
might be deemed “great,” the nation was nonetheless led by honorable,
capable men. And “Robber Barons” often led companies that in reality
brought goods to people at progressively lower prices. This debate continues
into our own day. Teachers might lead a discussion about the impact of
giant retailers on the economy in their own town. Has their impact been
positive?
That is not to say that Bennett overlooks the corrupt episodes of the era.
He begins with a reference to the Crédit Mobiler scandal that dominated
the building of the transcontinental railroad. Pockets were lined. But he
notes that such corruption was common in many nations as they built rail
networks. And American rail connections came quickly and transformed
the nation. Teachers need to help students understand how dramatically the
railroads did change America as they tied its regions together. What did this
mean to farmers? To the growth of cities? To the ability of industries to sell
their products across the nation? To the spreading of the population west?
Once again, the South stood apart from this transformation. As Bennett
points out, racist policies kept the South impoverished and fewer railroad
lines there kept the region isolated.
The era also witnessed a dramatic increase in industry, initially spurred by
the Civil War. With industrialization came the problems of urban squalor
and poor working conditions. Politically, many cities had “machines”
that stifled dissent and placed only their supporters in political offices.
Economically, giant “trusts” controlled large shares of markets and crushed
competitors. Americans rose up and challenged these situations. “Reform”
became a word on the lips of people from all walks of life.
Citizens saw civil service reform as a way to award federal government
jobs based on merit (as measured by performance on a civil service exam),
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rather than political connections. Teachers can use this moment to remind
students of the “spoils system” that was the practice of the day (and which
some date to the Jackson administration). President Hayes pushed for this
reform, but met resistance. The fact that President Garfield was shot by a
disappointed office seeker probably led Congress to finally pass a civil service
reform bill that was signed by his successor, President Arthur. To this day,
government positions are awarded on a mixture of patronage (political
connections) and merit.
Another issue that appears several times in this chapter is the Chinese
Exclusion Act. Vetoed by Hayes, it was signed by Arthur and renewed by
Cleveland. Teachers can remind students of the important role Chinese
laborers played in building the transcontinental railroad. As their numbers
grew, white Americans resented their willingness to work for low wages (thus
keeping all wages low) and demanded an end to their entry. This mixture of
racism and economic concern reflects arguments about immigration across
our southern border today.
Photo 1: Helen Hunt Jackson, author of
A Century of Dishonor
Grover Cleveland brought the Democrats back to the White House for
the first time in 24 years and went on to serve two non-consecutive terms.
His willingness to speak the truth about his illegitimate child will be of
interest to students in our own age of political “spin.” Also worthy of
class discussion is how the infamous “Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion”
quote helped Cleveland win election. It certainly shows that there was
discrimination against recent immigrants in eastern cities, just as there was
against the Chinese on the west coast.
During this period, farmers began to voice their concerns through a political
movement that began with the Grange and culminated in the People’s
(Populist) Party. Farmers were in a difficult position. Their backbreaking
labor and better methods produced greater crops. Their willingness to
go into debt to buy new machinery increased yields even more. But
unlike other occupations, they were penalized for their success. It meant
overproduction and lower prices, something over which they had no
control. The call for greenbacks and free silver may be hard for students to
understand. Both were a challenge to the system of basing money only on
gold. Either issuing greenbacks (not based on gold) or adding silver to the
money supply increased the amount of money in circulation and thus caused
inflation. We fear inflation today, but farmers then welcomed it. It meant
higher prices for their crops and since they were perennially in debt, it meant
their debts could be paid off more quickly.
Farmers and other ordinary Americans feared the growing power of trusts
AMERICA
: THE LAST BEST HOPE
TEACHER
during this period. Teachers will need to explain to students what a trust
was. It normally was an arrangement that operated multiple companies as
one entity, thus eliminating the lifeblood of a free market – competition.
As Bennett points out, these trusts often brought efficiency and lower
prices to consumers, but their methods could also be ruthless in driving out
smaller competitors. The author mentions Rockefeller’s Standard Oil in this
context. Students may want to research the details of Rockefeller’s practices.
Consumers feared that if huge unethical trusts dominated industries, they
would be at their mercy and would lose the benefits brought by many
separate companies competing for their business.
Photo 2: Chief Sitting Bull
(National Archives)
The author’s fascinating story of the origins of one of our most enduring
symbols, the Statue of Liberty, brings the reader back to the topic of
immigration. A gripping passage is Bennett’s contrast of the sentiments
in the poem by Emma Lazarus with our nation’s treatment of immigrants
during this period and beyond. He notes our tendency to see certain
immigrants as undesirable – people who time and time again in our history
have gone on to enrich our culture greatly. His reference to “vulgarized
Social Darwinism” might merit further investigation by classes. Teachers
can help students see the tragedies that lay ahead for the world based on
this philosophy that certain races are more “fit” than others. But despite the
shortcomings he points out, Bennett makes the crucial point that this nation
has exceeded all others in welcoming people from all corners of the globe.
Teachers might begin the section on the West with a discussion of the
subtitle: “Winning the West.” Looking at the story from the perspective of
the Indians of the region would merit another subtitle. Bennett certainly
does shares their perspective with the second Philip Sheridan quote and
the selection from the writings of Helen Hunt Jackson. Good people
from the period tried to find peaceful solutions but failed. Students can
discuss whether any course of action might have brought peace. The Dawes
Act attempted to break up tribal lands into individual Indian holdings
for farming. As Bennett points out, this effort failed, and it represents
the vacillating Indian policy of the federal government, varying between
encouraging assimilation and honoring tribal traditions and ways. Students
might survey contemporary issues facing these same tribes. In Bennett’s
description of the incident at Wounded Knee, he mentions the Ghost
Dancing phenomenon. This religious movement taught that the dance
would result in the miraculous removal of all white people and the return
of the buffalo, thus reflecting the desperate hopes of the Plains Indians to
hold onto their way of life. This violent period is one of the darker moments
in our history. Bennett argues that both sides committed unspeakable
massacres. But despite these tragedies, as Americans settled the West, a part
AMERICA
: THE LAST BEST HOPE
TEACHER
of the national character was born. Bennett’s story of Theodore Roosevelt’s
time in the region illustrates this. Teachers might expand on this story
to discuss Frederick Jackson Turner’s thesis on how the frontier created a
uniquely American culture.
The chapter then goes on to relate how various Americans responded to
the great questions and problems of the day. The inspirational story of
Jane Addams reflects the growing social gospel – a belief that faith calls
a person to think not just about getting to heaven, but toward creating
God’s justice in the here and now. Congress passed reform laws to curb
the power of giant trusts. But students should read carefully the language
Bennett includes from the Sherman Anti-Trust Act and reflect on how
it could be used by the courts against unions on strike. Could that have
been its intent? Politicians fought over the tariff. Does a high tariff help
corporations, or workers or both? Or does it cut off trade and hurt our total
economy? Americans have struggled with the tariff question throughout our
history. And workers bonded together in more and more unions to protest
inhumane working conditions. A central question raised by Bennett’s
account is why unions here, by and large, did not turn to socialism, as did
the labor movement in Europe? The incredible number and violence of
strikes from this period will be shocking to students. Today, the American
labor movement seems to be in decline. What is the difference between that
period and our own that would account for this?
The 1896 presidential election took place in the midst of these questions and
in the middle of a painful depression. It produced William Jennings Bryan,
one of the most colorful candidates in American history. He was a threetime loser in races for the White House, and students might discuss what
Americans continued to find compelling about him. His quote about farms
and cities that Bennett includes could be used to ask students about the
relationship between urban and rural American today. Are Bryan’s words
still true; despite the fact only 1% of us are full-time farmers? Also in this
campaign we see the impact of corporate cash on an election – in this case
favoring McKinley’s “front porch” campaign. We still struggle with how to
fairly prevent money from corrupting our political process.
The closing of the chapter is a fascinating account of Dvorák’s Symphony
No. 9. Students interested in music might even be asked by teachers to play
a recording of this piece in class and break it down for their peers. Bennett
connects Dvorák’s masterpiece to the American theme of the “melting pot.”
What does the melting pot mean to students? Some contemporary thinkers
have said a better direction for America is to become a “salad bowl” – still
a beautiful and delicious mixture of different items, but one in which each
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: THE LAST BEST HOPE
TEACHER
item maintains its unique identity. Melting pot or salad bowl – which
option makes for a healthier America?