1
Contents
Introduction, 4
1. An Overview of the Manus Literacy Program and How It Is Unique, 6
2. A Summary of the Educational Research on Teaching Phonemic Awareness, 11
3. The Manus Approach to Teaching Phonemic Awareness, 14
4. A Summary of the Educational Research on Teaching Word Recognition, 19
5. The Manus Approach to Teaching Word Recognition, 22
6. A Summary of the Educational Research on Teaching Reading Fluency, 30
7. The Manus Approach to Teaching Reading Fluency, 32
8. A Summary of the Educational Research on Teaching Spelling, 38
9. The Manus Approach to Teaching Spelling, 42
10. A Summary of the Educational Research on Teaching Grammar, 52
11. The Manus Approach to Teaching Grammar, Usage and Writing Mechanics, 58
12. A Summary of the Educational Research on Teaching Vocabulary, 68
13. The Manus Approach to Teaching Vocabulary, 70
14. A Summary of the Educational Research on Teaching Reading Comprehension, 93
15. The Manus Approach to Teaching Reading Comprehension, 96
16. A Summary of the Educational Research on Writing Instruction, 111
17. The Manus Approach to Writing Instruction, 115
18. Customizing Instruction to Meet Each Student’s Specific Learning Needs, 129
2
3
Introduction
Over the last four decades (the 1980’s and 90’s in particular), an increasing number of
educational researchers have been devoting their efforts to understanding the phenomena of
learning to read, spell and write and why some students have trouble acquiring these skills. From
this knowledge, some core principles have arisen on how to best teach students, particularly
those with learning disabilities and other academic barriers.
This information is much needed and welcome. As a nation, we are facing serious obstacles in
trying to teach our students to become sufficiently literate so they can fully function as members
of society. Here are some startling statistics collected and published by various branches of the
United States federal government:
• about 21% to 23% of adults cannot read well enough to perform even basic reading tasks,
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
such as reading simple directions or menus (National Adult Literacy Survey, 1993)
another 25% to 28% can read a little more, but still not enough to fully understand the
content in newspapers, manuals and other reading materials
these two groups make up approximately half of the adult population in the United States
many of the adults in the above two groups perceive that they read well or well enough
only about 15% of adults have achieved a literacy level equivalent to that of a college
undergraduate
the average American reads at a 7th or 8th-grade level (the level at which most product
information, manuals and newspaper articles are written)
about 67% of our nation’s fourth-grade students are not proficient in reading (Nations
Report Card, 2009)
about 70% of our nation’s eighth-grade students are not proficient in reading
somewhere between 5% and 10% of students have reading disabilities, or dyslexia
as many girls have reading disabilities as boys, although boys tend to be identified more
often
reading disabilities affect children from all socioeconomic classes
These statistics suggest that learning to read is the exception and not learning to read well is the
norm. This poses a problem for democratic societies that need a literate populace.
Concerned about the problem of illiteracy in the United States and spurred by a request from
Congress, the director of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
(NICHD) in the late 1990’s set up the National Reading Panel (NRP) to evaluate the body of
reading research and determine what approaches were most effective in teaching students to
read, including those with reading disabilities.
The NRP began its examination by establishing criteria for effective and reliable research. These
criteria include those followed by other scientific disciplines, such as medical, environmental and
physical science. Here is the list of the core requirements:
4
• Researchers must follow the scientific method, or sequence for investigating phenomena.
• The results of research must be replicated by at least three other studies that arrive at the
same results and the results must make sense in light of other similar research.
• The design and execution of the research must be rigorously reviewed by peers.
• The findings of a body of research must be studied over a sufficiently long period before
they are generally accepted.
Using this set of criteria, the National Reading Panel examined public databases and discovered
over 100,000 published research studies on reading since 1966. Of these studies, a sufficient, but
much smaller number of them met the panel’s criteria for being included in their meta-analysis
study of reading.
The panel also analyzed the results from another large-scale review of reading research, Preventing
Reading Difficulties in Young Children (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). This work was published
under the auspices of the National Research Council (working under the National Academy of
Sciences).
This book, The Research on Effective Reading and Writing Instruction and the Manus Literacy Program, sets
out to show the link between what research tells us about how to teach literacy skills and the
Manus Literacy Program. Specifically, its purpose is to:
• summarize the National Reading Panel’s findings on effective approaches for teaching
phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension
• summarize the findings of other researchers, particularly in the other areas of literacy, such
as spelling, grammar, sentence comprehension and written expression
• describe and illustrate how the Manus Literacy Program incorporates these findings into its
instructional methods and curricula
• describe a simple way for teachers and students to collect their own data to determine if each
student’s instructional program is effective and how to make adjustments to it when needed
Using this set of criteria, the National Reading Panel examined public databases and discovered
over 100,000 published research studies on reading since 1966. Of these studies, a sufficient, but
much smaller, number of them met the panel’s criteria for being included in their meta-analysis
study of reading.
The panel also analyzed the results from another large-scale review of reading research, Preventing
Reading Difficulties in Young Children (Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998). This work was published
under the auspices of the National Research Council (working under the National Academy of
Sciences).
This book sets out to show the link between what research tells us about how to teach literacy
skills and the Manus Literacy Program. Specifically, its purpose is to:
5
1. An Overview of the Manus Literacy
Program and How It Is Unique
OVERVIEW
The Skills Covered
The Manus Literacy Program is a research-based program that uses a direct instruction approach
to train students to develop these core literacy skills: a) phonemic awareness; b) word
recognition and fluency; c) spelling; d) grammar, usage, punctuation and phrasing; e) vocabulary;
f) reading comprehension; and g) written expression. It consists of teacher-training manuals and
inter-related practice packs. When used as a system, students learn to:
read fluently
spell words both phonetically and by visual recall
understand how words function and are combined into units of meaning
correctly use verbs, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs
apply the rules for capitalizing and punctuating
understand and use elevated but high-frequency vocabulary words
understand expository texts, such as social studies and science passages
understand literature, such as short stories, novels, dramas, folklore, nonfiction and poetry
write paragraphs, letters, invitations, five-paragraph essays, article summaries, book reports,
literary essays and research reports
The Manus Literacy Program has been developed, tested and refined for over a period of thirty
years and is based on the findings from both current and past research. It is also based on
extensive data that Rosanne Manus and her staff have collected from their own students for
over three decades. This process has yielded an effective teaching approach and set of
instructional materials that increase students’ ability to read, write, listen and speak.
The Instructional Materials
Here are the titles of the teacher-training manuals:
How to Teach Reading and Spelling
How to Teach Grammar, Usage and Writing Mechanics
How to Teach Vocabulary
How to Teach Reading Comprehension
How to Teach Written Expression
Each of the manuals contains research-based explanations of these key topics: a) what it takes to
learn the given skill well; b) why some students have trouble learning the skill; and c) how best to
teach the skill to students with diverse learning needs. It continues with a step-by-step training
program for delivering effective instruction using the materials in the Manus Literacy Program.
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Here are the titles of the student training materials, or practice packs:
Reading and Spelling
Phonemic Awareness
Phonics, Levels 1-4
Sight Words, Levels 1 and 2
Multi-Syllable Words
Reading with Rhythm, Levels 1-4
Spelling Sprints, Levels 1-4
Personal Spelling Log
Grammar, Usage and Writing Mechanics
Grammar, Usage and Writing Mechanics, Grades 1-8 (one practice pack per grade level)
Grammar, Usage and Writing Mechanics, Grades 9-12 (a single practice pack)
Vocabulary
Vocabulary, Grades 4-12 (one practice pack per grade level)
Reading Comprehension
about fifty guided analyses (practice packs) for selected stories, nonfiction texts and novels
from first through twelfth grade
Poetry, Grades 1-2, 3-4, 5-8 and 9-12
Short Stories, Grades 6-8 and 9-12
Nonfiction, Grades 6-8 and 9-12
Guided Outlines for Understanding and Writing about Literature
The Characteristics and Elements of Fiction and Nonfiction
Written Expression
Writing Paragraphs and Letters, Grade 1, Grade 2 and Grade 3
Writing Paragraphs, Grades 4-6
Writing Five-Paragraph Essays, Grades 5-8
Writing Mini Research Reports on Science Topics, Grades 4-6
Writing Mini Research Reports on Social Studies Topics, Grades 4-6
Writing Multi-Page Research Reports, Grades 6-9
HOW THE MANUS LITERACY PROGRAM IS UNIQUE
The Manus Literacy Program is more than just a set of teaching materials and procedures. It is
an in-depth process – one that enables educators to deliver effective instruction to students with
varying needs.
Specifically, this process enables educators to:
a) understand each student’s strengths and weaknesses in the areas of literacy
b) identify and manage any academic barriers that might compromise the student’s ability to
respond to instruction
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c) customize instruction so the student learns well with reasonable effort
d) measure the student’s progress and adjust the instructional program, as needed, throughout
the school year
e) communicate this progress clearly to others and collaborate with other school staff who are
working with the same student
The Manus Literacy Program is also unique in its capabilities. It has the components necessary
to guide every teacher through the process and perform his or her role well. Here are some of
the distinguishing factors:
Scope
The Manus Literacy Program is more comprehensive than other literacy programs. In addition
to teaching students to read and spell, it trains them in receptive and expressive language skills
(as needed); grammar, usage and writing mechanics; vocabulary; literature; and written
expression. Research shows that learning each of these skills is essential in helping students
become fully literate.
The Manus Literacy Program has a broader scope than other literacy programs in the sense that
the learning objectives are broken into much smaller and hierarchically arranged steps with
numerous practice exercises and cumulative reviews following the steps. These capabilities
ensure that students make easy transitions from one skill to the next, integrate all skills learned
up to that point in instruction and truly master the skills, or perform them quickly and easily.
Ease of Implementation
The teaching materials are tightly structured and take the guesswork out of how to teach
effectively. Teachers can easily follow the process of guided instruction by simply turning the
page in their copy of the students’ materials and following the directions. Students are also
prompted to use effective strategies to complete the practice exercises so they learn, remember
and integrate the skills well.
The ongoing guidelines and prompts also allow teachers to delegate certain parts of the
instruction to tutors and volunteers, who can help instruct students needing intensive small
group or one-on-one training.
The program comes with self-instructional teacher-training manuals and checklists for examining
each student’s response to instruction. These checklists help teachers understand why some
students are not responding satisfactorily to their instruction and how they can adjust the
program to make it more effective.
Intensity
The more correct responses a student yields in a given period, the faster is his or her progress.
Every strategy and design element in the Manus Literacy Program promotes a maximum number
of correct responses. Teachers follow clearly defined guidelines to determine where a student is
on the mastery continuum and they adjust the level of difficulty, as needed.
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They also chart and graph each student’s practice to ensure that he or she is practicing enough to
make good progress. If the student achieves the desired practice goals each week and month, the
teacher and student continue the current instructional program. If the student does not achieve
the practice goals, the teacher examines the data to determine what is preventing this from
occurring and, again, makes program adjustments so the student meets these goals.
Teachers’ Training and Skill Level
Research clearly indicates that an individual teacher’s skill affects students’ progress more than
any other variable. For a literacy program to be effective, therefore, teachers must be well trained
to deliver instruction, particularly to students with learning barriers.
Teachers following the Manus Literacy Program learn:
the scope and sequence of all the literacy skills
what it takes to learn each skill well
why some students have trouble learning the skills
how to facilitate learning
how to accommodate students’ learning barriers so they do not interfere too much with
learning
how to follow a monitoring process to ensure that their lessons are always as effective as
possible
how to effectively communicate students’ progress with parents, other teachers, the students
themselves and with educational specialists they may call upon for additional testing or
support.
Intended for Students with a Broad Range of Skills
Most literacy programs cannot meet the needs of both students who learn well and students who
struggle. The Manus Literacy Program can. Through its teacher-training program and
instructional process, teachers can use the same set of curricula for students with a wide range of
skills and abilities. Teachers adjust different elements of the instructional program to fit the
needs of individual students. These factors include:
The environment in which teachers deliver instruction – Research indicates that the majority of students
can respond well to sound instruction delivered in a regular education classroom. A smaller
percentage, perhaps fifteen percent or so, depending on the school, need a moderate amount of
additional instruction delivered in small groups. An even smaller number, around five percent
possibly, need intensive and long-term instruction to reach their academic potentials.
Following the Manus training programs and academic process, regular and special education
teachers and support staff can fully and expediently collaborate with each other to identify those
students who may need the accommodation of an adjusted learning environment.
Accommodations – Accommodations involve changing certain environmental conditions so
students learn well despite their barriers. Accommodations do not directly target the barriers;
they help students by-pass them. Accommodations include: small class size, low student-teacher
ratio, relatively quiet classrooms, frequent teacher prompts, adjusted schedules, oral tests, audio
books, guided outlines and opportunities to move when restless. The Manus academic process
9
helps educators identify those students who may benefit from certain accommodations and
deliver them.
Teaching strategies – While the students’ learning environment and accommodations are factors
that educators can manipulate to improve students ability to learn despite their barriers, the
Manus teaching strategies facilitate learning.
The last several decades of educational research have yielded a wealth of information on
effective teaching practices. The Manus Literacy Program is structured in a way that teachers
automatically and continuously use these practices. As mentioned earlier, this program follows a
direct instruction approach that research indicates is highly effective, particularly when teaching
basic skills, such as those involved in literacy and math.
One strategy within this approach, for example, is selecting goals and objectives that students
can learn with reasonable effort. For instance, when establishing starting points of instruction for a
student with reading delays, teachers begin instruction at the level at which the student can
correctly read the targeted words approximately 85% to 90% of the time and at relatively fluent
speeds.
Starting at “medium-easy” levels ensures that students practice the skills both extensively and
intensively and achieve set goals with reasonable effort. When students begin work at the
appropriate levels, they master successive skills quickly. They waste little to no time being
confused or having to relearn skills they keep forgetting.
In summary, the Manus Literacy Program is unique in its process and capabilities, which allow
educators to collaborate efficiently with each other and follow the same effective system for
delivering instruction to all students.
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2. A Summary of the Educational
Research on Teaching
Phonemic Awareness
WHAT IS PHONEMIC AWARENESS?
Phonemic awareness is the awareness of, or sensitivity to, individual sounds in spoken language.
It’s the understanding that words are composites of individual sounds blended. The word sun,
for instance, is made of the sounds /s/, /ŭ/ and /n./ Lock is comprised of the sounds /l/, /ŏ/,
/k/. Students with well-developed phonemic awareness can manipulate these sounds easily. For
instance, they can isolate and say each sound in the word rack (e.g., /r/, /ă/, /k/) or blend /s/,
/t/, /ŏ/, /p/ into the word stop.
WHY IS PHONEMIC AWARENESS IMPORTANT TO READING?
The last few decades of reading research clearly indicate that a major cause of reading failure is
poor phonemic awareness. (This discovery has been backed by research that shows how poor
readers tend to show less activation in the areas of the brain responsible for processing speech
sounds than strong readers.) Poor phonemic awareness delays acquisition of reading skills, while
strong phonemic awareness contributes to reading success.
Most people, even those with poor phonemic awareness, can accurately perceive the forty-four
speech sounds in isolation. Their problems occur when these sounds are co-articulated, or
rapidly blended within words. They can perceive the sounds within certain blends, but
misperceive these same ones in other blends. Read these words aloud and notice how each
underlined phoneme gains or loses its distinction when blended with certain other sounds.
The phoneme /p/ – pat, cap clamp, gulping
The phoneme /t/ – top, cat, bent, latter, Italy
The phoneme /n/ – not, ton, send, lentil, sensitive
The phoneme /r/ – red, burnt, wordy, worldly
When these phonemes begin words, they are easy to perceive. They sound more subtle when
they are in the middle or at the ends of words. They sound even more subtle when they follow
or precede certain letters. For example, the /p/ sound loses some of its distinction when it
follows the /l/ (gulp). The /n/ sound loses some of its distinction when it precedes the /d/ or
/t/ sound (send, lentil).
Students who cannot easily perceive the differences among co-articulated sounds will have
trouble associating letters with these sounds, an essential skill for reading and spelling. For
instance, if they cannot clearly distinguish the sounds of /p/ and /b/ as they end words, they
will have trouble reading words, such as tapping and tabbing. If “al” sounds like “ow,” they’ll have
trouble reading such words as pal, pow, Cal and cow. If they can’t clearly discern the /n/ when it
11
precedes the /d/ or /t/, they may have trouble learning to read words like blend or tent. If they
can’t clearly discern the schwas, or indeterminate vowel sounds in unstressed syllables, they will
have trouble reading many words of two or more syllables which often contain schwas (e.g.,
develop, institute, apocalyptical).
Phonemic awareness training alone won’t guarantee reading success. Readers must still learn the
letter-sound associations (phonics) and develop their reading fluency, vocabulary and reading
comprehension skills. A good phonemic awareness foundation, however, is necessary if students
are to have any chance at all. Lack of it leads to reading problems. Some students enter school
with strong sound awareness and others do not. Students with weak phonemic awareness need
direct training in this skill.
THE RESEARCH
The research indicates that:
• Programs that systematically teach students to develop phonemic awareness by manipulating
phonemes, or speech sounds, are more effective in improving children’s reading and spelling
than programs that do not directly teach phonemic awareness.
• Phonemic awareness training benefits all students, including preschoolers, kindergartners
and first graders, students from different socioeconomic levels and students who read well
and do not read well.
• Phonemic awareness training has lasting effects on the acquisition of reading skills. It
provides students with a foundation for learning the alphabetic system, or the system of
matching sounds to letters that make up words.
• Phonemic awareness training is an integral part of a broader reading program that includes
training in phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension.
• Teachers can use many different strategies to teach phonemic awareness. There is no single
correct way.
• Some students need considerably more phonemic awareness training than others. Teachers
should assess students’ levels of phonemic awareness and customize instruction to fit their
needs.
• According to the National Institute for Literacy, which drew much of its report, “Teaching
Children to Read,” from the National Reading Panel’s report in 2000, students tend to
benefit most from phonemic awareness instruction when they manipulate these phonemes
as they also match them to letters. In other words, they respond well when they practice
phonemic awareness exercises in their phonics lessons. This combined approach helps
students understand the relationship between sounds and the letters that represent them.
• Also according to the National Institute for Literacy, students tend to benefit the most from
phonemic awareness lessons that focus on one or two kinds of sound manipulations at a
Time, rather than on numerous ones simultaneously. For instance, students may benefit
more from just segmenting and blending sounds than from segmenting, blending, deleting,
substituting and adding them.
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SOURCES
Ball, E. W., & Blachman, B. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten make a
difference in early word recognition and developmental spelling? Reading Research Quarterly, 26,
49-66.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P.E. (1983, February 3). Categorizing sounds and learning to read: A
causal connection. Nature, p. 419.
Consortium on Reading Excellence, Inc. (1999). Reading Research Anthology: The Why? of Reading
Instruction. Novato, CA: Arena Press.
Consortium on Reading Excellence, Inc. (2000). Teaching Reading Sourcebook. Novato, CA: Arena
Press.
Consortium on Reading Excellence, Inc. (1999). Assessing Reading: Multiple Measures. Novato, CA:
Arena Press.
Kamil, M.L., Mosenthal, P.B., Pearson, P.D. and Barr, R. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of Reading
Research, vol. III. Mahweh, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Levine, M. (2001). Educational Care: A System for Understanding and Helping Children with Learning
Problems at Home and in School, 2nd Ed. Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service, Inc.
Lundberg, I., Frost, J. & Petersen, O. (1988). Effects of an extensive program for stimulating
phonological awareness in preschool children. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 263-285.
National Reading Panel. (2000). “Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of
the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction.”
National Institutes of Health Publication. No. 00-4769.
Pohlman, C. (2008). Revealing Minds: Assessing to Understand and Support Struggling Learners. San
Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.
Shaywitz, S. (2008). Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-Based Program for Reading
Problems at Any Level. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Snow, C.E., Burns, S.B. and Griffin, P. (Eds.) (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young
Children. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Snowling, M. (1995). Dyslexia: A Cognitive Developmental Perspective. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Stahl, S., & Murray, B. A. (1994). Defining phonological awareness and its relationship to early
reading. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 221-234.
Swanson, H.L., Harris, K.R. and Graham, S. (Eds.) (2003). Handbook of Learning Disabilities. New
York: The Guilford Press.
Troia, G. (1999). Phonological awareness intervention research: A critical review of the
experimental methodology. Reading Research Quarterly, 34, 28-53.
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3. The Manus Approach to Teaching
Phonemic Awareness
Teachers can build students’ phonemic awareness in one of two ways using the Manus
Curriculums materials. Teachers of pre-school students and kindergarten students, who are just
learning to read, can follow the exercises and suggested activities in the practice pack Phonemic
Awareness for ten to fifteen minutes a day. Teachers of students learning to read and of those
who have reading delays can incorporate phonemic awareness training into their word
recognition and spelling instruction.
The practice pack Phonemic Awareness trains students to rapidly perceive and articulate speech
sounds through a variety of exercises. Students identify, add, delete, blend and substitute given
sounds and break apart words into individual sounds. They begin with relatively easy exercises in
which they handle chunks of sounds like words and syllables. As they progress, they learn to
manipulate individual phonemes, especially the challenging, co-articulated sounds discussed
earlier. Instruction is systematic. Students practice the two to three skills in each lesson until they
have mastered them, completing as many practice trials as they need. When they respond quickly
and with a high degree of accuracy, they proceed to the next lesson.
Beginning on the next page are sample practice pages from the Phonemic Awareness practice pack.
14
Lesson 5 – Day 1
Blends Syllables
Directions: I will say two syllables. You put these syllables together to make a whole word.
Let’s practice the first exercise together. “Un-der.” (You and the student say, “under.”)
___ 1.
un
der
___ 14.
help
ful
___ 2.
be
gin
___ 15.
to
___ 3.
be
low
___ 16.
for bid
___ 4.
af
ter
___ 17.
re
___ 5.
be
hind
___ 18.
vel vet
___ 6.
don
key
___ 19.
Jor dan
___ 7.
win
ter
___ 20.
ti
___ 8.
sum
mer
___ 21.
cab in
___ 9.
in
stead
___ 22.
cof fee
___ 10.
sim
ple
___ 23.
o
ver
___ 11.
re
ply
___ 24.
a
bove
___ 12.
hun
dred
___ 25.
a
bout
___ 13.
num
ber
___ 26.
a
round
day
turn
ger
Deletes Syllables from Words
Directions: I will say a word and ask you to repeat it without one of its parts. Let’s do a few
exercises together. Say “began.” Say it again but don’t say “gan.” (Both of you say “be.”)
___ 27.
began
gan
___ 42.
explain
ex
___ 28.
clothing
clo
___ 43.
dolphin
dol
___ 29.
laughter
ter
___ 44.
pouring
ing
___ 30.
apron
a
___ 45.
worker
er
___ 31.
Jacob
Ja
___ 46.
painted
paint
___ 32.
Susan
Su
___ 47.
careful
care
___ 33.
Whitney
Whit
___ 48.
useless
less
___ 34.
Katie
Ka
___ 49.
crying
cry
___ 35.
Benjamin
Ben
___ 50.
handle
han
___ 36.
starling
ling
___ 51.
chewing
ing
___ 37.
instead
in
___ 52.
children
chil
___ 38.
certain
tain
___ 53.
lying
ing
___ 39.
bargain
bar
___ 54.
soda
da
___ 40.
report
port
___ 55.
cookie
ie
___ 41.
Friday
day
___ 56.
perfume
per
15
Lesson 8 – Day 1
Deletes Sounds from Words
Directions: I will say a word and you repeat it. Then I will ask you to repeat it without one of
its sounds. Let’s do a few words together. Say “jam.” Say it again but don’t say “j.” (You and
the student say “am.”)
___ 1.
jam
j
___ 11.
nab
n
___ 21.
chop
op
___ 2.
hit
h
___ 12.
sell
s
___ 22.
ship
ip
___ 3.
gal
g
___ 13.
hear
h
___ 23.
chill
ill
___ 4.
pot
p
___ 14.
bear
b
___ 24.
stop
s
___ 5.
Ted
T
___ 15.
chair
ch
___ 25.
stop
p
___ 6.
ham
h
___ 16.
chore
ch
___ 26.
spit
s
___ 7.
lag
l
___ 17.
cut
c
___ 27.
spit
t
___ 8.
log
l
___ 18.
book
b
___ 28.
strap
p
___ 9.
bell
b
___ 19.
cow
ow
___ 29.
strip
s
___ 10.
will
w
___ 20.
cry
c
___ 30.
chip
p
Breaks Words into Separate Sounds
Directions: I’ll say a word. You tell me each sound you hear in the word. Let’s do a few
exercises together. Tell me the sounds in “at.” (You and the student say /ă/, /t/. For students
needing extra help, show them how to use a different colored block to represent each sound
in the word. For instance, as they sound out “gap,” they pull one block forward as they say
/g/, another block forward as they say /ă/ and a third block forward as they say /p/.)
___ 31.
at
___ 46.
on
___ 61.
by
___ 32.
it
___ 47.
no
___ 62.
fee
___ 33.
add
___ 48.
now
___ 63.
shy
___ 34.
Ed
___ 49.
how
___ 64.
chew
___ 35.
off
___ 50.
who
___ 65.
if
___ 36.
of
___ 51.
why
___ 66.
ill
___ 37.
up
___ 52.
see
___ 67.
all
___ 38.
in
___ 53.
as
___ 68.
new
___ 39.
am
___ 54.
ax
___ 69.
sew
___ 40.
Al
___ 55.
ox
___ 70.
Joe
___ 41.
so
___ 56.
is
___ 71.
to
___ 42.
be
___ 57.
us
___ 72.
low
___ 43.
my
___ 58.
do
___ 73.
shore
___ 44.
me
___ 59.
shoe
___ 74.
chore
___ 45.
go
___ 60.
hoe
___ 75.
show
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Because of its crucial role in reading and spelling development, phonemic awareness training is
integrated into the practice packs for phonics, sight words, multi-syllable words and the Spelling
Sprints program, a program that focuses on spelling high-use words for everyday writing.
Teachers begin the reading lessons with one or two minutes of phonemic awareness exercises,
using the words or word parts on the practice pages. These exercises promote phonemic
awareness and help teachers identify any sounds students may have trouble perceiving within the
words they are about to learn. Teachers may use any combination of the prescribed phonemic
awareness exercises. The exercises of blending and segmenting sounds within the targeted words
are particularly useful.
Here is a sample lesson showing how a teacher might begin the reading lesson with phonemic
awareness exercises.
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
(Has student blend sounds within words.) Let’s practice the sounds in these words you’re
about to read. /R/, /ĕ/, /d/. What word did I say?
Red.
Good. /T/, /ĕ/, /n/. What word did I say?
Ten.
Good listening. /T/, /ĕ/, /x/ . . . /p/, /ĕ/, /t/ . . . /l/, /ĕ/, /d/.
(Points to the word “wed” on the reading list.) This word is “wed.” Say each sound in it.
/W/, /ĕ/, /d/.
Excellent. “Hen . . . Rex . . . pet . . .”
(Does not correctly separate the sounds in “bed.” Says “bet” instead, indicating confusion with the
/d/ and /t/ sounds.)
(Points to the word, “bed.”) The sounds in “bed” are /b/, / ĕ /, /d/. (Teacher heavily
enunciates the /d/ sound.) What are the sounds in “bed”?
/B/, /ĕ/, /d/.
That’s right. Say “bet.”
Bet.
Say each sound in “bet.”
/B/, /ĕ/, /t/.
(Gives student a little more practice in discriminating between the /d/ and /t/ sounds.) That’s
right. Say each sound in “bed” . . . “red” . . . “ret” . . . “let” . . . “led.”
17
Here is a sample practice page showing how phonemic awareness training is integrated into the
spelling exercises of a phonics practice pack. As students say and tap each sound within the
words or word parts, they isolate it, which improves their phonemic perception.
Lesson 2 – Words with Short O
Reads and Spells Short o/Consonant Combinations
Vowel Fill-Ins
Directions: Write the vowel above on the lines below. Next, say and tap each
sound. Then say the sounds together.
o
i
a
e
1.
____ b
5.
____ p
9.
____ n
13.
____ t
2.
____ d
6.
____ t
10. ____ m
14.
____ g
3.
____ s
7.
____ g
11. ____ d
15.
____ p
4.
____ p
8.
____ l
12. ____ f
16.
____ n
More Vowel Fill-Ins
Directions: Write the vowel above on the lines below. Next, say and tap the
sound of each letter in the word. Then read the word aloud.
o
i
e
o
17. c ____ t
21. r ____ d
25. t ____ n
29. D ____ n
18. n ____ t
22. d ____ n
26. h ____ m
30. p ____ t
19. l ____ t
23. t ____ n
27. J ____ n
31. t ____ t
20. j ____ t
24. p ____ n
28. z ____ m
32. c ____ d
Word Dictation
Directions: Your teacher will say some words. Repeat each word, tap the sounds
in it then write it.
33. ___________
38. ___________
43. ___________
48. ___________
34. ___________
39. ___________
44. ___________
49. ___________
35. ___________
40. ___________
45. ___________
50. ___________
36. ___________
41. ___________
46. ___________
51. ___________
37. ___________
42. ___________
47. ___________
52. ___________
18
4. A Summary of the Educational
Research on Teaching
Word Recognition
WHAT IS WORD RECOGNITION SKILL?
Word recognition skill is the ability to instantly recognize and say words. It includes reading
words phonetically, even when the words have irregular spellings (e.g., the letters s-a-i-d for the
sounds /s/, /ĕ/, /d/) and reading multi-syllable words by dividing them into syllables, decoding
each syllable then blending these syllables back into the whole word.
Learning to read begins with learning the alphabetic principle. The alphabetic principle is the
idea that our written language is comprised of letters that represent sounds. The letter b, for
instance, says /b/ and the letter p says /p/ (a popping sound of the lips). The word tap is a
blending of three separate sounds: /t/, /ă/ and /p/.
For students to master the alphabetic principle, they must make paired associations between the
sounds and letters. This requires strong phonemic awareness, auditory memory, some visual
memory, retrieval skills (the ability to call up a word, letter or letter sound when you need it) and
some knowledge of language structure and spelling patterns.
After students understand the alphabetic principle, they are ready to learn the rules that govern
how graphemes, or spellings, correspond to phonemes, or sounds, in words. This is called
phonics.
Here are some of the phonics skills that readers learn:
Consonants ..................................................................... b, c, d, f, g, l, r, z
Short vowel sounds ........................................................ at, red, it, rod, cup
Long vowel sounds preceding a silent e ..................... came, Pete, ride
Beginning consonant blends and digraphs ................ black, flip, grub, snap, chill, then, quiz
Ending consonant blends and digraphs ..................... fist, ask, tent, kept, with, cash, such
Vowel digraphs .............................................................. rain, day, meet, seam, pie, oak, cue
Vowel diphthongs ......................................................... boy, coin, cow, ouch
Hard and soft c and g ..................................................... cat, pace, got, gym
Sight words ...................................................................... said, come, house, from, have, night, want
Side Note: In learning to read sight words, or those high-use words that frequently have irregular
spellings, students must still practice phonics. They must separate each sound in the word then
match the sound with the correct letter or letter groups, even if these letters don’t seem logical.
For instance, they must perceive that the four sounds in want are /w/, / ŏ /, /n/, /t/ before
they can learn that the /w/ sound is represented by the letter w, the /ŏ/ sound is represented by
the letter a and so on.
19
Word analysis skills help students decode words of two or more syllables. Students must become
familiar with word structure: roots, prefixes, suffixes and syllable patterns. They must combine
this understanding with their phonetic and sight word recognition skills so they can analyze
unfamiliar, multi-syllable words.
In decoding the word completely, for instance, students first look at the word and note that it has a
base (complete) and suffix (ly). In decoding the base word, complete, they use their familiarity with
the vc/ccv (i.e., vowel, consonant, consonant blend, vowel) patterns and divide the word
between the consonant that follows the first vowel and the consonant blend (com-plete).
They most likely recognize com by sight because com is a common word root. Since the second
syllable, plete, is not so common, they apply a little more phonetic skill to sound out then blend
the /p/ /l/, /ē/, /t/. They blend the plete with the first syllable, com – complete.
Finally, they apply their knowledge of suffixes to recognize the last syllable then blend it with
the base word – complete-ly.
THE RESEARCH
The research indicates that:
• Reading programs that systematically teach students phonics are more effective than reading
programs that do not teach this skill or teach it incidentally, such as within the context of a
reading passage.
• Systematic instruction involves teaching phonics explicitly, or directly, and in a sequential
and hierarchical order, with each skill building on the preceding ones. For example, many
systematic phonics programs begin with teaching consonants and their sounds first, then
short vowels, then consonant blends then long vowels and so on.
• Systematic phonics instruction has the greatest effect on students’ word recognition and
spelling when they learn phonics early, specifically, in kindergarten and first grade.
• Systematic phonics instruction improves students’ reading comprehension. The more easily
students can decode words, the more they can focus on a passage’s content.
• Systematic phonics instruction is effective for students from different socioeconomic
backgrounds and particularly for students with reading difficulties.
• Systematic phonics instruction is most effective when it is part of a broader reading program
that includes instruction in phonemic awareness, reading fluency, vocabulary and
comprehension.
SOURCES
Adams, M.J. (1990). Learning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G. and Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing Words to Life. New York: The
Guilford Press, 2002.
20
Biemiller, A. (1999). Language and Reading Success. Brookline, MA: Brookline Books.
Consortium on Reading Excellence, Inc. (1999). Reading Research Anthology: The Why? of Reading
Instruction. Novato, CA: Arena Press.
Consortium on Reading Excellence, Inc. (2000). Teaching Reading Sourcebook. Novato, CA: Arena
Press.
Farstrup, A. and Samuels, J. (Eds.) (2002). What Research Has to Say about Reading Instruction, 3rd ed.
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Kamil, M.L., Mosenthal, P.B., Pearson, P.D. and Barr, R. (Eds.) (2000). Handbook of Reading
Research, vol. III. Mahweh, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Levine, M. Educational Care: A System for Understanding and Helping Children with Learning Problems at
Home and in School, 2nd Ed. (2001). Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service, Inc.
Minshoff, E. (2005). Teaching Reading to Struggling Learners. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes
Publishing.
National Reading Panel. (2000). “Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of
the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction.”
National Institutes of Health Publication. No. 00-4769.
Pohlman, C. (2008). Revealing Minds: Assessing to Understand and Support Struggling Learners. San
Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.
Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-Based Program for Reading
Problems at Any Level. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Snow, C.E., Burns, S.B. and Griffin, P. (Eds.) (1998). Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young
Children. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Snowling, M. (1995). Dyslexia: A Cognitive Developmental Perspective. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Stahl, S. (1992). Saying the “p” word: Nine guidelines for exemplary phonics instruction. The
Reading Teacher, 45, 618-625.
Stanovich, Keith E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual
differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 360-407.
Stanovich, Keith E. (2000). Progress in Understanding Reading: Scientific Foundations and New Frontiers.
New York: Guilford Press.
Swanson, H.L., Harris, K.R. and Graham, S. (Eds.) (2003). Handbook of Learning Disabilities. New
York: The Guilford Press.
Taylor, B., Pearson, P., Clark, K., & Walpole, S. (1999). Beating the odds in teaching all children to read.
CIERA Report #2-006. University of Michigan: Ann Arbor.
21
5. The Manus Approach to Teaching
Word Recognition
THE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
The Manus Curriculums reading and spelling practice packs offer a direct, systematic and cumulative
approach to training students to read and spell fluently. The series consists of a teacher-training
manual, How to Teach Reading and Spelling, and these sets of practice pack masters:
Phonics, Levels 1-4
Sight Words, Levels 1 and 2
Multi-Syllable Words
Reading with Rhythm, Levels 1-4
THE TEACHING PROCESS
Students first practice reading letter combinations or words in columns then in sentences, stories and
poems. They continue to read each column, sentence set, story or poem until they read fluently.
They also spell the words they learn to read. All skills are built on the preceding ones so students
learn to integrate them easily.
Here is a summary of the research-based strategies teachers use when teaching students to read
targeted phonetic, sight-word or multi-syllable words. Following this summary are abbreviated
lessons that illustrate the strategies.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Begin with phonemic awareness exercises. (See below.)
I Say; You Say – Model the reading skill.
Let’s Read Together – Read the first column simultaneously with your student.
Read by Yourself – Monitor the student as he or she reads the same column independently.
Build Your Fluency – Time the student as he or she reads the column repeatedly, or until he or
she is fluent.
6. Isolate and practice problem words.
Step 1: See preceding section for an example of beginning a reading lesson with
phonemic awareness exercises.
Step 2: “I Say; You Say” – Model the reading skill.
Directions: After you’ve completed the phonemic awareness exercises, model the reading skill.
Point to and read the first word in the first column. Ask the student to repeat it. Then point to
and read the second word and ask the student to repeat that one.
22
Continue in the same manner to the end of the column. Write a check on one of the dashed
lines at the end of the column to indicate that you and the student read the column once. You
will add these fifteen practice trials to the student’s total word count for that day’s lesson. (There
are fifteen letter combinations or words in each column.)
Here is a sample practice page and lesson.
Lesson 5 – Words with Short E
Reads and Spells Short e/Consonant Combinations
Rule: One vowel at the beginning or in the middle of a word or syllable is
usually short.
web
wed
well
wet
pet
peg
fell
hem
pep
yet
yell
hen
wet
Rex
peg
set
yen
Tex
red
web
wed
dell
Deb
bed
well
yet
yes
Meg
Ben
mess
men
hem
hen
yet
zen
less
Bev
sell
Jess
Ted
Ned
pet
Ben
pen
net
bed
den
wet
men
fell
yet
yen
Jen
peg
wed
pep
yes
Rex
Ed
jet
__ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
Example of Step 2:
Teacher:
(Teacher continues with yesterday’s lesson of teaching the student to read words with consonantshort e-consonant sequences.) What does a short e say?
Student:
A short e says /ĕ/.
Teacher:
Good. Today, we will practice reading words with the short e sound. We’ll begin
with the “I say; you say” step. (Teacher points to the first word in the first column.) “Web.”
Say it please.
Student:
Web.
23
Teacher:
Good. Say it again and say the last sound louder. “Web.” (Teacher enunciates /b/.)
Student:
Web.
Teacher:
That’s clearer. Now say “wed.” (He or she points to the second word in the column.)
Student:
Wed.
Teacher:
Good. “Well.” Say it please. “Wet . . . pet . . . peg.” (Teacher and student practice the rest
of the column in the same manner.)
Step 3: “Let’s Read Together” – Read the first column simultaneously with your student.
Directions: Read the first column again slowly and with the student. If he or she mispronounces a
word, you can continue, as he or she will have heard you read the word correctly; or, you may
stop reading, say the correct pronunciation and ask the student to repeat it.
Modeling a steady pace, read the column with your student several times or until he or she feels
comfortable reading independently. Some students may need to read with you only once. Other
students may need to read the column with you several times.
Write a check at the end of the column each time you read it with the student. Again, you will
use these checks to count and record the number of words he or she read during that lesson.
Example of Step 3:
Teacher:
Teacher &
Student:
Let’s read the column together.
Web, wed, well, wet . . . pet . . . (Student says “pat” for the next word. Teacher
continues reading the list rather than correct the student’s misreading.)
Teacher &
Student:
Peg . . . fell . . . hem . . . pep . . . (Teacher and student finish reading the column.)
Teacher:
(Points to the word the student misread.) “Pet.” say it, please.
Student:
Pet.
Teacher:
That’s correct. Tell me the three sounds in “pet.”
Student:
/P/-/ĕ/-/t/.
Teacher:
Good. What letter says the /ĕ/ sound in “pet”? Answer in a full sentence.
Student:
“E” says /ĕ/.
Teacher:
Read this word again.
Student:
Pet.
Teacher:
Good.
24
Step 4: “Read by Yourself” – Monitor the student as he or she reads the same column
independently.
Directions: When the student practices a new skill, respond to every word he or she reads. If the
student reads the words correctly, make responses, such as “Good,” “Right,” “You’re really
paying attention,” “I like your pace,” or even “Uh-huh.” Frequent feedback enhances a student’s
accuracy, attention and rhythm.
As the student gains fluency, decrease your feedback to every other word and, eventually, to
every five words or so. Increase the feedback immediately if the student becomes sluggish or
inattentive then decrease it again as he or she picks up speed and accuracy.
If the student mispronounces a word, say it correctly immediately and have him or her repeat it
at least once. Mark the missed word in the practice pack with a light dot to the side of it. Tell the
student you’re writing the dot to remind yourself to review it later. Then tell him or her to
continue with the next word.
Once the student finishes the column, review, again, the words he or she missed and have him
or her practice them in isolation several times. Hop around the page, pointing to that same word
in the other columns and ask the student to read those. If the student can’t say a particular word
within a few seconds, say the word and ask him or her to repeat it.
Have the student continue reading the first column independently, until he or she reads at least
fourteen out of fifteen words accurately and somewhat fluently. Continue to write a check at the
end of the column each time the student reads it.
Example of Step 4:
Teacher:
(Teacher and student just finished reading the column simultaneously.) You read well, paid
attention and sat still. Now, read this column alone.
Student:
Web.
Teacher:
Good.
Student:
Wed.
Teacher:
Good.
Student:
Well.
Teacher:
Good.
Student:
Wet . . . pet . . . peg . . . fell . . . hen.
Teacher:
(Writes a dot beside a word the student misread [said “hen” for “hem”]. Points to the word,
“hem.”) Hem. Say it, please.
Student:
Hem.
Teacher:
Good.
25
Teacher:
(Since student had trouble discriminating between “hem” and “hen,” teacher points to the word,
“hen,” lower in the column.) Hen. Say it, please.
Student:
Hen.
Teacher:
Good. (Gives student extra practice reading the words “hem” and “hen.” Points back to the
“hem” in the column.) Read this word.
Student:
Hen – I mean, hem.
Teacher:
Yes, the word is hem. Sound out each letter in hem. Begin with /h/.
Student:
/H/, /ĕ/, /m/.
Teacher:
What letter says /ĕ/?
Student:
E.
Teacher:
Good. What letter says /m/?
Student:
M.
Teacher:
That’s correct. What sound does the e make?
Student:
The e says /ĕ/.
Teacher:
I like your full sentence. What sounds do the e-m make?
Student:
The e-m says “em.”
Teacher:
(Points to “hen” in the column.) Read this word.
Student:
Hen.
Teacher:
You are correct. Sound out each letter in the word “hen.”
Student:
/H/, /ĕ/, /n/.
Teacher:
Good. What letter says /n/?
Student:
N.
Teacher:
That’s correct. What sounds do the e-n make?
Student:
The e-n says “en.”
Teacher:
(Points back to the “hem” in the column.) What is this word?
Student:
Hem.
Teacher:
(Points to “hen” and “hem” several more times.) What is this word . . . this word? . . .
Step 5: “Build Your Fluency” – Time the student as he or she reads the column
repeatedly, or until he or she is fluent.
Directions: To determine if the student has mastered the words in that column, time the student
as he or she reads it again. Give him or her minimal feedback, such as “um hmm,” “good” or
“right,” as too much feedback during timed trials may interrupt fluency.
26
Time the student only when you think he or she has a good chance of meeting the criteria for
mastery of that column. The criteria are to read the column in fifteen seconds or less
(approximately one second per word) and with no more than one error.
When the student completes the column, record his or her reading time on one of the dashed
lines at the bottom of the column (after the checks you wrote to note the warm-up trials). Note
any errors with a light dot to the left of the missed words. Do not mark errors or verbally correct
during the timed trials as this will disrupt the student’s concentration.
Example of Step 5: Recording Student’s Times:
Lesson 5 – Words with Short E
Reads and Spells Short e/Consonant Combinations
Rule: One vowel at the beginning or in the middle of a word or syllable is
usually short.
web
wed
well
wet
pet
peg
fell
hem
pep
yet
yell
hen
wet
Rex
peg
set
yen
Tex
red
web
wed
dell
Deb
bed
well
yet
yes
Meg
Ben
mess
17
__ __ __
__ __ __
__ __ __
14 __ __
__ __ __
men
hem
hen
yet
zen
less
Bev
sell
Jess
Ted
Ned
pet
Ben
pen
net
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
bed
den
wet
men
fell
yet
yen
Jen
peg
wed
pep
yes
Rex
Ed
jet
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
__
Say each word the student misread and have him or her repeat it. Then go back and forth among
these missed words a few times more, asking the student to read them.
If the student meets the passing criteria (within fifteen seconds and with no more than one error
[at least 93% accuracy]), consider the column mastered and proceed to the next one, repeating
the same procedures. If the student makes several errors or takes more than fifteen seconds to
read it, have him or her continue to read the column until he or she is fluent.
27
Some students may need to read the column five times or more before they demonstrate
sufficient speed and accuracy. Encourage them to continue with such phrases as, “You read that
well. Now read it again so the words seem really easy.” “You sounded much smoother that
time.” “You lost your focus but that’s okay. Practice again.”
Step 6: Isolate and practice problem words.
Directions: Sometimes a student may continue to misread a word because he or she has trouble
perceiving its phonemes and/or recognizing the word’s distinctive visual pattern. When this
happens, on a separate sheet of lined paper, write the word the student should say paired with
the incorrect word he or she keeps saying. Put these words side by side so the student practices
making visual and auditory discriminations between the correct and incorrect responses. Also,
have him or her tap out each sound in the words to better discern the phonemes.
To emphasize the discriminating features of the correct word, you may circle or write, in a
different color ink, those letters that differentiate the correct from the incorrect word (e.g., werewhere or hen-hem).
Here is a sample worksheet and lesson:
Targeted Words: Were/Where and Hem/Hen
were
were
hem
hem
were
where
hem
hen
where
where
hen
hen
were
where
hem
hen
where
were
hen
hen
were
were
hem
hem
where
were
hen
hem
were
where
hem
hen
where
where
hen
hen
were
where
hem
hen
were
were
where
hem
where
were
were
hen
were
where
hem
where
where
where
hen
where
were
where
were
hem
28
Example of Step 6: Isolating and Practicing Problem Words
Teacher:
(Teacher introduces student to the two words in the first column that he or she will read by
pointing to a few selected ones and saying them.) This word is “were.” Say it, please.
Student:
Were.
Teacher:
Good. Say and tap the sounds in “were”: /w/-/÷r/.
Student:
/W/-/÷r/
Teacher:
(Points to another “were” in the column.) What’s this word?
Student:
Were.
Teacher:
Correct. (Points to a “where” in the column.) This word is “where.” Say it, please.
Student:
Where.
Teacher:
Good. Say and tap the sounds in “where”: /w/-/âr/.
Student:
/W/-/ âr/.
Teacher:
Good. (Points to another “where” in the column.) What’s this word?
Student:
Where.
Teacher:
Good. Begin at the top of the column and read each pair of words. (Teacher points to
each word as the student reads it.)
Student:
Were, were.
Teacher:
Good.
Student:
Were, where.
Teacher:
Good.
Student:
(Misreads one of the words.) Were, where.
Teacher:
(Points to the “where” that the student misread and reads both the word and its pair.) “Where,
where.” Say it, please.
Student:
Where, where.
Teacher:
Good. Continue. (Teacher and student continue to the end of the column then begin the next
column. They practice this drill sheet on two or three separate days, or until the student can easily
read the words.)
29
6. A Summary of the Educational
Research on Teaching
Reading Fluency
RESEARCH
Here are some key research findings on approaches for teaching reading fluency.
• When students read fluently, they make written language sound like spoken language. They
read in meaningful chunks, such as in phrases or clauses, and with inflection and rhythm.
They also read in changing tones and emphasis to suit the content of the text, just as people
do when they speak.
• Fluency is essential for good reading comprehension. It is a bridge that connects the skills of
learning to read to reading to learn.
• Students develop reading fluency over time and after extensive reading practice.
• Reading fluency should be taught directly and not left to chance.
• The two common practices for building reading fluency are guided oral reading and
independent, silent reading.
• Guided oral reading is effective in helping students build reading fluency. To date, there is
not enough research to determine if independent, silent reading promotes fluency.
• There are several strategies teachers can use during guided oral reading. They all involve
modeling fluency first then having the student copy the teacher and reading the same
passage repeatedly (usually three or four times). One guided oral reading method involves
the teacher reading a sentence or short paragraph while modeling good prosody (i.e., rhythm,
phrasing, inflection, speed and tonality) and the student copying him or her. Another
method, sometimes called “choral” or “duet” reading, involves the teacher and student
reading together. Still another method is the student reading several times along with an
audiotape of a story.
SOURCES
Biemiller, A. (1977-78). Relationships between oral reading rates for letters, words, and simple
text in the development of reading achievement. Reading Research Quarterly, 13, 223-253.
Bowers, P.G. (1993). Text reading and rereading: Determinants of fluency beyond word
recognition. Journal of Reading Behavior 25(2): 133-53.
Chard, D., Vaughn, S., & Tyler, B. J. (2002). A synthesis of research on effective interventions
for building reading fluency with elementary students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 36, 386-406.
30
Consortium on Reading Excellence, Inc. (1999). Reading Research Anthology: The Why? of Reading
Instruction. Novato, CA: Arena Press.
Consortium on Reading Excellence, Inc. (2000). Teaching Reading Sourcebook. Novato, CA: Arena
Press.
D’Arcangelo, M. (2003). On the mind of a child: A conversation with Sally Shaywitz. Educational
Leadership, 60(7), 6-10.
Dowhower, S. (1994). Repeated reading revisited: Research into practice. Reading and Writing
Quarterly: Overcoming Learning Difficulties, 10, 343-58.
Farstrup, A. and Samuels, J. (Eds.) (2002). What Research Has to Say about Reading Instruction, 3rd ed.
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Hasbrouck, J. (2006). Drop Everything and Read—But How?: For Students Who Are Not Yet
Fluent, Silent Reading Is Not the Best Use of Classroom Time. American Educator 30(2),
Summer 2006.
Hasbrouck, J. and Tindel, G.A. (2006). Oral reading fluency norms: a valuable assessment tool
for reading teachers. The Reading Teacher. 59(7), 636-644.
LaBerge, D., & Samuels, S.J. (1974). Toward a theory of automatic information process in
reading. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 293-323.
Lovett, Maureen W., Lacerenza, L., Borden, Susan L., Frijters, Jan C., et al. (2000). Components
of Effective Remediation for Developmental Reading Disabilities: Combining Phonological and
Strategy-Based Introduction to Improve Outcomes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 263-283.
Meyer, M. and Felton, R.H. (1999). Repeated Reading to Enhance Fluency: Old Approaches and
New Directions. Annals of Dyslexia, 49, 283-306.
Minshoff, E. Teaching Reading to Struggling Learners. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing,
2005.
National Reading Panel. (2000). “Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of
the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction.”
National Institutes of Health Publication. No. 00-4769.
Pikulski, J. J., & Chard, D. J. (2005). Fluency: Bridge between Decoding and Reading
Comprehension. The Reading Teacher, 58, 510-519.
Rashotte, C. & Torgesen, J. (1985). Repeated reading and reading fluency in learning disabled
children. Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 180-188.
Samuels, S.J. (1979). The method of repeated readings. The Reading Teacher, 32, 403-408.
Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-Based Program for Reading
Problems at Any Level. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Shaywitz, S.E., Escobar, M., Shaywitz, B.A., Fletcher, J.M., & Makuch, R. (1992, January 16).
Evidence that dyslexia may represent the lower tail of a normal distribution of reading ability.
New England Journal of Medicine, p. 145.
31
7. The Manus Approach to
Teaching Reading Fluency
THE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
In the Manus Literacy Program, students practice building fluency with the first set of words
they learn to read. The instructional materials for reading fluency are found in these practice
packs for teaching word recognition: a) Phonics, Levels 1-4; b) Sight Words, Levels 1 and 2; and
c) Multi-Syllable Words.
Students also practice fluency with an additional set of workbooks titled Reading with Rhythm,
Levels 1-4. The first three of these practice packs contain poems of increasing levels of difficulty
that students read repeatedly, both with and without a teacher, until they can read them easily. The
fourth practice pack is for older students. It contains high school short stories with markers that
show students how to read in phrases.
Teachers include other carefully selected stories, poems and nonfictional texts to train students to
read with good prosody.
THE TEACHING PROCESS
The strategies for promoting reading fluency for sentences and stories are generally the same for
promoting fluency of word columns.
1.
2.
3.
4.
I Say; You Say – Model the reading fluency skill.
Let’s Read Together – Read the first passage simultaneously with your student.
Read by Yourself – Monitor the student as he or she reads the set of sentences independently.
Build Your Fluency – Observe or time the student as he or she reads the passage repeatedly, or
until he or she is fluent.
Illustrated here are the strategies for teaching students to fluently read sets of sentences
containing the targeted words.
Step 1: “I Say; You Say” – Model the reading fluency skill.
Directions: Model how to read the first sentence in the set and have the student repeat it. Read the
sentence with slightly exaggerated inflection. Then prompt the student to mimic you.
Exaggerating the inflection helps prevent him or her from reading one word at a time and in a
monotone, which is typical of beginning readers and readers with skill delays.
Continue this same step as you and the student both read the remaining sentences in the set, one
after the other. After you complete the set, write a check on one of the lines below. (You will
later count these checks to determine the number of words the student reads during that lesson.)
32
Example of Step 1: Modeling the Reading Fluency Skill
Teacher:
(Teacher reads each sentence with a slightly exaggerated inflection and has the student repeat it.)
Repeat after me: “The pup is.”
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
The pup is. (Student reads in a monotone.)
Read it as if you were reading to a baby brother. “The pup is.” (Teacher exaggerates
inflection a little more.)
The pup is. (Reads with more inflection.)
Teacher:
Student:
I like how you put some feeling and rhythm into it . . . The pup is little.
The pup is little.
Teacher:
Good rhythm. The little pup is up . . . The pup is in the rut . . . The pup is in . . .
Lesson 3 – Words with Short U
Review
Directions: After you and your teacher complete the warm-up exercises, practice
reading each set of sentences aloud until you can read it easily. Write a check on
the line each time you read the set.
1
2
36
37
The pup is.
The mutt sups.
The pup is little.
The mutt sups in a hut.
The little pup is up.
The mutt sups in a van.
The pup is in the rut.
The mutt sups in a pit.
The pup is in the hut.
The mutt sups in a pen.
The pup is not in a pit.
The mutt sups on ham.
The pup is a nut.
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
The mutt sups on jam.
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
3
4
41
38
The lad has a cup.
Two men are in a van.
In the cup is a nut.
One pup is in the van.
In the cup is a bug.
One cat is in the van.
In the cup is a fan.
The van is in a rut.
In the cup is a man.
The men are mad.
In the cup is a jet.
But the pup is not.
In the cup is a pet.
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
And the cat is not.
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
33
Step 2: “Let’s Read Together” – Read the passage simultaneously with your student.
Directions: Read the entire set of sentences, again, simultaneously with the student. Adjust your
pace so the student can easily keep up with you. Continue to slightly exaggerate your inflection
and prompt the student to read with rhythm and inflection, too. Write another check on the line
after you read the set of sentences again.
Example of Step 2:
Teacher:
(Teacher and student read the set of sentences simultaneously. Teacher points to the first sentence
in the set again.) Let’s read this set of sentences, again, but this time, let’s read it
together. Ready? Let’s begin . . .
Teacher
& Student: The pup is . . . The pup is little . . . The little pup is up . . . The pup is in the rut . . .
The pup is in the hut . . . The pup is not in a pit . . . The pup is a nut.
Teacher:
Good reading.
Step 3: “Read by Yourself” – Monitor the student as he or she reads the set of sentences
independently.
Directions: Have the student read the set independently and as many times as needed to achieve
fluency (at least three or four times). Correct his or her errors immediately after he or she makes
them by saying the correct words and having him or her repeat them. Prompt the student to
read with rhythm as often as needed. Write a check on the line each time he or she reads the set.
Example of Step 3:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
(Student reads sets of sentences independently as teacher monitors.) Read this set again by
yourself. Remember to read with rhythm.
(Reads with good inflection.) The pup is. The pup is little. The little pup is up . . .
(Student begins to read in a monotone.) The pup is in the rut.
(Interrupts student and reads that same phrase with slightly exaggerated inflection and rhythm.)
“The pup is in the rut.” Repeat that with rhythm.
The pup is in the rut.
Good rhythm. Read the next sentence.
The pup is in a hut.
The pup is in the hut. Repeat that, please.
The pup is in the hut.
Good. Read the next sentence.
The pup is not in a pit.
Good.
The pup is a nut.
Very good reading. I like how you read with rhythm. Read the set of sentences
again so they are even easier to read.
34
In addition to reading lists and sentences of targeted words, students also practice reading them
in phrases, stories and poems. This, along with a hefty diet of recreational reading at appropriate
levels, promotes further skill transfer. Here are examples of practice pages for reading in phrases,
stories and poems. (Teachers also use the stories to assess oral reading fluency growth over
time.)
Practice Page for Reading the Targeted Words in Phrases
Lesson 3 – Words with Short U
Review
Directions: After you and your teacher complete the warm-up exercises, practice
reading each set of phrases aloud until you can read it easily. Write a check on the
line each time you read the set.
1
2
29
31
… this is Gus
… what is this
… Gus is a big bug
… this is a cub
… buzzes in the sun
… the cub runs and runs
… the bug has fun
… the cub falls in mud
… Gus is on a bud
… what a nut the cub is
… Gus has a job
… what a mess
… Gus hums and hums
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
… the cub rubs his fuzz
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
3
4
25
27
… the cub gets up
… here comes Gus
… the cub digs in
… a cub is in his yum
… Yum! Yum!
… Gus buzzes
… is it gum
… the cub will not go
… is it jam
… Gus gets mad
… likes the yum, yum
… Gus zaps the cub
… digs in the yum, yum
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
… cub yells and runs
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
35
Practice Page for Reading the Targeted Words in Stories
Oral reading
Assessment: _________wpm
“Gus and the Cub”
This is Gus./ Gus is a big bug./ Gus buzzes and buzzes/ on a bud/
in the sun./ The bug has fun/ in the sun./ Gus has a job./ Gus hums
and hums. (33)
What is this?/ A cub!/ The cub runs and runs./ The cub falls/ in the
mud./ What a nut/ the cub is!/ What a mess!/ The cub rubs/ his fuzz./
The cub hops/ and runs/ in the sun. (71)
What is this?/ The cub gets up./ The cub digs in./ Yum! Yum!/
What has the cub got?/ Is it gum?/ Is it jam?/ No,/ but it is yum,
yum!/ The cub likes/ the yum, yum./ He digs and digs. (111)
Here comes Gus./ What is this!?/ A cub is in/ his yum, yum!/ Gus
buzzes and buzzes,/ but the cub/ will not go./ He has fun/ in the yum,
yum./ Gus gets mad./ The bug zaps the cub/ on his fuzz./ “Eeeeeyiii!”/
the cub yells./ What a fuss!/ What a mess!/ The cub runs and runs./
The cub runs/ to his mom./ The cub sobs/ on his mom’s lap./ Mom
hugs/ the sad cub. (185)
Gus buzzes./ The bug has a job/ on the buds./ Gus hums in the
sun./ The cub rubs his fuzz. (205)
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ (warm-up trials)
Your goal: _______wpm
1st practice trial _______wpm
2nd practice trial _______wpm
3rd practice trial _______wpm
4th practice trial
5th practice trial
6th practice trial
36
_______wpm
_______wpm
_______wpm
Practice Page for Reading Poems
Reading with Rhythm, Level 1, Page 20
Directions for the student: Keep reading each poem until you can read it easily
and with rhythm. Then read the next poem. Write a check on the line each time
you read the poem.
“Fido”
32
“A Froggie Sat on a Log”
32
I have a little dog,
And his name is Fido.
He is nothing but a pup.
He can stand up on his hind legs,
If you hold his front legs up.
A froggie sat on a log,
a-weeping for his daughter.
His eyes were red,
His tears were shed,
And he fell right into the water.
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
“Four Seeds in a Hole”
30
“Fuzzy Wuzzy”
Four seeds in a hole.
Four seeds in a hole.
One for the mouse,
One for the crow,
One to rot and one to grow!
Fuzzy Wuzzy was a bear.
Fuzzy Wuzzy had no hair.
Fuzzy Wuzzy wasn’t fuzzy,
Was he?
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
“Frosty Weather”
14
“Jaybird”
Frosty weather, snowy weather,
When the wind blows,
We all go together.
Jaybird, jaybird,
Sitting on a fence.
Trying to make a dollar,
Out of fifteen cents.
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
37
18
19
8. A Summary of the Educational
Research on Teaching Spelling
Here are some key research findings on effective approaches for teaching spelling.
• Children go through several stages of development as they learn to spell.
–
In the first stage, sometimes called the emergent stage, when students’ knowledge of
spelling conventions is limited, they may attempt to scribble letters to represent words
but not correctly match the sounds to the actual letters that represent them. For
instance, they may write dk for cat. Young spellers may also not know that we spell
from left to right or use two kinds of letters: uppercase and lowercase.
–
As children continue to write, though, they gradually apply more phonetic skills so the
letters begin to match the sounds with increasing accuracy. For example, they might try
to spell cat by writing kt. When they learn their short vowel sounds, they might spell cat
as kat or even cat.
– Eventually, children attempt to use standard spelling conventions to spell words that
are somewhat irregular. For example, they might write haev for have. (They know there’s
a silent e somewhere in the word.) They eventually learn the spelling pattern for have
and spell it correctly.
– Using their knowledge of how to spelling one-syllable words, children spell words of
two or more syllables. They learn to add such endings as s, es, ing and ed. They also
learn specific rules, such as changing the y to i and doubling consonants before adding
endings to certain words.
– Successful spellers gradually enter the last stage of development, which is consistently
correct spelling. Correct spelling includes knowing how to deal with irregular and
alternative spellings, silent letters, syllables, root words and prefixes and suffixes. At
this stage, students learn more about the meanings of words and their relationship to
spelling. For instance, they use their knowledge of the root plac to spell placate and
implacable.
Knowledge of syllable patterns, syllable rules and word roots is important as most
advanced spelling errors occur at the juncture of unaccented syllables, or syllables with
the schwa sound (e.g., littel for little), and because of poor knowledge of word
derivations. For example, students may spell naitivity for nativity because they are
unfamiliar with the root word nat, which means birth.
• Because approximately 50% of the 400,000 words in a standard dictionary have regular and
predictable sound-letter relationships, students well-versed in phonics can learn to spell
many words accurately using both synthetic and analytic phonetic strategies. Synthetic means
that students decode and spell words by sounding out each letter or cluster of letters within
the words then blending them back into the whole words. Analytic phonics instruction,
which is also helpful, is the reverse. Students look at the whole word and break it into its
individual sounds.
38
• A little less than 25% of the words in the English language are Anglo-Saxon in origin. Many
of these words tend to have irregular sound-letter patterns. Because we use this 25% very
frequently, students should learn these words when they are young. They will need them
when they write.
• About another 37% percent of English words are regular except for one deviation. Students
should learn the patterns of these deviations, as they are predictable and often have to do
with the positions of sounds within words. One example of a deviation is the /v/ sound at
the end of a word. This word almost never ends with the letter v. It usually ends with ve (e.g.,
love, give, have, stove). Deviations include how to add endings to words (e.g., change the y to i
before adding ing [hope, hoping]).
• Only about 4% percent of all English words are highly irregular and must be memorized
(e.g., two, do, does, of).
• When the National Reading Panel released the results of its large-scale study in 2000, it
noted that phonological awareness instruction improves the spelling skills of first-grade
students and instruction in phonics improves the spelling skills of students in the primary
grades. The report suggested that students’ spelling skills would improve with direct
instruction in phonemic awareness and systematic phonics instruction. (Spelling research on
older students was limited at the time of the study.)
• A longitudinal study published by Mehta and colleagues in 2005, however, suggests
otherwise. Although most children in the study maintained average growth in reading and
reading comprehension, their spelling skills dropped significantly. These findings challenge
the assumption that reading improvement leads to spelling improvement.
(Author’s note: These findings may also suggest that, although poor phonemic awareness and
phonics skills are two factors in spelling delays, improving these two skills, alone, may not
lead to significant spelling improvement. Spelling skill requires more than just phonemic
awareness and phonics skills. It also requires visual recall of word spellings, knowledge of
word structure, syllabication rules and the other factors that are discussed a little later.)
• Research suggests that phonemic awareness instruction does not significantly improve the
spelling of students with learning disabilities. Many students with reading and spelling
disabilities, who receive intensive and appropriate instruction, learn to read fairly well. Their
spelling skills, however, tend to lag far behind their reading ability and these deficits persist
throughout their lives.
• Because many spelling errors have to do with the inaccurate sequences of letters within
words, or the wrong set of letters to represent certain sounds (e.g., dig for big, nihgt for night,
bred for bread), many people assume that spelling problems are largely the result of visual
memory problems. Research indicates, however, that visual memory problems play a much
smaller role than certain language-based weaknesses.
• Three significant language-based weaknesses that affect spelling are poor phonemic
awareness, auditory memory and knowledge of sound-letter correspondences. Students with
poor phonemic awareness have trouble perceiving the individual sounds within words and,
therefore, have trouble attaching letters to these sounds when they spell. Students with poor
auditory memory often forget the sounds they just verbally separated. Although they may
39
have correctly perceived these sounds, they cannot remember them long enough to read
and/or spell the words the sounds create. Students who have trouble learning phonics may
have problems recalling which letters represent which sounds. For instance, they may spell
rain phonetically correctly but orthographically wrong (e.g., rane). This third difficulty is
aggravated by the English language’s having only 44 phonemes, or sounds, yet about 250
spellings, or graphemes, that represent them (e.g., bōat, bōte, bōet, bōwt, bōught).
• Lack of knowledge about the structure of the English language appears to be another key
factor in spelling deficits that persist despite increased skill in phonemic awareness and
phonics. One language-based problem is the difficulty in recognizing and/or remembering
the predictable patterns of slightly deviant word spellings (e.g., knot, knee, gnaw, gnarl, would,
should, love, move, night, sight). Another is the difficulty in recognizing and/or remembering
prefixes and suffixes (e.g., pre, pro, non, less, cious, ant), syllable patterns (e.g., for-bid, in-sti-tute,
va-nil-la, thim-ble) and word roots (e.g., dict, cap, nat). A strong knowledge in these areas helps
students remember how to spell many words because these words follow predictable
patterns.
• According to Louisa Moats, Ed.D., who has done extensive research in reading and spelling,
effective spelling instruction includes teaching students about language structure in the
elementary and middle school grades. For instance, in addition to teaching students to spell
those phonetic words they are learning to read, she suggests that teachers have students
practice spelling:
– high-use Anglo-Saxon words that students will want to use when they write (first grade)
– those more complex, high-use Anglo-Saxon words with spellings that are dictated by the
positions of certain sounds within the words (first through third grade)
– multi-syllable words that contain specific and predictable syllable patterns, such as
car/pet, sim/ple, pa/per and cab/in (third grade)
– words with Latin-based prefixes, such as prepare and nonsense (fourth grade)
– higher-level, Latin-based word forms, such as sign, assign, design, resign, signal, signify (fifth
through sixth grade)
– words with Greek-based word forms (e.g., photo, photograph) (sixth through seventh grade)
Moats also recommends that, as students progress through the elementary and middle
school grades, they reinforce their spelling with vocabulary instruction, particularly
instruction in word roots. Knowing the common Greek and Latin roots helps students spell
high-level words. For instance, knowing that corp means body can help students spell corps,
corpse, corporation and corpulent.
SOURCES
1. Apel, K., Masterson, J.J., and Niessen, N.L. (2004). Spelling assessment frameworks. In
Stone, C.A., Silliman, E.R., Ehren, B.J., and Apel, K. (Eds.), Handbook of Language and Literacy:
Development and Disorders, pp. 644-660. New York: Guilford.
2. Bailet, L. (2004). Spelling instructional and intervention frameworks. In Stone, C.A., Silliman,
E.R., Ehren, B.J., and Apel, K. (Eds.), Handbook of Language and Literacy: Development and
Disorders, pp. 661-678. New York: Guilford.
40
3. Berninger, V.W., Vaughn, K., Abbot, R.D., Brooks, A., Begay, K., Byrd, K. & Graham, S.
(2000). Language-based spelling instruction: Teaching children to make multiple connections
between spoken and written words. Learning Disability Quarterly, 23, 117-135.
4. Berninger, V.W. and Amtmann, D. (2003). Preventing written expression disabilities through
early and continuing assessment and intervention for handwriting and/or spelling problems:
Research into practice. In H.L Swanson, K.R. Harris and S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of
Learning Disabilities, pp. 345-363. New York: Guilford.
5. Bryant, P., Nunes, T. and Bindman, M. (1997). Children’s understanding of the connection
between grammar and spelling. In B. Blachman (Ed.), Foundations of Reading Acquisition and
Dyslexia, pp. 219-240. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.
6. Carreker, S. (2005). Teaching Spelling. In J.R. Birsh (Ed.), Multisensory Teaching of Basic
Language Skills (2nd ed.), pp. 217-256. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Co.
7. Cassar, M., Treiman, R., Moats, L.C., Pollo, T.C., & Kessler, B. (2005). How do the spellings
of children with dyslexia compare with those of nondyslexic children? Reading and Writing:
An Interdisciplinary Journal, 18, 27-49.
8. Graham, S., Harris, K.R. and Loynachan, C. (1994). The spelling for writing list. Journal of
Learning Disabilities, 27(4), 210-214.
9. Henderson, E.H. (1990). Teaching Spelling. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
10. The International Dyslexia Association. Spelling. International Dyslexia Association Fact
Sheet series.
11. Mehta, P., Foorman, B.R., Branum-Martin. L. and Taylor, P.W. (2005) Literacy as a
unidimensional construct: Validation, sources of influence, and implications in a longitudinal
study in grades 1 to 4. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9(2), 85-116.
12. Moats, L.C. (1995). Spelling: Development, Disability, and Instruction. Baltimore, Md.: York Press.
13. Moats, L.C. (2000). Speech to Print: Language Essentials for Teachers. Baltimore, Md.: Brookes
Publishing.
14. Moats, L.C. (2005). How spelling supports reading: And why it is more regular and
predictable than you think. American Educator, Winter 2005/06, 12-22, 42-43.
15. Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming Dyslexia: A New and Complete Science-Based Program for Reading
Problems at Any Level. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
16. Tangel, D. and Blachman, B. (1995). Effect of phoneme-awareness instruction on the
invented spelling of first-grade children: A one-year follow-up. Journal of Reading Behavior, 27,
153-185.
17. Treiman, R. (1998). Why spelling? The benefits of incorporating spelling into beginning
reading instruction. In J.L. Metsala & L. C. Ehri (Eds.), Word Recognition in Beginning Literacy,
pp. 289-313, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
18. Treiman, R. & Bourassa, D. (2000). The development of spelling skill. Topics in Language
Disorders, 20, 1-18.
41
9. The Manus Approach to
Teaching Spelling
WHAT IS INVOLVED IN SPELLING WELL?
As the research indicates, to spell well, students must have strong phonological processing and
phonics skills and knowledge of the structure of the English language. Knowledge of this
structure includes: a) the sound-letter correspondences of phonetically regular words; b) the
spelling patterns of words that deviate slightly from regular spellings; c) prefixes and suffixes; d)
Latin and Greek word roots; e) and syllable patterns. As students learn to read and spell, they
should also learn vocabulary, which includes studying word origins, roots and affixes.
Vocabulary instruction is likely to improve spelling.
Although visual memory does not play as large a role in spelling as we once believed, accurate
spelling does rely somewhat on the ability to recall the visual images of words. This ability to
recall word images, however, is directly related to one’s phonemic perception and memory of the
sounds within words and knowledge of the structure of the English language.
Students with reading and spelling disabilities are likely to respond much faster to remedial
reading instruction than spelling instruction. When they read, they decode the information that is
in front of them: the printed words. When they spell, however, they must recall all of the
information about the words themselves (i.e., such as the sounds within the words and the
particular letters that represent these sounds, deviant spelling patterns, word roots and affixes
and syllable patterns).
Because of the increased demands that spelling places on students, students with spelling
disabilities need especially intensive instruction during their elementary and middle school years
in order to learn to spell at functional levels. They also need extensive writing practice so they
can apply their newly learned spelling skills.
As they write, they should note those high-use words they tend to misspell then practice them
later. To facilitate their writing ability, they should also receive accommodations that minimize
the impairing effects that spelling problems have on writing development (e.g., access to spelling
lists or word walls for reference, teachers or peers who are available to call out word spellings
and technological devices that assist with spelling).
THE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
The Manus Literacy Program includes several different practice packs that teach spelling.
Teachers match the student with the appropriate training depending on his or her individual
needs.
Students who need intensive training in both reading and spelling begin with the practice packs:
Phonics, Levels 1-4 and Sight Words, Levels 1 and 2. Once they advance through these practice
42
packs, they begin practice in Multi-Syllable Words, which trains them to decode (read) and encode
(spell) words with various syllable patterns, word roots, suffixes and prefixes. As these students
complete writing assignments, they note those high-use words they tend to misspell in their
Personal Spelling Logs. They schedule approximately ten to fifteen additional minutes several days a
week spelling the words in these logs.
Students who have good phonological processing skills, read relatively well and tend to spell
phonetically correctly but orthographically incorrectly (e.g., wut for what, thair for there), practice
the exercises in Spelling Sprints, Levels 1-4. This training teaches them to spell high-use words,
many of them the irregular ones that are Anglo-Saxon in origin, and to learn the spelling patterns
of words that are mostly regular except for one or two deviations. They also practice spelling
words with word endings. (Students working through the Sight Words practice packs also practice
these latter skills.)
Students in the fourth through twelfth grades supplement their reading and spelling practice
with the vocabulary practice packs that teach them to define and spell words with predicable
spelling patterns and examine word roots and affixes. In addition, they note those high-use
words they tend to misspell during writing assignments in their Personal Spelling Logs and practice
them later.
THE TEACHING PROCESS
Here are the key spelling strategies integrated throughout all the practice packs that cover
reading and spelling skills:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Have the students say and tap the sounds in words or word parts before they spell them.
Train students to mentally see words before they write them.
Have students complete “slotted spelling” exercises (to increase visual recall).
Have students proofread sentences and identify and correct the misspelled words.
Dictate words to students multiple times and at fast speeds.
Dictate sentences that contain both new and review words.
Have students maintain personal spelling logs.
Integrate all previously learned spelling words into your current lesson.
In the remainder of this section are examples of how specific research-based strategies are
integrated in a Phonics, Level 1 and Spelling Sprints, Level 2 practice packs.
43
Excerpted from Phonics, Level 1: As students complete the exercises on this page, they focus on
phonemic awareness and phonics (i.e., sound-letter associations). They say and tap each sound in
the words, substitute letters and identify words that rhyme. Next, they practice building spelling
fluency as they write sentences from dictation. These sentences contain only the words they have
learned up to this point.
Lesson 4 – Words with Short A
Review
Changing Letters to Make New Words
Directions: Rewrite each word by changing the last letter to the one above it. Next, say
and tap each sound in both words then read them.
p
l
ss
1.
rag
_____________
6.
cab
_____________
11.
bat
_____________
2.
tan
_____________
7.
gas
_____________
12.
man _____________
3.
sat
_____________
8.
Hap _____________
13.
lad
_____________
4.
can
_____________
9.
Sam _____________
14.
pal
_____________
5.
yam _____________
10.
pad _____________
15.
sag
_____________
Rhyming Words
Directions: First, read the words in the box. Second, write the word from the box that
rhymes with each word below.
Val
jazz
wax
ban
jam
nap
16.
razz _____________
18.
cap
_____________
20.
tax
_____________
17.
Pam _____________
19.
Hal _____________
21.
Dan _____________
Sentence Dictation
Directions: Your teacher will say a sentence. Repeat the sentence then write it.
22.
_______________________________________________________________________________
23.
_______________________________________________________________________________
24.
_______________________________________________________________________________
25.
_______________________________________________________________________________
26.
_______________________________________________________________________________
27.
_______________________________________________________________________________
28.
_______________________________________________________________________________
44
Excerpted from Phonics, Level 1: As students complete the exercises on this page, they continue to
focus on phonemic awareness and phonics as they add letters then say and tap each sound in the
words. Next, they practice building spelling fluency as they write the lesson’s words and review
words from dictation.
Lesson 5 – Words with Short E
Review
Consonant Fill-Ins
Directions: Write one of the underlined letters at the end of each word. Next, say and tap the
sound of each word. Then read it. b, d, f, g, l, m, n, p, s, t, x
1.
be ____
6.
te ____
11.
da ____
16.
re ____
2.
pe ____
7.
sa ____
12.
ga ____
17.
ta ____
3.
da ____
8.
pe ____
13.
he ____
18.
we ____
4.
fe ____
9.
ja ____
14.
me ____
19.
ba ____
5.
ma ____
10.
le ____
15.
pa ____
20.
de ____
Vowel Fill-Ins
Directions: Write the letter e at the beginning or in the middle of each word. Next, say and
tap the sound of each letter in the word. Then read the word aloud.
21.
____ g
25.
____ d
29.
____ n
33.
____ ss
22.
b ____ g
26.
b ____ d
30.
h ____ n
34.
B ____ ss
23.
l ____ g
27.
p ____ d
31.
p ____ n
35.
m ____ ss
24.
w ____ g
28.
J ____ d
32.
d ____ n
36.
l ____ ss
Word Dictation
Directions: Your teacher will say some words. Repeat each word, say and tap each sound in
it then write it.
37.
_____________
42.
_____________ 47.
_____________ 52.
_____________
38.
_____________
43.
_____________ 48.
_____________ 53.
_____________
39.
_____________
44.
_____________ 49.
_____________ 54.
_____________
40.
_____________
45.
_____________ 50.
_____________ 55.
_____________
41.
_____________
46.
_____________ 51.
_____________ 56.
_____________
45
Excerpted from Phonics, Level 1: Students practice applying a rule for adding a word ending. This
skill is particularly important in learning to spell words with slightly deviant patterns, as these
patterns often have to do with the positions of sounds within words, such as ending sounds.
Lesson 5 – Words with Short E
Review
Writing Words with Endings
Directions: Add the endings to each of these words. Then say the word and write it.
Rule: Double the final consonant before adding an ending that begins with a vowel (e.g.,
wed – wedded). Follow this spelling rule for exercises 5-16.
1.
pet + s =
pets
9.
tag + ed =
tagged
2.
jet + s =
___________________
10.
beg + ed =
___________________
3.
rap + s =
___________________
11.
web + ed =
___________________
4.
sag + s =
___________________
12.
hem + ed =
___________________
5.
wed + ed = wedded
13.
bet + ing =
betting
6.
jag + ed = ___________________
14.
lap + ing =
___________________
7.
net + ed = ___________________
15.
hem + ing = ___________________
8.
rag + ed = ___________________
16.
sip + ing =
___________________
Word Dictation
Directions: Your teacher will say a word. Repeat the word, say and tap each sound in it
then write it.
17.
_____________________
21.
_____________________
25.
_____________________
18.
_____________________
22.
_____________________
26.
_____________________
19.
_____________________
23.
_____________________
27.
_____________________
20.
_____________________
24.
_____________________
28.
_____________________
Sentence Dictation
Directions: Your teacher will say a sentence. Repeat the sentence then write it.
29.
________________________________________________________________________________
30.
________________________________________________________________________________
31.
________________________________________________________________________________
32.
________________________________________________________________________________
46
Excerpted from Spelling Sprints, Level 2. Spelling Sprints trains students to spell those high-use words
we use about 89% of the time. Students use both phonetic and visual recall strategies as they
practice the words. They also spell them many times in isolation and in sentences. On this page,
students practice perceiving the sounds within the words and remembering their unique letter
sequences.
Lesson 26 – Day 1
Class Work: Slotted Spelling
Directions: 1) Read all 12 words. 2) Read the first word again. 3) Write the missing letters under the
word. Say the sound of the letter(s) as you write it or point to it. 4) Look up. Picture the word in your
mind and spell it aloud. 5) Finish the remaining words in the same way. 6) Look up again. Listen to
your teacher call out each word. Picture the word again then spell it aloud.
1.
4.
7.
10.
fear
2.
hear
3.
heard
__ e a __
h __ __ r
h __ __ __ d
f __ __ r
__ e a __
__ e __ r __
__ __ __ __
__ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __
heart
5.
hard
6.
lead
h __ __ __ t
__ a r __
l __ __ d
__ e __ r __
h __ __ d
__ e a __
__ __ __ __ __
__ __ __ __
__ __ __ __
learn
8.
least
9.
leave
l __ __ __ n
__ __ __ s t
__ e a __ e
__ e __ r __
__ e a __ __
l __ __ __ e
__ __ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __
meant
11.
hearts
12.
leading
__ __ __ n t
__ __ __ __ t s
l __ a __ i __ g
m __ __ n __
h __ a __ t __
__ __ __ __ i n g
__ __ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __ __
__ e __ __ __ n __
Class Work: Sentence Dictation
Directions: Write the sentences as your teacher or study partner dictates them to you.
13.
___________________________________
16.
____________________________________
14.
___________________________________
17.
____________________________________
15.
___________________________________
18.
____________________________________
47
Excerpted from Spelling Sprints, Level 2. This page contains the homework for Day 3 and extensive
word and sentence dictation exercises to further build spelling fluency.
Lesson 26 – Day 3
Homework for Day 2
Directions: First, number each word in ABC order. Then write them on the lines in ABC order. One
word is numbered for you. (a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z)
fear
hear
heard
heart
learn 9
least
hard
lead
leave
meant
1.
_____________________________________
6.
_____________________________________
2.
_____________________________________
7.
_____________________________________
3.
_____________________________________
8.
_____________________________________
4.
_____________________________________
9.
_____________________________________
5.
_____________________________________
10. _____________________________________
Class Work: Word Dictation
Directions: Write the words as your teacher or study partner dictates them to you.
11. _____________________
15. _____________________
19. _____________________
12. _____________________
16. _____________________
20. _____________________
13. _____________________
17. _____________________
21. _____________________
14. _____________________
18. _____________________
22. _____________________
Class Work: Sentence Dictation
Directions: Write the sentences as your teacher or study partner dictates them to you.
23. __________________________________________________________________________________
24. __________________________________________________________________________________
25. __________________________________________________________________________________
26. __________________________________________________________________________________
27. __________________________________________________________________________________
28. __________________________________________________________________________________
48
Excerpted from Spelling Sprints, Level 2. This page contains the homework for Day 4 and a
proofreading activity containing the current words and other words learned up to this point in
instruction.
Lesson 26 – Day 4
Homework for Day 3
Directions: Add to this list the 3 review words from your Day 1 homework. Next, write five complete
sentences, using each word at least once.
fear
hear
heard
heart
hard
lead
Review words: _____________________
learn
least
_____________________
leave
meant
_____________________
1.
_________________________________________________________________________________
2.
_________________________________________________________________________________
3.
_________________________________________________________________________________
4.
_________________________________________________________________________________
5.
_________________________________________________________________________________
Class Work: Proofreading
Directions: 1) Read the first sentence in a natural voice. 2) Read it again, one word at a time and in a
monotone, and cross out all misspelled words in the sentence. 3) Write the correct spelling above each
word. 4) Continue with the next sentence. There are 25 mistakes in this paragraph.
piece
candy
Example: It was just one peace of cande.
6.-30.
That man at the candy shop, I feer, has no hart. He wasn t nice to
me the othur day. I wonted too pieces of harde candy, but I onli had ten
sents. I needed mor than that. I askt the man if I coold have the too
pieces now and pay him bak the nekst day after skool. He said I coold
only have won piece of harrd candy. I lerned that the man was not as
sweet as his candy and I told him so. I ment nuthing by saying that, but
the hard-harted man got mad and asked me to leeve. No, sir, I feer the
candy man has no hart. He could have, at leest, been nise to me.
49
Note: Here are examples of direct instruction as applied to two spelling exercises. The first is
directly instructing a student to say and tap each sound within a word. The second is training the
student to mentally picture words before writing them.
Examples of Direct Instruction in Spelling
Saying and Tapping Sounds within Words
Teacher: Say “rat.”
Student: Rat.
Teacher: Watch me as I say and tap each sound in “rat”: /r/, /ă/, /t/. Now, you say and tap each
sound in “rat.”
Student: (Students says and taps the sounds.) /R/, /ă/, /t/.
Teacher: Good. Say “lap.”
Student: Lap.
Teacher: Say and tap each sound in “lap.”
Student: /L/, /ăp/.
Teacher: /L/, /ă/, /p. Say that, please.
Student: (Students says and taps the sounds.) /L/, /ă/, /p/.
Teacher: Good. Say “bag.”
Student: Bag.
Teacher: Say and tap each sound in “bag.”
Student: /B/, /ă/ /g/.
Teacher: Excellent sounding out.
Mentally Picturing Words before Writing Them
Teacher: Say “want.”
Student: Want.
Teacher: Watch me as I say and tap each sound in “want” then picture the word in my mind: /w/,
/ŏ/, /n/, /t/. I picture w-a-n-t in my mind then write it. (Teacher writes the word.) Now,
you tap each sound in “want” then picture it in your mind.
Student: (Students says and taps the sounds.) /W/, /ŏ/, /n/, /t/.
Teacher: Can you see the word in your mind?
Student: Yes.
Teacher: Good. What is the first letter in the word “want”?
Student: W.
Teacher: Good. Are you still picturing the word?
Student: Yes.
Teacher: What is the last letter in the word “want”?
Student: T.
50
Teacher: What two letters are in the middle?
Student: A-n.
Teacher: Good. What letter stands for the /ŏ/ sound?
Student: A.
Teacher: Correct. What two letters stand for the sounds /ŏn/?
Student: A-n.
Teacher: Very good. Are you still picturing the word?
Student: Yes.
Teacher: Say and tap each sound in “want.”
Student: /W/, /ŏ/, /n/, /t/.
Teacher: Spell “want” out loud.
Student: W-a-n-t.
Teacher: Good. Write the word “want” on your paper.
Student: (Student writes “want.”)
Teacher: Excellent. Say “what” then say and tap each sound in it . . . “say “what’s,” as in what’s
happening?” . . . “want” . . . “wanted” . . . “wanting” . . . “what” . . . “what’s” . . .
51
10. A Summary of the Educational
Research on Teaching Grammar
THE SKILLS COVERED
Training in grammar, usage and writing mechanics promotes students’ growth in overall literacy.
In particular, it helps students comprehend what they read, decode words and write.
Grammar instruction includes teaching the parts of speech and their various functions within
sentences. The parts of speech are noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, conjunction and
interjection. These eight parts have numerous functions. A noun, for instance, can function as a
subject, direct object, indirect object, object of the preposition or predicate noun.
Grammar instruction continues with: a) identifying and writing simple, compound, complex and
compound-complex sentences; b) combining sentences; c) rearranging scrambled sentences; d)
building sentences from single words; and e) completing sentences in which a word [or
grammatical element] is missing.
During usage instruction, students learn to speak correctly by maintaining agreement between
subjects and verbs and using correct verb tenses, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs. In the
middle and high school grades, usage instruction also includes how to use modifiers correctly
and how to avoid nonstandard forms of English when writing or speaking formally.
Writing mechanics instruction trains students to capitalize and punctuate their sentences
correctly so their written language looks and sounds like spoken language. When a writer
correctly capitalizes and punctuates his or her writing, readers can better comprehend the text.
They know when the writer begins and ends ideas within sentences, makes statements, poses
questions or expresses strong emotion.
When students extensively practice the phrasing exercises involved in grammar instruction, they
increase their grammatical, or syntactical, awareness. Grammatical awareness is the awareness
that words are arranged into coherent and logical phrases. Grammatical ability is the ability to
arrange these words meaningfully and by following conventional patterns of word order.
THE RESEARCH
Here is what some research studies indicate about grammar instruction:
• A strong link exists between students’ performance on grammatical exercises and reading
skill. Students with strong grammatical awareness tend to read well.
Grammatical exercises include rearranging scrambled words into sentences and supplying
the grammatically appropriate word in a sentence (cloze activity).
52
Examples:
toy, buys, girl, a, the . . . The girl buys a toy.
The boy tosses a _______. (ball)
• Readers gain meaning from text gradually, through the successive unfolding of phrases and
sentences. As they absorb each new piece of information embedded in these units of
meaning, they link it to the phrases and sentences that come before and after it (and to their
existing knowledge of the topic). Effective grammar instruction trains students to identify
the key ideas in phrases and sentences and how authors link them. This increases their
comprehension of the text.
Let’s examine this sentence from The Secret Garden by Frances Hodgson Burnett (1849-1924)
to understand how grammatical awareness can enhance comprehension.
The sentence – “When Mary Lennox was sent to Misselthwaite Manor to live with
her uncle everybody said she was the most disagreeable-looking child ever seen.”
Even though readers may not be able to label this sentence construction as an
adverb clause followed by an infinitive phrase followed by an independent clause
(or key idea) followed by a noun clause acting as a predicate noun, they do need to
sense that there are four units of meaning in this sentence and each part has a
specific function that, when blended with the other parts, forms one unit of
understanding, or one mental representation. Let’s examine these successive units.
First part – “When Mary Lennox was sent to Misselthwaite Manor . . .” Because
this adverb clause (telling when “everybody said”) is written in the passive voice,
readers understand that something was being done to Mary rather than Mary
initiating the action.
Second part – “. . . to live with her uncle . . .” This second unit of thought adds
information to the first part. It tells why Mary Lennox was sent to Misselthwaite
Manor.
Third part – “. . . everybody said . . .” This is an independent clause that holds the
key idea of everyone talking about Mary. It is connected to the first part that tells
when everyone talks about her. As is typical of older writing, notice how simply this
clause is constructed and how it contains very little meaning compared to the other
parts of the sentence; yet, it is the core of the sentence.
Fourth part – “. . . [that] she was the most disagreeable-looking child ever seen.”
This noun clause acts as a predicate noun and serves the function of describing
what “everybody said.”
So, in this sentence, we have the core, “everybody said,” and information that tells when,
why and what everybody said. That’s a fair amount of information packed into one complete
thought. You can see why students must have some grammatical sense if they are to
understand this thought in its entirety.
53
• Students with strong grammatical awareness are better able to use context clues to identify
words in a passage that they would otherwise have trouble decoding in isolation. They can
also better predict what comes next in a sentence because sentences follow predictable
syntactical patterns.
Examples:
“James flinched with horror and pain as the venomous snake bit him.” The reader can
draw on his or her syntactical and vocabulary knowledge to decode the word venomous.
“Because of the violent thunderstorm . . .” Grammatically aware readers can expect that
the second half of the sentence will be about the effect of the thunderstorm.
• Research also indicates that students with strong grammatical awareness may be better able
to monitor their reading accuracy and correct any decoding errors that may decrease their
comprehension than students with weak grammatical awareness.
• Grammatical awareness may help students cluster words into meaningful phrases.
• There is a question as to whether students’ global language problems, which include weak
grammatical awareness, lead to reading problems or whether reading problems lead to
language problems (as a result of not reading). Stories, novels and informational texts tend to
contain more challenging syntax and sentence structure than everyday spoken language.
Students with reading problems may not have the same ability to understand this more
elevated language as their peers who read often.
• Some researchers believe that weak working memory is often a factor in language delays.
Working memory is the ability to hold several pieces of information in memory while
working with only one or two of them at a time. When forming a spoken sentence, for
instance, the speaker must think about what he or she wants to say, hold this in memory,
determine how to best phrase the idea, then say each successive part of it. To comprehend a
paragraph, the reader must remember each key idea long enough to connect it to all the
other key ideas presented both before and after.
• Research indicates that these sentence patterns pose particular problems for weak readers
who lack grammatical awareness.
A. Sentences with verbs in the passive voice
Example: “The wallet beside the curb was found by a pedestrian.” (The active
voice is usually easier to understand: “A pedestrian found the wallet
beside the curb.”)
B. Sentences with double negatives
Example: “The customer is not dissatisfied.” (Versus, “The customer is satisfied,”
which actually has a slightly different meaning from the above
sentence.)
C. Sentences with verb phrases
Example: “You should have been notified of the cancellation.”
54
D. Sentences with elaborated subjects (or subjects described with adjective clauses)
or lengthy prepositional phrases
Examples: “Puffins, which now breed on numerous islands off the coast of Scotland and
eastern Canada, were once in danger of becoming extinct.”
“The passenger with the bright red overcoat and three-inch spiked heels sat
down with a flourish.”
E. Sentences with inverted subjects
Example: “Scrambling up the stairs came the adventurous toddler.” (Versus
“The adventurous toddler came scrambling up the stairs.”)
F. Sentences with participial phrases
Example: “Breathing heavily from exertion, the hiker approached the summit.”
G. Compound-complex sentences
Example: “The dancer, who wore a magnificent headdress and flowing silk
gown, leapt off the stage and sashayed up the aisle.” (Note that this
sentence has three ideas: a) the dancer leapt; b) the dancer sashayed;
and c) the dancer wore a headdress and gown. Also note the
distance between the subject, dancer, and the verbs, leapt and sashayed.
The greater the distance between subjects and verbs, the greater is
the likelihood of misunderstanding.)
H. Sentences with pronoun antecedents
Example: “I’m game for any of the Hawaiian Islands for vacation. I love to go
there [Hawaii] to relax and enjoy the beautiful surroundings.”
I. Sentences with subordinating conjunctions
Example: “Unless you tell us differently, we will pick up Jared at nine o’clock.”
(If readers skip over or do not fully consider the word unless, they
will not understand that picking up Jared is conditional.)
During grammar and usage instruction, students practice identifying and manipulating the
above word functions and sentence constructions, to the point at which they become very
familiar with them.
• Research suggests that grammar instruction involving students’ manipulation of the words in
sentences is particularly helpful in increasing reading comprehension (as opposed to simply
having students label words according to their parts of speech or word functions).
• Having students manipulate words in compound, complex and compound-complex
sentences helps them understand the relationships among their multiple ideas.
In summary, just as students’ thoughts shape the words they use when they speak and write, the
words they use also shape their thoughts. Training in grammar, usage and writing mechanics
helps students develop the “word power” they need to shape their thoughts well.
55
SOURCES
1. Benton, S., Deutsch, A. and Liberman, I.Y. (1990). Syntactic competence and reading ability
in young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 48, 147-72.
2. Bryant, P., Nunes, T. and Bindman, M. (1997). Children’s understanding of the connection
between grammar and spelling. In B. Blachman (Ed.), Foundations of Reading Acquisition and
Dyslexia, pp. 219-240. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum.
3. Bowey, J. A. (1986a). Syntactic awareness and verbal performance from preschool to fifth
grade. Journal of Applied Psycholinguistics, 15, 285-308.
4. Bowey, J. A. (1994). Grammatical awareness and learning to read: A critique. In Literacy
Acquisition and Social Context, E.M.H. Assink (Ed.), (pp. 122-149). London: Harvester
Wheatsheaf/Prentice Hall.
5. Butler, K. G. (1988). Preschool language processing performance and later reading
achievement. In Preschool Prevention of Reading Failure, R.L. Masland and M.W. Masland (Eds.),
(pp. 19-51). Parkton, MD: York Press.
6. Cain, K., Oakhill, J. and Bryant, P. (2004). Children’s Reading Comprehension Ability:
Concurrent Prediction by Working Memory, Verbal Ability, and Component Skills. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 96, 31-42.
7. Clark, C. H. (1986). Instructional strategies to promote comprehension of normal and
noncohesive text. In Understanding and Teaching Cohesion Comprehension, J.W. Irwin (Ed.),
(pp.125-136). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
8. Cole, M. L. and Cole, J. T. (1981). Effective Intervention with the Language Impaired Child.
Rockville, MD: Aspen Systems Corporation.
9. Dickinson, D. K., and Tabors, P. O. (2001). Beginning Literacy with Language: Young Children
Learning at Home and School. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing.
10. Fowler, A. E. (1988). Grammaticality judgments and reading skill in grade 2. Annals of
Dyslexia, 38, 73-94.
11. Gillon, G., and Dodd, B. (1995). The effects of training phonological, semantic, and
syntactic processing skills in spoken language on reading ability. Language, Speech, and Hearing
Services in Schools. 26, 58-68.
12. Guthrie, J. T. (1973). Reading comprehension and syntactic responses in good and poor
readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 65, 294-299.
13. Layton, A., Robinson, J., and Lawson, M. (1998). The relationship between syntactic
awareness and reading performance. Journal of Research in Reading, 21, 5-23.
14. Moe, A. J., and Irwin, J. W. (1986). Cohesion, coherence, and comprehension. In
Understanding and Teaching Cohesion Comprehension, J. W. Irwin (Ed.), (pp. 3-8). Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
56
15. Pulver, C. J. (1986). Teaching students to understand explicit and implicit connectives. In
Understanding and Teaching Cohesion Comprehension, J. W. Irwin (Ed.), (pp. 3-8). Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
16. Scarborough, J. S. (1991). Early syntactic development of dyslexic children. Annals of
Dyslexia, 41, 207-20.
17. Straw, S. B., and Schreiner, R. (1982). The effects of sentence manipulation on subsequent
measures of reading and listening. Reading Research Quarterly, 17, 339-52.
18. Weaver, P. (1979). Improving reading comprehension: Effects of sentence organization
instruction. Reading Research Quarterly, 15, 127-46.
19. Wiig, E. H. and Semel, E. M. (1980). Language Assessment and Intervention for the Learning
Disabled. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
20. Willows, D., and Ryan, E. (1986). The development of grammatical sensitivity and its
relationship to early reading achievement. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 253-66.
57
11. The Manus Approach to
Teaching Grammar, Usage
and Writing Mechanics
THE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Here are the Manus Curriculums materials that are designed to directly teach grammar, usage
and writing mechanics:
How to Teach Grammar, Usage and Writing Mechanics
This step-by-step and self-instructional training manual shows teachers how to teach
students to master these three essential literacy skills. Teachers not only practice the prescribed
teaching techniques, they also complete training exercises that help them master the
grammar, using and writing mechanics skills themselves.
Grammar, Usage and Writing Mechanics
This series consists of eight practice packs covering grades one through eight and a single
practice pack covering grades 9-12. It trains students to master grammar, usage, punctuation and
phrasing skills to build verbal and written fluency and organize their thinking. Students learn each
skill in isolation then integrate it as they complete exercises of increasing complexity.
Each set of practice pack masters contains 33 weekly lessons and a goals and objectives
checklist for tracking student progress. Extensive practice, reviews and practice tests help
ensure mastery before students advance to the next skill.
Teachers following our program schedule grammar, usage and writing mechanics instruction for
fifteen to twenty minutes a day, four days a week and throughout the school year. This regular
schedule allows students to fully learn, retain and use their grammar skills in other lessons,
especially in their vocabulary, writing and literature lessons.
TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR GRAMMAR
1. Teach grammar, usage and writing mechanics skills in a hierarchical sequence.
Arrange grammar objectives hierarchically, so that each successive grammar skill is an
extension of the one before it. This ensures skill integration and fluency. For instance, once
students learn the second skill, they practice the first and second skills together. Once they
learn the third skill, they practice the first, second and third skills together. They continue
following this sequence until they master all skills.
58
2. At the beginning of every few lessons, verbally review previously learned rules and
definitions.
As students learn more skills, regularly review old ones so they fluently integrate all of them.
As students become fluent in the old skills, decrease the frequency with which you and they
review them and spend more time reviewing the newer ones. (Each weekly lesson in the
practice packs begins with a verbal review.)
Here are examples of brief verbal reviews in grammar and English usage:
Grammar Review
Teacher:
What does the subject tell you?
Students:
Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
Students:
Who or what the sentence is about.
That’s correct. Answer in a full sentence . . . “The subject tells you . . .”
The subject tells you who or what the sentence is about.
Good. What does the verb tell you?
The verb tells you what the subject does.
Yes. What question does the direct object answer?
The direct object answers the question “what?”
Very good. What question does the indirect object answer?
The indirect object answers the question “to whom?” or “for whom?”
Correct. What four questions does an adjective answer?
An adjective answers “which one? what kind? how many? and whose?”
Usage Review
Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
Students:
Teacher:
What kind of verb do singular subjects take?
Singular subjects take singular verbs.
Good sentence. What kind of verb do plural subjects take?
Plural subjects take plural verbs.
Good. Name the singular pronouns.
Each, either, neither, all the ones and all the bodies.
Tell me again in a full sentence.
The singular pronouns are: each, either, neither, all the ones and all the bodies.
Good sentence. What kind of verb do singular pronouns take?
Singular pronouns take singular verbs.
Good. Name the plural pronouns. Remember to answer in a complete
sentence.
Students: The plural pronouns are both, several, many and few.
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Teacher:
I like how you answered in a full sentence. What kind of verb do subjects
joined with and take? . . . What kind of verb do singular subjects joined
with or take? . . . Name the “sanams” [some, any, none, all, most] . . .
What kind of verb do they take? . . . What kind of verb follows sentences
that begin with here or there? . . . What is a collective noun? . . . Give an
example of a collective noun . . . What kind of verb does it take?
3. Teach new skills following the sequence of guided instruction.
Tell your students the skill you’re teaching them and the reason they’re learning it.
Model the skill (or definition or steps) two to three times. Talk aloud as you perform the
skill.
Review the skill and have your students repeat what you said. They may not completely
understand what they’re repeating; however, they’re beginning to remember the skill,
which is a prerequisite for understanding.
Model the skill or procedure once or twice more. Next, complete a few more exercises
with the students, monitoring them to ensure they respond correctly. If they forget
something essential, say it for them and tell them to repeat it.
Have the students recite the skill, definitions or steps again in complete sentences. Tell
them any phrases they forget. Keep reviewing until the students can easily recite what you
want them to.
Give the students several exercises to complete as you monitor them. Tell them to think
aloud as they perform the skill so you know what they are thinking. If they perform an
exercise silently, make them repeat the exercise, thinking aloud as they complete it. Closely
monitor their work and give them frequent feedback to help shape accurate responses.
Model, again, any skills they forget.
When the students can easily recite the skill or steps and perform them well under your
supervision, give them more exercises to complete independently and, this time, silently.
Monitor them as they work to ensure accuracy. If they struggle or labor too intensively,
briefly model the skill again. Then watch them complete the next few exercises.
Remember, the more you monitor, the more you maximize their correct number of
responses, thereby maximizing their progress.
Here is one variation of guided instruction during a grammar lesson:
1. Introduce the skill and explain its purpose.
Teacher: Today, you will learn about prepositional phrases. You use prepositional
phrases often when you speak and read so learning about them is
important. Examples of prepositional phrases are in the road, at the door,
beside the car, below the deck and above the counter.
Here’s an easy way to remember what a prepositional phrase is: it is how
a plane can fly. A plane can fly through the cloud, around the cloud, among the
clouds and above the ground.
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2. Verbally review the skill and its definition.
Teacher: I repeat, a prepositional phrase is how a plane can fly. What is a
prepositional phrase?
Students: How a plane can fly.
Teacher: Full sentence, please. A prepositional phrase is . . .
Students: A prepositional phrase is how a plane can fly.
Teacher: Nice sentence. Give examples of prepositional phrases. A plane can fly
behind a cloud . . . keep going.
Students: Through the cloud, between the cloud, into the storm . . .
Teacher: Good. Let’s use objects in this room. The math is on the board. The books
are by the window. Katie, make a prepositional phrase telling where your
shoes are.
Student: The shoes are on my feet.
Teacher: Good. On my feet is a prepositional phrase. (Teacher continues to assist
students in constructing phrases until they construct them easily.)
3. Model the skill.
Teacher: Turn to your practice exercises . . . The directions tell us to read the
sentences and circle the prepositional phrases. Watch me do number one.
I first read the sentence to get a feel for it. The book was on the table.
(Teacher emphasizes the phrase.) On the table is the prepositional phrase
so I label it. Here’s another . . . The cat lay sleeping by the window. By the
window is a prepositional phrase. Help me with the next one. Put the
scissors in the drawer. What is the prepositional phrase?
Students: The prepositional phrase is in the drawer.
Teacher: I like the way you emphasized the phrase. Help me with two more . . .
4. Verbally review the skill again.
Teacher: Again, what is a prepositional phrase? Full sentence.
Students: A prepositional phrase is how a plane can fly.
Teacher: Good. Janet, give me two phrases using the word in.
Janet:
In the house. In the cellar.
Teacher: Excellent phrases. (Teacher continues to review for thirty seconds or
more.)
5. Complete several exercises with the students.
Teacher: Let’s complete the next exercise together. Everyone, read the fourth
sentence aloud.
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Students: John put the pencil cup beside the books.
Teacher: What is the prepositional phrase? John put the pencil cup beside the books.
Students: Beside the books is a prepositional phrase.
Teacher: Very good. Now, I want each student to take a turn at reading a sentence
aloud and identifying the phrase. The other students follow in their
workbooks and circle the phrases. Teresa, let’s begin with you. Read the
next sentence . . .
(Teacher monitors the students to ensure accuracy. When students have
trouble performing an exercise, he or she either fully models the skill again
or prompts the students, heavily or lightly, to respond correctly. The
teacher then gives several more similar practice exercises to ensure that the
students learn to accurately complete the particular kind of practice they
just missed.)
6. Verbally review the skill again.
Teacher: Your work looks very good. Let’s review once more. What is a
prepositional phrase? Answer in a full sentence . . . Give examples of
prepositional phrases . . . What is the prepositional phrase in this
sentence, “The man sat in the chair”?
7. Assign independent work and closely monitor the students.
Teacher: You are showing a good understanding of prepositional phrases and have
completed the first ten exercises correctly. Complete the rest
independently and I will walk around the classroom and check to make
sure everyone is successful with this assignment.
4. Train students to ask and answer questions about the words in the sentence then
label these words in a chronological sequence.
You’ll probably find that the question-grammar technique is the most helpful component of
your instruction. When students are trained to ask and answer questions about the functions
of words repeatedly, they develop a facility in phrasing their thoughts and they view
grammar as a tool for organizing speech rather than as an isolated skill. Here’s an example of
one of the many question and answer routines that students go through as they complete the
grammar exercises in the practice packs:
s
v
a adj
adj
do
p adj op
Sentence: Gary put the old, brown hat (on his head).
Student asks him or herself, “Who put the old, brown hat on his head? Gary did. Gary
is the subject. What did Gary do? He put; put is the verb. Put what? He put a hat. Hat is
the direct object. On his head is a prepositional phrase. On is the preposition and head is
the object of the preposition. What kind of hat did he put on? He put on an old,
brown hat. Old and brown are adjectives describing hat. Whose head is it? It is his head.
His is an adjective describing head. The is an article.”
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5. Prompt students to ask questions about word functions as often as needed until they
internalize the habit.
To get students to automatically ask and answer questions about the functions of the words
they are labeling, you will need to initially prompt them often. Here is an example of a
teacher heavily prompting a student.
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Sara, read the second sentence then ask and answer a question about each
word in it.
The painter shuts the door. (Remains silent.)
Who shuts the door? Repeat that, please.
Who shuts the door?
Good. In a full sentence answer your question, “The painter . . .”
The painter shuts the door.
Therefore, painter is the subject. Say that.
Painter is the subject.
(Prompts student to ask a question about the verb.) What does the . . .
What does the painter do?
Good question. Answer it in a full sentence, “He . . .”
He shuts the door.
Give me one word saying what he does. “He . . .”
He shuts.
Good. He shuts. Shuts is the verb. Say that.
He shuts. Shuts is the verb.
Yes. Let’s go through this sentence again. I’ll go first. “The painter shuts
the door.” Who shuts the door? The painter does; therefore, painter is the
subject. What does the painter do? He shuts. Shuts is the verb.” Now you
analyze the sentence the same way I did. Read it first.
“The painter shuts the door.” Who shuts the door? The painter does;
therefore, painter is the subject. He shuts. Shuts is . . .
(Interrupts student.) What does the painter do? Ask that question first.
What does the painter do? He shuts. Shuts is the verb . . .
Good question and answer. Read the third sentence aloud.
The eagle flies overhead. Eagle is the subject.
Ask the question first. What flies overhead? Say that.
What flies overhead? The eagle flies. Eagle is the subject.
Excellent question and answer. Keep going. “What does the eagle . . .”
What does the eagle do? It flies. Flies is the verb.
You’re getting the rhythm now. Complete another sentence. (Teacher
continues to prompt student to ask and answer questions about subjects and verbs until
she can complete this step easily.)
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TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR ENGLISH USAGE
1. Have students complete the usage exercises orally.
Regardless of whether you teach a class, small group or individual students, have students
take turns with each other or you in reading sentences and telling and recording the answers.
Have the other students follow and record the answers in their books. (Privately ask students
with reading difficulties if they would like to read aloud like the others or if they would
prefer that you discretely skip them.)
Students learn to apply English usage rules better when they hear and see them rather than
just see and apply them silently; therefore, have them complete at least half of the day’s
exercises aloud and with each other.
2. Train students to state the rule as they apply it in the assigned exercises.
Have students state the usage rule every time they apply it in an exercise that introduces a
new skill. Stating the rule raises their level of awareness of it and increases the likelihood that
they will use it when they are writing paragraphs, essays or other assignments and are
focused on using multiple skills at once. Here’s an example of this strategy:
Sentence:
Neither of you (has/have) given a credible account of the accident.
Response:
“The subject is neither, which is a singular pronoun; therefore it takes the
singular verb has. ‘Neither of you has given a credible account of the
accident.’ ”
3. Incorporate grammar skills into your usage lessons.
To promote skill integration and provide additional grammar review, have students label a
sentence for grammatical terms at any point during a usage lesson. Here is an example of
this integration:
Sentence:
With (who/whom) will I speak?
Response:
“Who will speak? I will. I is the subject. What will I do? I will speak. Will
speak is the verb phrase. Will is the helping verb and speak is the main
verb. With whom is a prepositional phrase. With is the preposition and
whom is the object of the preposition. Whom is the correct pronoun to use
because it is in the objective case.”
4. When students choose the incorrect usage, tell them the correct answer and ask them
to state the rule.
If students forget a rule, recite the rule then verbally review it with them for a few seconds.
Make them respond in complete sentences.
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Teacher:
(Hears a student say, “Neither of the pairs of pants fit me” when
completing a usage exercise.) The correct verb is fits, not fit. Neither is a
singular subject; therefore, it must take a singular verb. Remember, each,
either, neither, all the ones and all the bodies are singular pronouns. They take
singular verbs. Tell me, what are the singular pronouns?
Student:
Teacher:
Each, either, neither, all the ones and all the bodies.
Say that again in a complete sentence.
Student:
Teacher:
The singular pronouns are each, either, neither, all the ones and all the bodies.
Good. In a full sentence, what kind of verb do singular pronouns take?
Student:
Teacher:
Singular pronouns take singular verbs.
Yes. Read this exercise again. Tell me the correct verb and why it is
correct.
“Neither of the pairs of pants fits me.” Neither is the singular subject. It
must take the singular verb fits.
That was a very good answer.
Student:
Teacher:
TEACHING STRATEGIES FOR WRITING MECHANICS
1. Teach students to work methodically.
Have students follow this procedure as they complete the exercises on writing mechanics.
Read each sentence first before writing any corrections. Tell the students to get the “big
picture” before handling such details as missing capital letters. This increases their
awareness of visual detail, thereby minimizing impulsive responses and careless errors.
Slowly read the sentence again, in a monotone, supplying the missing capital letters and
punctuation marks. (A monotone prevents students’ natural inflections from overpowering
the editing process.) If a student reads too quickly, complete one or two problems,
modeling a comfortable speed.
Proofread the sentence, moving from left to right. Don’t let students hop around the
sentence filling in the corrections. They are likely to skip something.
2. Analyze student errors as you and they correct their work.
Analyzing errors can tell you about what the students do and do not know. For example, did
the students make a mistake because they did not know the rule or did they know the rule
but have trouble applying it?
Point out the mistakes to the students and have them recite the mechanics rules pertaining
to those errors. If they cannot recite the rule, tell it to them and have them practice the skill
again in isolation and until they can respond fluently. If they can recite the rule easily, tell
them their knowledge is good, but their application is weak. Model for them, again, the
proofreading procedure described above. Tell them if they are prone to making careless
errors, they must practice working at steady speeds and become good proofreaders.
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Teacher:
(Notices that a student did not write a comma after a long introductory
phrase.) Look at this sentence you just edited. “During the long, cold
winter the herd of cows huddled together for warmth.” When did the cows
huddle together for warmth?
Student:
During the long, cold winter.
Teacher:
Student:
Answer in a full sentence. “During the long, cold winter, the herd . . .”
During the long, cold winter the herd of cows huddled together for
warmth.
Good sentence. During the long, cold winter is an introductory phrase. What is
during the long, cold winter?
Teacher:
Student:
During the long, cold winter is an introductory phrase.
Teacher:
That’s right. What punctuation mark do we write after an introductory
phrase?
A comma?
Yes, a comma. Now answer my question in a complete sentence, “After an
introductory phrase, we . . .”
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
After an introductory phrase, we write a comma.
Yes. Read this sentence again, write the comma where needed and state the
rule for using the comma.
“During the long, cold winter the herd of cows huddled together for
warmth.” During the long, cold winter is an introductory phrase. I write a
comma after winter, or after the introductory phrase.
That’s correct. Read the next sentence, write the comma where needed and
state the rule for using the comma.
“Before diving into the water the scuba divers checked their air tanks.”
Before diving into the water is a long introductory phrase. I write a comma after
this phrase.
Excellent. Complete one more exercise aloud.
OTHER PHRASING ACTIVITIES
These exercises provide additional practice in helping students organize then phrase their
thoughts.
1. Combining Sentences
Max overslept on Monday morning.
He missed the bus.
He was late for work.
Because Max overslept on Monday morning, he missed the bus and was late for work.
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2. Expanding Sentences
Have students expand on phrases to create increasingly detailed sentences by answering
“who,” “what,” “when,” “where,” “why” and “how” questions.
Sentence Starter: The rabbit nibbles.
What does the rabbit nibble?
How does the rabbit nibble?
Where does the rabbit nibble?
When does the rabbit nibble?
Why does the rabbit nibble?
The rabbit nibbles lettuce.
The rabbit eagerly nibbles lettuce.
The rabbit eagerly nibbles lettuce in the garden.
The rabbit eagerly nibbles lettuce in the garden in the early
morning.
The rabbit eagerly nibbles lettuce in the garden in the early
morning to satisfy its hunger.
3. Unscrambling Sentences
Unscrambling sentences gives students further practice in examining how words function.
Some nouns, for instance, function as subjects, direct objects and objects of prepositions.
Some verbs show action while others indicate a state of being (i.e., linking verbs). Still others
indicate when something occurs (i.e. verb tenses and helping verbs). To unscramble a
sentence, students must think about then place given words in different positions to
determine if they make sense.
slowly, cart, shopper, the, her, pushes
The shopper slowly pushes her cart.
4. Speaking in Complete Sentences
When teachers prompt students to respond to their questions in complete sentences
throughout the day, they give students extensive practice in not only phrasing, but also
organizing their thoughts. If students have trouble forming certain sentences, teachers
prompt them by asking a leading question or modeling part or all of the sentences and
having the student repeat them.
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
What system pumps blood throughout the body?
The circulatory system.
Say that in a complete sentence, “The circulatory system pumps . . .”
The circulatory system pumps blood throughout the body.
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12. A Summary of the Educational
Research on Teaching Vocabulary
RESEARCH
Here are some observations and conclusions drawn by both the National Reading Panel (NRP)
and other researchers on effective practices for teaching vocabulary:
• Vocabulary knowledge plays a critical role in reading comprehension. Vocabulary
instruction, therefore, is an important part of a comprehensive reading program.
• The two main types of vocabulary are oral and reading. Oral vocabulary is listening and
speaking vocabulary. Reading vocabulary refers to the words we see when we read or the
words we use when we write.
• Students learn most vocabulary incidentally, or as they are doing something else. They learn
vocabulary as they watch television, read signs, have conversations with others and interact
with their teachers. They learn many words by reading or listening to others read to them.
Reading is one of the most effective ways to build vocabulary.
• The average student may learn about 3,000 new words a year incidentally.
• Effective vocabulary instruction combines two instructional approaches: incidental learning
and direct instruction. During direct instruction, teachers present a list of words to the
students, either from a vocabulary workbook, content course or another source, and have
them study these words directly, by engaging in a variety of exercises.
• Incidental and direct vocabulary instruction each has its strong and weak points. Combining
the two approaches helps to create a comprehensive vocabulary program. Students
experience the benefits of both approaches and are not hindered by the gaps in each one.
• The advantages of incidental learning are that students can learn words throughout the day
rather than just during scheduled vocabulary lessons and they can experience how words are
used in different contexts.
• One limitation of incidental learning is that only a relatively small number of students
experience the language-rich opportunities that allow them to benefit from incidental
vocabulary growth. Incidental instruction, therefore, cannot be left to chance. If the average or
above average student learns 3,000 to 4,000 new words a year incidentally, students with
barriers might learn only 1,000. By the time a student leaves high school, this annual 2,000 plus
word deficit will have grown into a word deficit of over 20,000 words.
• Another limitation of incidental learning is that students’ understanding of words may be
superficial. To fully understand words they are exposed to, students need repeated exposure
to them in different contexts. Incidental exposure to words, however, is often haphazard.
Students may or may not see these words again for a long time.
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• The advantages of direct vocabulary instruction are that students can learn word meanings
precisely and in depth. For instance, they can learn: a) the words’ pronunciations, root
origins and their parts of speech; b) multiple meanings of the words; c) how to change the
meanings of words by adding prefixes and suffixes; and d) how to use dictionaries as
resources. Teachers can have students focus on elevated yet high-frequency words they will
likely encounter when they read. They can also have students listen to and learn word
meanings embedded in reading passages that are essential to understanding the passages.
• The disadvantages of direct instruction are: a) it doesn’t always teach students how words are
used in different contexts; b) it can be a little dry unless teachers and parents participate in
the word study and make it lively; and c) it limits the number of words students learn per
year. Of the approximately 400,000 words in the English language, students working from
even the most aggressive vocabulary programs can only learn about 500 or 600 words per
year. Of this total, they might remember half of them over the long-term. Students who
work more slowly may only learn 200 new words a year.
SOURCES
Allen, J. (1999). Words, Words, Words: Teaching Vocabulary in Grades 4-12. York, ME: Stenhouse.
Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Templeton, S. and Johnston, F. (1996). Words Their Way: Word Study
for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Beck, I., McKeown, M., & Kucan, L. (2002). Bringing Words to Life: Robust Vocabulary Instruction.
New York: The Guilford Press.
Blachowicz, C. and Fisher, P. (1996). Teaching Vocabulary in All Classrooms. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Goodson, B., Wolf, A., Bell, S., Turner, H., and Finney, P.B. (2010). The Effectiveness of a Program
to Accelerate Vocabulary Development in Kindergarten (VOCAB). (NCEE 2010-4014). Washington,
DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education
Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
Kuhn, M., & Stahl, S. (1998). Teaching children to learn word meanings from context: A
synthesis and some questions. Journal of Literacy Research, 30, 119-138.
Nagy, W. E. (1988). Teaching Vocabulary to Improve Reading Comprehension. Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
Robbins, C., & Ehri, L. C. (1994). Reading storybooks to kindergartners helps them learn new
vocabulary words. Journal of Educational Psychology, 86, 54-64.
Schwartz, R. M., and Raphael, T. E. (1985). Concept of definition: A key to improving students’
vocabulary. The Reading Teacher, 39, 198-203
Stahl, S. A. (1999). Vocabulary Development. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
White, C.E. and Kim, J.S., Harvard Graduate School of Education (2009). Putting the Pieces of the
Puzzle Together: How Systematic Vocabulary Instruction and Expanded Learning Time Can Address the
Literacy Gap. Washington, D.C.: Center for American Progress.
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13. The Manus Approach to
Teaching Vocabulary
FOSTERING STUDENTS’ INCIDENTAL LEARNING OF
VOCABULARY WORDS
Here are some key strategies our teachers use to help students learn words incidentally, or as
they are engaged in tasks other than direct vocabulary instruction.
1. Hold a regular story time (or literature class for older students).
Regular story times foster a sense of community, give students with learning barriers a break
from having to perform, offer a restful, reflective period during a busy day, build student
focus and listening skills and help students build their awareness of the human condition as
they imaginatively live the lives of the story’s main characters.
To help students learn vocabulary incidentally, teachers paraphrase some of the key words in
the text that students may not know. This helps students maintain their comprehension of
the text yet doesn’t interrupt the flow of the story. An example of paraphrasing a new word
is: “With great trepidation, or fear, Jake let go of the rope and dropped into the water.”
Teachers may also spend a few minutes at the end of the story discussing some of the
unfamiliar words the students encountered in it.
2. Assign independent reading.
Studies show that the more students read, the more their vocabularies grow. To promote
this vocabulary growth, teachers give students an ample diet of independent reading every
day by establishing an independent reading time at school and/or assign it for daily
homework. To ensure that students benefit from their independent reading, teachers
monitor the students’ choice of books they read independently so the books are sufficiently
challenging but not overly so.
For students with learning barriers, teachers provide accommodations so these students can
also benefit from independent reading. For instance, they may have students with decoding
and fluency problems listen to or read along with an audio-book or an adult who reads to
them.
For students with pronounced language problems and/or weak background knowledge,
teachers may spend a few minutes giving the students an overview of the story they are
about to listen to or read and discuss any background knowledge and vocabulary words that
are pertinent to understanding the text. They may summarize every few paragraphs to ensure
that students learn the essential information.
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3. Use high-utility words throughout the day and paraphrase them.
To increase students’ exposure to vocabulary words, teachers use elevated yet high-utility
words (frequently-used academic vocabulary) throughout the day as they conduct their
lessons. They pair each unfamiliar word they say with a synonym so students can benefit
from this exposure. For example, a teacher might say, “Watch me as I implement, or use, this
formula to solve the problem.”
4. Provide the necessary background knowledge.
Before teachers introduce a unit of study to the class, they give them any background
information they might need to understand the new information and list the pertinent
vocabulary words on the board with one or two-word definitions.
5. Teach students to look for contextual clues.
Teachers train students to look for clues that authors often give to help readers understand
certain words. The clues include: a) stating the definition directly; b) giving further
explanation; c) restating, or paraphrasing what they just wrote but in a way that is easier to
understand; d) comparing or contrasting the unfamiliar concept with something else; or e)
giving examples of it.
6. Teach students to use the dictionary.
Teachers coach students to look up some of the unfamiliar words they encounter in a
dictionary or online dictionary or thesaurus.
TEACHING THE VOCABULARY WORDS DIRECTLY
Here are the general principles that teachers follow as they teach vocabulary directly.
1. Schedule daily lessons.
Teachers devote fifteen to twenty minutes each day directly instructing their students in
vocabulary. For the first two weeks, they schedule five or ten minutes more for each day’s
lesson. They use this extra time to coach students to use the prescribed strategies, such as
the “cumulative review” technique for learning the words on the first day.
2. Teach the words using the steps of direct instruction.
Teachers teach targeted words directly through such activities as word study, fill-in-themissing-word exercises, answering true-false statements about the words and writing
sentences containing the words.
Teachers prompt students to focus heavily and actively participate in the lessons. They
prompt students to watch them as they model the skills, copy their steps then use the words
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in different contexts to promote skill generalization. Teachers measure the students’ progress
and have them proceed to the next skill only when they have mastered the preceding ones.
Some of key strategies used during direct instruction are: a) teaching in small, hierarchical
steps; b) modeling the skill and following with guided then independent practice; c) teaching
in a multi-sensory way; d) ensuring that students respond mostly correctly and fluently
during each lesson; e) requiring skill mastery before teaching the next skill; f) analyzing
student errors to determine the cause of any learning problems; g) giving frequent and
specific feedback; and h) training students to work at comfortable speeds.
3. Teach high-utility words.
High-utility words are those words that we may not use often when we speak but do use
when we write or encounter when we read. Teaching these words has a high practical value.
Students get much exposure to these words in the books they read and will, ideally, use them
when they write essays, research reports and other papers.
4. Teach words with Greek and Latin roots.
Students in middle and high school start learning words with Greek and Latin roots and
words with prefixes and suffixes. This instruction promotes their understanding of assigned
literary and expository texts, helps them recognize spelling patterns of higher-level words
and helps them speak and write concisely. Here are examples of words with a common root
and with prefixes and suffixes: placate, implacable, placid, placidity, placebo, complacent and
complacency.
5. Teach a manageable number of words in a cumulative sequence.
Teaching a limited number of words in a cumulative sequence is more effective for most
students than teaching a high volume of words in isolation each week. This strategy removes
the barrier of forgetfulness that most students experience and allows them to study,
remember and use the words well over the long term.
For instance, a class of middle-school students might study and learn well only six words per
week rather than fifteen to twenty words. During the first week, they learn six words. During
the second week, they learn another six words then review and use the six words from the
first week for a total of twelve words. During the third week, they practice another six
words. Then they practice the twelve words from the preceding two weeks for a total of
eighteen words. At the end of the school year, students will have fully integrated and used
most of the words they learned that year. What students might lose in quantity, they make up
for in quality.
The Teaching/Learning Sequence Followed in the Manus Curriculums
Vocabulary Practice Packs
Here are the strategies and examples of the teaching and learning sequence that teachers and
students follow in the Manus Curriculums vocabulary practice packs:
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1. Day 1 – Memorize the definitions and use the words in sentences.
Memory and comprehension are interdependent. To understand a word’s meaning well, one
must remember it. To remember it, one must understand it. When students learn a new list
of words, therefore, spend the first day having the students complete a few comprehension
exercises so they understand the words well enough to remember them but spend the bulk
of time committing the word meanings to memory.
Tell the students that their goal is to retrieve a word’s meaning quickly even if they only
partially understand how to use the word. Later, once they can easily recall the word’s
meaning, they can work on understanding it at a deeper level. This sequence facilitates
learning because they get the memory and recall barriers out of the way up front.
Here are the steps for learning and remembering the week’s words and their definitions.
(You may use this practice sequence for any word list, such as content words from science
lessons.)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Preview the page.
Read aloud the first word and its definition.
Read aloud the sentences that follow to learn how the word is used.
Commit the word and its definition to memory.
Listen to the teacher create several sentences, modeling the use of the word and
paraphrasing its definition.
Make up phrases and sentences using the word.
Proceed to the second word and repeat the above sequence.
Review the first two words following the above sequence.
Proceed to the third word and repeat the above sequence.
Review the first three words following the above sequence.
Continue in this manner until you have learned all of the words.
Look up the sixth word in the dictionary, write the definition(s) then follow the above steps
to learn it well (step for middle-school students using the vocabulary practice packs).
At the beginning of each lesson, review the words in a cumulative sequence.
On the next few pages is a sample exercise, which is pulled from an eighth-grade practice pack,
and examples of the above strategies prescribed for learning the words on Day 1.
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Day 1
Exercise 1: Learn and memorize these words and their definitions by following the steps for Day
1 in the section titled, “How to Learn Your Vocabulary Words.” Then write a sentence using
each word.
1. distinct
adjective
different or not identical; separate; clear or unmistakable
The company showcased a new car that’s quite distinct from previous models.
Our government has distinct branches: judicial, executive and legislative.
Actors learn to speak distinctly so they can be heard in the theater.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
2. intense
adjective
extreme in degree or strength; having strong emotion
The battle of Gettysburg was intense and lasted for several days.
Having an intense thirst, the hiker searched for a stream.
Mr. Phelps is an intense and passionate champion of animal rights.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. formation the act or process of shaping; a configuration; an arrangement
noun
We watched the potter’s formation of a beautiful bowl made from clay.
The warriors marched in formation to the patriotic music.
Kitty creates a distinctive formation with her building blocks.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
4. policy
noun
plan or course of action designed to influence decisions or actions; contract
The school policy states that students must bring notes to excuse their absences.
The United Nations has policies governing the distribution of medical supplies.
Our automobile insurance policy covers accidents and theft.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
5. precede
verb
to go or come before, as in place, rank, importance or time
Kindergarten precedes first grade.
Breaking news stories almost always precede the common interest stories.
Mrs. Johns often precedes her civics lectures with a fascinating political cartoon.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Exercise 2: Look up the definition of this word in the dictionary. Write its definition here, create
a sentence using the word then share this sentence with your classmates.
6. broach
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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Day 1 – Using the Learning Strategies
1. Preview the page.
Scan the list of words and their definitions for a minute or two.
Example:
“The words are distinct, intense . . . and broach. Distinct is an adjective. Intense is also
an adjective and precede is . . . The last word, broach, I will look up in the
dictionary.”
2. Read aloud the first word and its definition.
Example:
“The first word is distinct. Distinct means different or not identical; separate; clear
or unmistakable.”
3. Read aloud the sentences that follow to learn how the word is used.
As you read each sentence, add the meaning of the italicized vocabulary word.
Example:
“The company showcased a new car that’s quite distinct, or different, from earlier
models . . . Our government has three distinct, or separate, branches: judicial,
executive and legislative . . . Actors learn to speak distinctly, or clearly, so they can be
heard in the theater.”
4. Commit the word and its definition to memory.
Ask yourself questions about the word and answer them in full sentences.
Example:
“What does distinct mean? Distinct means different, separate or clear. What means
different, separate or clear? Distinct means different, separate or clear. What does
distinct mean? Distinct means different, separate or clear.”
“I will try this again without looking at the definitions. What does distinct mean?
Distinct means clear . . . What means separate, different or . . . Distinct means
separate, different or clear.”
5. Listen to the teacher create several sentences, modeling the use of the
word and paraphrasing its definition.
Example:
“Belinda, earlier this morning, I distinctly, or clearly, heard you say that you can’t
wait for the school assembly today . . . Class, notice how distinctive, or clearly blue,
Greg’s eyes are. They are quite striking . . . We have three distinct, or separate,
periods in the morning. They are language arts, writing and math.”
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6. Make up phrases and sentences using the word.
Ask your teacher to give you a prompt if you’re unsure of how to use a word.
Example:
Student: I distinctly heard that.
Teacher: What did you distinctly hear?
Student: Umm . . .
Teacher: Did you distinctly, or clearly, hear the school bell, a police siren or a
bird chirping?
Student: I distinctly heard a police siren outside.
Teacher: Good sentence. Jon, you make up a sentence using the word distinct.
Student: I can’t think of a sentence.
Teacher: Well . . . tell me about how clearly Lucy recited her lines yesterday and
use the word distinctly. “Lucy recited her . . .”
Student: Lucy recited her lines distinctly in the school play yesterday.
Teacher: Great sentence.
7. Proceed to the second word and repeat the above sequence.
Example:
“The second word is intense. It means extreme in degree or strength; having
strong emotion.”
“I’ll read the sentences and paraphrase the vocabulary . . . ‘The battle of
Gettysburg was intense, or extremely deadly, and lasted several days.’ . . . ‘Having
an intense, or strong, thirst, the hiker searched for a stream.’ . . . ‘Mr. Phelps is an
intense, or emotional, and passionate champion of animal rights.’ ”
“Next, I’ll memorize the definition. ‘What does intense mean? Intense means . . .
What means extreme, strong or emotional? Intense is . . .’ ”
“I’ll say some sentences using the word intense . . . ‘I had an intense workout at the
gym yesterday.’ ‘The screeching gave the baby sitter an intense headache.’ ”
8. Review the first two words following the above sequence.
Example:
“What does distinct mean? Distinct means . . . What does intense mean? Intense
means . . . ‘I distinctly told you to go to bed! The Italian liqueur is intensely sour.’”
9. Proceed to the third word and repeat the above sequence.
10. Review the first three words following the above sequence.
11. Continue in this manner until you have learned all of the words.
Example:
“Precede means to go or come before . . . Policy is a plan or course of action that . . .
Formation means the act or . . . Intense means extreme in degree or . . . Distinct
means different or . . .”
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12. Look up the sixth word in the dictionary, write the definition(s) then follow
the above steps to learn it well.
This step is for students using the Practice Packs for Vocabulary, Grades 4-8:
Example:
(Student looks up the word broach in the dictionary.)
“Broach means to mention or introduce . . . Randi was surprised when Gustav
finally broached the subject of his mysterious past . . . What does broach mean?
Broach means to . . . What means to mention . . . Broach means . . .”
13. At the beginning of each lesson, review the words in a cumulative
sequence.
Because the students are familiar with the words, most will spend an average of
three or four minutes reviewing the entire list on the second day. By the third and
fourth day, they may need only one or two minutes to review the list.
Example:
“Distinct means different, separate or clear. Intense means . . . Formation means . . .
Policy means . . . Precede means . . . Broach means . . .”
2. Create vocabulary cards to use at home.
In the appendix of each Manus Curriculums vocabulary practice pack are the words covered
in each lesson. Have students cut out the week’s words and put them on their family’s
refrigerator or other highly visible place.
Write a letter explaining to parents how you are teaching vocabulary and that you would like
them to post then use the week’s vocabulary words in their conversations with the student
and with other members of the family.
If you are using word lists other than the ones in the practice packs, have students write their
words on index cards using a black marker or pen (black ink is the most visible from a
distance). Here’s an example of one of the word lists in the appendix of an eighth-grade
practice pack:
Lesson 26
Lesson 26
distinct
intense
Lesson 26
Lesson 26
formation
policy
Lesson 26
Lesson 26
precede
broach
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3. Post the week’s words on the bulletin board.
Create a “Vocabulary” bulletin board, or word wall, that is divided into five sections, one
section for each week’s list of words. Using the first week’s word list, write the words on
index cards and post them on the board under week one. (Use a black marker.) Post the
second week’s words under week two. When you reach week six, remove the words from
week one and move the other word lists to the left one day so week two now becomes week
one, week three becomes week two and so on.
Use the bulletin board words as you instruct throughout the day. Prompt your students to
use the words in their responses and conversations. Monitor them closely to ensure they use
the words regularly. If they use a word incorrectly, rephrase the sentence for them and have
them repeat it.
Vocabulary Words
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
distinct
awkward
fortune
axis
melody
intense
glacier
furnace
canvas
sensitive
formation
gravel
mayor
district
slant
policy
sparkle
midst
geography
verse
precede
wisdom
museum
intersect
vibrate
broach
emblem
abridge
divulge
fastidious
4. Write the missing words.
A common vocabulary activity is to read a sentence with an omitted word then, from a bank
of vocabulary words, write the word that fits. This exercise offers relatively easy practice in
applying newly learned words to different contexts and is, therefore, a useful one to have
students complete as they first learn the words and as a later review. Here is an example of
the exercise:
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Day 2
Exercises 1 & 2: Review these words in the same way as you learned them on Day 1.
Next, following the steps for Day 2 in the section, “How to Learn Your Vocabulary
Words,” read each sentence and write the word on the line that best completes it. You
may change the word form (e.g., ability – abilities).
distinct
intense
formation
policy
precede
broach
1. The flock of birds became less _________________ as it flew off toward the horizon.
2. Father feels nervous about __________________ the topic of puberty with his son.
3. The sun is __________________ hot in tropical latitudes.
4. On this map, capital cities are __________________ marked with a star.
5. The rank of general __________________ the rank of major.
6. My conscience compels me to strictly adhere to my employer’s _________________
7. My Italian grandmother has a ____________________ way of cooking spaghetti sauce.
8. The gun manufacturer shapes the barrel of the pistol using a ____________________.
9. The famous actress is always under ______________________ scrutiny by the press.
10. Do not sign below until you have read the ______________________’s fine print.
Day 2 – Using the Learning Strategies
1. First, read the sentence in its entirety. Say “blank” to indicate the missing
word.
Word List:
distinct
intense
formation
policy
precede
broach
The flock of birds became less ____________________ as it flew off toward the
horizon.
“The flock of birds became less blank as it flew off toward the horizon.”
2. Second, starting with the first word in the list, use it in the sentence. Answer
“yes,” “no” or “maybe” to each one.
“The flock of birds became less distinct as it flew toward the horizon. ‘Yes.’ ”
“The flock of birds became less intense as it flew toward the horizon. ‘Maybe.’ ”
“. . . became less formation as it flew toward the horizon. ‘No.’ ”
“. . . became less policy as it flew toward the horizon. ‘No.’ ”
“. . . became less precede as it flew toward the horizon. ‘No.’ ”
“. . . became less broach as it flew toward the horizon. ‘No.’ ”
“The word distinct makes the most sense.”
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3. Complete the remaining sentences following the above procedures.
Your students may perceive that plugging every word into each sentence is a waste
of time, particularly if they are certain of the correct word. Tell them that hearing
absurdities, or the wrong words, in the sentences helps them develop a better
sense of how the words function and fit together.
Students who can articulate their thoughts well do not need to use this strategy for
every sentence they complete; however, they should use the strategy for at least
half of the first set of this kind of exercise. Students with receptive and expressive
language problems should use this strategy more often.
5. Answer yes/no questions.
To prompt students to examine the nuances of a word’s meaning, have them answer yes/no
questions that require them to focus on the precise meanings of words. Here’s an example of
a yes/no question that include words from preceding lessons:
Example:
If a girl looks distinct, is she easy to discriminate from amongst her peers?
Y
N
For students to correctly answer this question, they must not only know the meaning of
distinct, but also the meaning of discriminate (a previously learned word). Since they are forced
to make a choice, they must think carefully about the precise meanings of the words and the
question before they respond.
Day 2
Exercise: Answer each question by circling Y for yes or N for no. Then explain your answer.
* Excerpt from an eighth-grade vocabulary practice pack:
1. If you broach an issue, do you commence a discussion of the matter?
Y
N
2. Would an intense person be described as unemotional?
Y
N
3. Is Congress responsible for the formation of some governmental policies?
Y
N
4. If a girl looks distinct, is she easy to discriminate from amongst her peers?
Y
N
5. Does secondary school precede primary school?
Y
N
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Day 2 – Using the Learning Strategies
Directions: Answer each question by circling Y for yes or N for no. Explain your answer.
1. If you broach an issue, do you commence a discussion of the matter?
Y
N
Y
N
Y
N
“Yes, if you broach, or introduce, an issue, you begin to discuss it.”
2. Would an intense person be described as unemotional?
“No, an intense person would have strong emotions.”
3. Is Congress responsible for the formation of some governmental policies?
“Yes, Congress makes laws. They form, or create, policies, or legal procedures.”
4. If a girl looks distinct, is she easy to discriminate from amongst her peers?
Y
N
Y
N
“Yes, a different looking, or distinctive, girl would be easy to notice.”
5. Does secondary school precede primary school?
“No, primary school precedes, or comes before, secondary school.”
6. Turn phrases into sentences.
The purpose of turning phrases into sentences is to give students practice in using the
vocabulary words while giving them a prompt to use them correctly. Later in each lesson,
they use the vocabulary words as they write sentences and paragraphs without any prompts.
Have students generate sentences using each phrase then tell it to you before they write it. If
their sentences are well-constructed, tell them so and have them write them. If the sentences
are poorly constructed or vague, prompt them to construct better ones by asking them
leading questions or giving them clues.
Students with weak vocabularies, receptive and/or expressive language problems or other
learning barriers often have trouble generating logical sentences with the vocabulary words.
Some students may struggle with generating any sentence. Other students will generate
sentences but the sentences are illogical.
Prompt these students heavily throughout the daily lessons by either asking them leading
questions that cue them in how to respond or generating a sentence yourself and having
them repeat it. With enough prompting and modeling, most students will eventually use the
words appropriately.
Here is an example of turning phrases into sentences and of a teacher prompting a student
who is having difficulty thinking of sentences to write.
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Day 2 – Using the Learning Strategies
Directions: Write a detailed sentence using each group of words.
1. watch the formation of
The birders watch the formation of Canada geese fly over the lake.
2. too intense to broach
The subject is highly sensitive and too intense to broach right now.
3. a distinct characteristic
Her long, red hair is a distinct characteristic that sets her apart from other girls.
Example of a lesson:
Teacher: Write a sentence that uses the phrase “parents precede me in.” First, what
does precede mean? Answer in a full sentence.
Student: Precede means to come before.
Teacher: Good sentence. So, “parents precede me in” means the same as “parents
come before me in.” In what might parents come before you?
Student: Umm . . . I can’t think of anything.
Teacher: Can parents come before, or precede, you in a buffet line in the school’s
cafeteria?
Student: Yes.
Teacher: Use that in a sentence. “Parents precede me in . . .”
Student: Parents precede me in the buffet line in the school’s cafeteria.
Teacher: Good sentence.
Teacher: Imagine that you are hiking up a mountain. Your parents are ahead of you.
Make up a sentence about this and use the word precede.
Student: They preceded me.
Teacher: Who preceded you?
Student: My parents.
Teacher: In what did they precede you? Did they precede you in going to bed? In
crossing a river? In setting up a tent?
Student: No, they preceded me in hiking up a mountain.
Teacher: Say that in a sentence. “My parents preceded me in . . .”
Student: My parents preceded me in hiking up the mountain.
Teacher: That’s a very well-crafted sentence. It makes sense and has good detail.
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7. Use the words with prefixes and suffixes.
When students read or hear vocabulary words, particularly verbs, these words are often
changed to fit the contexts of the sentences. For instance, a student might see the word
commandeered or commandeering instead of commandeer. The same is true when students construct
sentences using the vocabulary words. They may wish to use the word location or dislocate
instead of locate.
The purpose of having students speak and write sentences using vocabulary words with
prefixes and suffixes is to help them get familiar with word derivations. This familiarity
improves their vocabulary, comprehension, word recognition skills and spelling ability.
Students working from the practice packs from grades four through eight complete weekly
exercises using words with given prefixes, suffixes or derivations in conversation and in
writing. Students in grades nine through twelve and, again, in grades four through eight,
complete review exercises during which they add prefixes and suffixes to given words. In
both exercises, conduct brainstorming sessions as a whole group so students can benefit
from hearing what the other students are generating.
Here is an example of a lesson during which the teacher and students use words with
prefixes, suffixes and different derivations. This lesson consists of three different exercises
that prompt students to use words with prefixes and suffixes.
Day 3 – Using the Learning Strategies
Exercise 1: Discuss the meanings of these words with your teacher and how the endings,
prefixes or suffixes change them. Next, listen to your teacher use the words in sentences.
Then have a conversation with the others in your class using the words. Check each word
after you use it.
___ magnificent ___ despise ___ polarize ___ procedure ___ mandate ___ discrimination
Teacher: Magnificent is derived from the base word magna, which means great. To
magnify is to make greater, or larger. Magnificent is similar in that it means
wonderful, fabulous, or larger than life. If something is magnificent, it is great.
I’ll use magnificent in a few sentences . . . ‘The view of the mountains from the
lookout point is magnificent.’ . . . ‘The talented violinist gave a magnificent
performance.’ . . . Now you create some sentences with the word magnificent.
I’ll help you get started.
Brian, make up a sentence about a singer and her voice and use the word
magnificent.
Student: The singer was magnificent.
Teacher: Good. In what way was the singer magnificent? Did she have perfect pitch?
Did her voice carry well throughout the auditorium? Did she sing with
poignant feeling?
Student: The singer was magnificent because her voice pierced the heart of everyone in
the audience.
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Teacher: That is a fabulous sentence. Repeat after me and finish the sentence, “The
singer’s magnificent voice pierced . . .”
Teacher: Now that we’ve practiced using the words in sentences, let’s have a conversation.
Chelsea, please begin this conversation using any of the above words.
Student: We must follow the exact procedures for dying the Easter eggs.
Teacher: That’s a good conversation starter. Maryanne, continue the conversation that
Chelsea started with, “We must follow the exact procedures for dying the
Easter eggs.
Student: I can’t think of anything.
Teacher: Which Easter egg color do you like the best?
Student: I like blue the best.
Teacher: Blue is a great color. Tell me about how you hope the eggs you color will turn
out well in blue and use the word magnificent.
Student: Umm . . .
Teacher: Repeat this sentence and finish it . . . “I hope my eggs will turn out to be a . . .”
Student: I hope my Easter eggs turn out to be a magnificent blue.
Teacher: That’s a magnificent sentence!
Exercise 2: Use the words above to answer these questions.
1. What word means to dislike intensely or to scorn?
despise
Example: (Student reads the question aloud, verbally responds then writes the
answer.) “Despise means to dislike intensely or to scorn.”
2. What is a prejudiced outlook or treatment of others?
discrimination
Example: “A prejudiced outlook or treatment of others is discrimination.”
polarize
3. What means to divide into two opposing groups?
Example: “To divide into two opposing groups is to polarize.”
Exercise 3: Read each word. Then change its form by adding prefixes, suffixes and/or
other endings to it (e.g., service – serviceable). Use a dictionary if you need ideas.
4. manage
manager
managerial
management
5. extravagant
6. locate
extravagantly
extravaganza
extravagance
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locating
location
relocated
7. command
commanded
commandment
commander
8. Write sentences or a short paragraph using the words.
Now that students can understand and remember the words and use them in sentences and
with prefixes and suffixes, they can generate more of their own sentences using the words.
When students can use the words at this level, they have mastered them. This mastery will
improve their reading comprehension when they encounter these words in texts.
The sentences and paragraphs students write may seem contrived and somewhat rambling
because the students’ goal is to use the vocabulary words rather than develop a topic;
however, this is fine as they still practice using the words in context. If some students have
trouble determining how to use the words, give them prompts or suggestions, or even full
sentences to write.
Here are examples of writing sentences and paragraphs using the vocabulary words.
Day 3 – Using the Learning Strategies
Exercise: Write sentences or a short paragraph using your six vocabulary words.
Example of Writing Sentences with the Words:
Words
distinct
intense
formation
policy
precede
broach
Sentences
The policy states that my insurance coverage is effective through January of next year.
The gentleman invited the woman to precede him through the door.
I don’t think I have the nerve to broach the subject of a raise to my boss.
The eccentric billionaire lives an intensely private life.
There’s a distinct possibility that we might leave tomorrow for Los Angeles.
The stage designer is responsible for the correct formation of all the props on the stage.
Example of Writing a Paragraph with the Words:
Words
magnify
despicable
polar
proceed
mandatory
discriminate
Paragraph
“Using a magnifying glass, the biologist studied the wound on the dead polar bear
then proceeded to document her observations. She found a bullet hole behind its left
ear. “Who committed this despicable act?” she asked herself. The killing of this polar
bear was similar to the killings of three other bears; however, this bear’s wound had
some discriminating features. The biologist finished her study and prepared to write
her mandatory report.”
Example of a Teacher Prompting a Student to Generate a Sentence:
Teacher: Make up a sentence using any of these words. (Teacher points to word list.)
Student: Uh . . . “That was intense.”
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Teacher: What was intense? Was a noise or battle scene intense? Was your fear
intense?
Student: Their argument was intense.
Teacher: Whose argument was intense?
Student: My next-door neighbors’. You could hear them from inside my house.
Teacher: “My next-door neighbors’ argument was so intense that . . .” Repeat that and
finish the sentence.
Student: “My next-door neighbors’ argument was so intense that you could hear them
from inside my house.”
Teacher: That’s a very good sentence. Notice how much more detailed it is than your
first sentence: “That was intense.”
9. Use the words in daily conversations.
Diligent practice in using the week’s vocabulary words in daily conversations is the most
effective and direct strategy for learning the words well. Using the words in one’s speech
requires a deeper understanding of the words than simply understanding them in reading
passages. This kind of practice is also effective because you can easily identify those students
who know the words well enough to integrate them into their daily speech and those
students who need more guided practice.
Schedule a few minutes of conversational time at the end of your vocabulary lessons. Have
students refer to the vocabulary bulletin board and use any of the words posted over the past
five weeks of instruction. Monitor these daily conversations and prompt students as often as
needed to ensure they get sufficient practice using the words and are using them logically
and precisely. Also prompt them to integrate these words into class discussions throughout
the day. Here is an example of using vocabulary words in daily conversation.
Day 4 – Using the Learning Strategies
Exercise: Use these words during your conversation. Check each one after you use it.
___ magnify
___ attempt
___ security
_ indulge
_ despicable
___ concrete
___ sequence
___ automatic _ intense
___ polar
_ convince
_ terrorize
___ bass
_ formation
_ proceed
___ display
___ vanish
___ county
_ policy
_ mandatory
___ establish
_ warrior
_ harness
_ precede
_ discriminate
_ censor
___ impede
_ elite
_ broach
Class conversation:
“I heard an intensely high-pitched noise coming from the hallway.”
“Yes, I heard it, too. It was quite distinctive.”
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_ distinct
“Do you think we should have a policy about keeping the hallways quiet?”
“Yes, I will broach the subject to the manager.”
“I would also like to see a policy concerning the formation of crowds around the front
entrance every morning.”
“Me, too. The crowds terrorize me.”
“Just be sure that your meeting with the manager precedes my meeting with him.”
“Shall we proceed with our lunch break now?”
“That’s a rather indulgent question. We have a mandatory report to write.
“I find your tone of voice rather censorial. Would you please harness your opinions?”
“Don’t mind her. She’s a work warrior who blurts out tactless comments
indiscriminately.”
“You don’t have to convince me of that. I find her elitist tone despicable.”
Note: Students who are shy or who have weak social skills may have trouble participating
in a conversation in which comments and responses are reciprocal. Facilitate these
students’ participation by prompting them as often as needed.
10. Hold review lessons.
In following the prescribed strategies in the Manus Vocabulary Program, your students will
review words quite often; however, schedule additional review lessons for students to review
all words learned up to that point and examine, in greater depth, how the words’ meanings
change slightly in different contexts. Review exercises can include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
writing the meanings of word roots
writing synonyms and antonyms of the words
adding prefixes and suffixes to base words (additional exercise in word morphology)
writing sentences with the words
stating the meanings of dictated words
reviewing any missed words and taking a review test
Beginning on the next page is a sample review lesson from a twelfth grade Manus
Curriculums practice pack.
2
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Day 1
Exercise 1: Write the definition of each root(s). Then write two words with this root(s).
1. spond
____________________________________________________________
examples ____________________________________________________________
2. spir
____________________________________________________________
examples ____________________________________________________________
3. spher
____________________________________________________________
examples ____________________________________________________________
4. soph
____________________________________________________________
examples ____________________________________________________________
Exercise 2: Read each word. Then write three words or phrases that have the same or
almost the same meaning (e.g., react – respond).
5. sphere
6. inspire
7. correspond
8. devious
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
9. biosphere
10. aspire
11. dissipate
12. responsible
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
13. sponsor
14. suffice
15. response
16. insolent
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
_____________
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Day 2
Exercise 1: Read each root. Then add three prefixes, suffixes and/or other endings to each
one (e.g., act – deactivation). Use a dictionary if you need ideas.
1. sphere
2. spir
3. spond
4. sign
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
Exercise 2: Read each word. Then add three prefixes, suffixes and/or other endings to
each one (e.g., service – serviceable). Use a dictionary if you need ideas.
5. sphere
6. inspire
7. significant
8. respect
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
9. correspond
10. devious
11. stable
12. response
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
13. suffice
14. respire
15. spirit
16. responsible
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
____________
Exercise 3: Read each word. Then write a word or phrase that has the opposite or almost
the opposite meaning (e.g., activity – dormancy).
17. inspire
____________
21. insolent
____________
25. surreptitious
____________
18. suffice
19. futile
____________
____________
22. condescending
23. despondent
____________
____________
26. audacious
27. responsible
____________
____________
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20. expire
____________
24. exemplary
____________
28. opulent
____________
Day 3
Exercise 1: Write a sentence using each word. You may add prefixes, suffixes and other
endings.
1. hydrosphere
____________________________________________________________________
2. respirator
____________________________________________________________________
3. suffice
____________________________________________________________________
4. expire
____________________________________________________________________
5. correspond
____________________________________________________________________
6. hemisphere
____________________________________________________________________
7. insolent
____________________________________________________________________
8. spouse
____________________________________________________________________
9. despondent
____________________________________________________________________
10. aspire
____________________________________________________________________
11. dissipate
____________________________________________________________________
12. stratosphere
____________________________________________________________________
Exercise 2: Have a conversation with another student or the class using the vocabulary
words posted on the class word wall or the words from the list at the beginning of this
workbook.
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Day 4
Note: Steps one through five refer students back to specific lessons covered in this
review, which is pulled from one of the Manus Curriculums vocabulary practice packs
for high school. If you are using another vocabulary list or curriculum, be sure to have
students complete this same kind of review of answering, again, some of the previously
completed exercises.
Exercise: Study for the test following these steps. Write a check on the line beside each
step once you have completed it.
___ 1. Return to Lesson 9, Day 2. Cover up the answers to the second set of
exercises. Complete the exercises again, verbally.
___ 2. Go to Lesson 9, Day 3. Cover up the answers in the exercises. Complete the
exercise again, verbally.
___ 3. Go to Lesson 9, Day 4. Cover up the answers to the first set of exercises.
Complete the exercises again, verbally.
___ 4. Go to Lesson 10. Cover up the answers to the same sets of exercises on Days
2-4. Complete the exercises again, verbally.
___ 5. Go to Lesson 11. Cover up the answers to the same sets of exercises on Days
2-4. Complete the exercises again, verbally.
___ 6. Say the meaning of each of these words. Next, use the word in a sentence.
Then write a check on the line beside each word.
___ standard
___ consist
___ resist
___ persist
___ stable
___ station
___ stagnant
___ philosophy
___ philosophical
___ sophomoric
___ sophomore
___ sophisticated
___ unsophisticated
___ sophistry
___ spectator
___ spectacle
___ spectacular
___ respect
___ expect
___ suspect
___ species
___ bequeath
___ deleterious
___ intrepid
___ obscure
___ quandary
___ trepidation
___ defiant
___ exemplary
___ litigant
___ sphere
___ spherical
___ atmosphere
___ hemisphere
___ biosphere
___ hydrosphere
___ stratosphere
___ respire
___ perspire
___ spirit
___ inspire
___ expire
___ aspire
___ respirator
___ sponsor
___ response
___ responsible
___ correspond
___ correspondent
___ despondent
___ spouse
___ opulent
___ protégé
___ suffice
___ audacious
___ devious
___ insolent
___ condescending
___ dissipate
___ futile
___ 7. Have a conversation with another student or the class using the above words.
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Day 5 – Test
Exercise 1: Write the letter of the correct definition beside each word.
1. ___ protégé
a. ineffective; hopeless
2. ___ despondent
b. person receiving care and direction from a mentor
3. ___ aspire
c. half of Earth divided by equator or prime meridian
4. ___ audacious
d. boldly rude or disrespectful
5. ___ condescending e. a reply or reaction to a stimulus
6. ___ hemisphere
f.
hopeless; discouraged
7. ___ insolent
g. wealthy; luxuriant
8. ___ futile
h. recklessly bold; not restrained by social norm
9. ___ response
i.
displaying a superior or patronizing attitude
10. ___ opulent
j.
to eagerly seek a goal; to soar or ascend
Exercise 2: Write the letter of the correct definition beside each word.
11. ___ inspire
a. to be enough or adequate
12. ___ spherical
b. to communicate; to match
13. ___ spouse
c. to end; to die
14. ___ suffice
d. to breathe; to inhale and exhale
15. ___ dissipate
e. off the beaten path; deceptive
16. ___ expire
f.
17. ___ correspond
g. the part of the world where living things exist
18. ___ biosphere
h. to influence; to motivate
19. ___ respire
i.
marriage partner
20. ___ devious
j.
to disperse; disappear; waste; indulge in extravagant
pleasure
having the form of a sphere
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14. A Summary of the Educational
Research on Teaching
Reading Comprehension
Here are some observations and conclusions drawn by both the National Reading Panel (NRP)
and other researchers on effective practices for teaching reading comprehension:
THE PANEL’S FINDINGS
• Reading comprehension occurs when readers deliberately interact with the text and in such a
way as to construct meaning from it.
• Sometimes, students learn comprehension strategies themselves by simply reading; however,
direct instruction in certain comprehension strategies has been shown to be very effective in
improving students’ comprehension of text.
• Direct instruction tends to be most effective when it involves training students to use
multiple strategies to understand text. The strategies include: comprehension monitoring;
using graphic organizers to note the content or structure of the texts; answering questions
posed by the teacher; generating questions; identifying and following story structure (e.g.,
plot, character, setting, theme); and summarizing.
• Effective instruction includes the teacher’s explaining the strategy and how it increases
comprehension, modeling the ways of thinking that lead to comprehension (i.e., “thinking
aloud”) and guiding and prompting students to apply the strategy as they read enough times
to ensure they will use the strategy independently.
• Teaching comprehension strategies while teaching course content, such as science and social
studies, can be very effective. This combined approach promotes skill transfer.
• Comprehension training can be effective during cooperative learning activities, or when
students work together in small groups on a certain task.
OTHER RESEARCH
A host of researchers have studied the phenomenon of reading comprehension and have offered
insights into the behaviors of both strong and weak readers and how their behaviors either
strengthen or impair comprehension. The common thread behind all of these studies is that
strong readers use effective strategies and weak readers don’t.
Strong readers know which strategies lead to comprehension and they know when to use them.
They also know their own abilities and limitations and how to capitalize on their strengths and
compensate for their weaknesses. They regulate their thought processes as they read and are
aware of the degree to which they understand the text. If they do not understand certain parts of
it, they take measures to fix this breakdown. Strong readers employ effective strategies and self-
93
monitor relatively quickly and automatically. They don’t have to work hard to do this. This
facility allows them to focus more on the content and less on how to read in a way that leads to
comprehension.
Weak readers, on the other hand, tend not to use effective strategies or monitor their
comprehension. When they are coached to use effective strategies, they often have trouble
learning to use them to the point of automaticity. As a result, they often conclude that these
strategies are more bother than they are worth.
Fortunately, the evidence is accumulating that training students to use reading comprehension
strategies pays off. This training, however, must be delivered directly, intensively and for an
extended time before many students internalize the habits.
Reading comprehension strategies and skills can be divided into four stages: 1) preparing to read;
2) organizing the information as you read; 3) processing the information in different ways to
increase understanding; and 4) monitoring the level and quality of your understanding of the
text.
Many of the strategies and skills overlap with students using the same ones to varying degrees
during each stage. Preparatory strategies, however, typically include previewing, predicting,
activating prior knowledge (making connections) and studying key vocabulary terms. Organizing
information as one reads includes identifying text structure, topic, main idea and essential details,
summarizing and noting essential ideas and details on graphic organizers or story maps (to
enhance memory).
Processing the information more deeply includes visualizing, drawing conclusions, making
inferences, continuing to predict outcomes and make connections, identifying the author’s
purpose, distinguishing between fact and opinion and recognizing the author’s persuasion and
bias.
Monitoring strategies include previewing the text to determine the demands it will place on one’s
attention and memory, the strategies most likely to be effective, clarifying one’s understanding of
the text and reviewing to enhance both memory and further comprehension.
There are four strategy instruction models that have the backing of educational research. They
are: The Strategies Intervention Model, Direct Explanation, Reciprocal Teaching and
Transactional Strategies Instruction. The goals of all four of these approaches include training
students to use comprehension strategies independently over time and use them in different
situations (i.e., to transfer and generalize skills).
Although these approaches vary according to the degree to which the teacher controls the
instruction, their core instructional methods are similar. They involve: a) the teacher introducing
a strategy and explaining its importance and benefits; b) the teacher modeling the use of the
strategy and thinking aloud so the students can understand how the teacher employs it; c) the
students practicing the strategy intensively and with frequent teacher prompting, monitoring and
feedback; d) the teacher gradually diminishing his or her coaching as students become more
proficient in using the strategy; and e) the teacher training the students to apply the strategy [and
previously learned ones] to different kinds of assignments.
94
SOURCES
Anderson, R.C., & Pearson, P.D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading.
In P.D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of Reading Research (pp.255-291). New York: Longman.
Baker, S., Gersten, R., & Scanlon, D. (2002). Procedural Facilitators and Cognitive Strategies:
Tools for Unraveling the Mysteries of Comprehension and the Writing Process, and for
Providing Meaningful Access to the General Curriculum. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice,
17, 65-77.
Carlisle, J. F. and Rice, M. S. (2002). Improving Reading Comprehension: Research-Based Principles and
Practices. Baltimore, MD: York Press.
Consortium on Reading Excellence, Inc. (1999). Reading Research Anthology: The Why? of Reading
Instruction. Novato, CA: Arena Press.
Consortium on Reading Excellence, Inc. (2000). Teaching Reading Sourcebook. Novato, CA: Arena
Press.
Duke, N. and Pearson, P. D. (2002). Effective practices for developing reading comprehension.
In What Research Has to Say about Reading Instruction, 3rd ed., A. Farstrup and J. Samuels (Eds.).
Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Gambrell, L. B. and Jawitz, P. B. (1993). Mental imagery, text illustrations, and children’s story
comprehension and recall. Reading Research Quarterly, 28, 265-73.
Graham, S., and Hebert, M.A. (2010). Writing to read: Evidence for how writing can improve reading. A
Carnegie Corporation Time to Act Report. Washington, DC: Alliance for Excellent Education.
Markman, E.M. (1979). Realizing that you don’t understand: Elementary school children’s
awareness of inconsistencies. Child Development, 48, 643-655.
National Reading Panel. (2000). “Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of
the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction.”
National Institutes of Health Publication. No. 00-4769.
Ogle, D. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. The
Reading Teacher, 39, 564-570.
Pressley, M., Wharton-McDonald, R., (1997). Skilled comprehension and its development
through instruction. School Psychology Review, 26, 448-66.
Pressley, M. (2001, September). Comprehension instruction: What makes sense now, what might
make sense soon. Reading Online, 5 (2).
Shanahan, T., Callison, K., Carriere, C., Duke, N. K., Pearson, P. D., Schatschneider, C. &
Torgesen, J. (2010). Improving reading comprehension in kindergarten through 3rd grade: A practice guide
(NCEE 2010-4038). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional
Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from
whatworks.ed.gov/publications/practiceguides.
95
15. The Manus Approach to
Teaching Reading Comprehension
THE THREE MAIN STEPS
Although the teaching of reading comprehension strategies may seem complex because of the
numerous mental processes involved in comprehension, you still have only three basic tasks in
training students to comprehend what they read.
1. Counteract learning barriers that impair comprehension. – Minimize the impairing effects of the
barriers that diminish students’ comprehension, such as poor reading fluency, language
problems or weak background knowledge. You do not want these barriers to undermine the
students’ ability to respond to your reading comprehension instruction.
2. Provide a language-rich environment throughout the school day. – Provide a fully-integrated, languagerich environment throughout the school day that supports reading comprehension growth.
This includes teaching grammar, usage, phrasing, vocabulary, written expression and study
skills in the content areas and promoting recreational reading, including reading nonfiction,
or informational, texts to build background knowledge and vocabulary.
3. Teach comprehension strategies intensively and directly. – Directly coach students, intensively and
over an extended period, so they refine and internalize the strategies well enough to apply
them to other academic tasks and situations.
COUNTERACT LEARNING BARRIERS THAT IMPAIR
COMPREHENSION
Here are some common barriers to comprehension and ways to counteract them. Use these
accommodations and any others you believe will help.
Reading Fluency Barriers – To minimize the impairing effects of decoding and fluency problems,
do not have students with reading delays try to read the passages they are also trying to
comprehend. These students can either focus on deciphering words or comprehending texts.
They cannot simultaneously do both. (Strong readers can’t either. Their decoding and fluency
skills are automatic so they perform this task almost subconsciously and can focus on
comprehension.)
Read stories, science chapters and other material aloud in class or use audio-books liberally. The
students can follow along and practice their comprehension skills without the preoccupation of
decoding text. If you want students to practice sounding out words they encounter, train them in
separate lessons. Again, do not have them practice this skill while they are trying to comprehend.
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Receptive Language Barriers – As previously stated, some students have trouble understanding
sentences, let alone chapters. Minimize this barrier by selecting stories and other texts that are
written in a straightforward style. Save Charles Dickens for later.
Be liberal in explaining complex passages concretely. Frequently paraphrase and summarize the
text you and the students have read up to that point. (Example: “So far this story is about a boy
who lives with his mother and is about to spend the summer with his father, a man he hasn’t
seen in five years.”) This accommodation is an effective insurance policy for students with
language or attentional barriers. If they miss essential information the first time around, they
have a second or even third chance to get it.
Background Knowledge Barriers – When introducing a text, such as a short story, novel or nonfiction
essay, tell the students what the text is about. Also explain pertinent information they must
know to fully comprehend it.
For example, if you are introducing the novel, Night, by Elie Wiesel, first give background
information about World War II and the Holocaust. Then have a class discussion, or pre-reading
activity, about some of the novel’s themes, such as cruelty toward others, the high cost of denial,
the special relationship between fathers and sons and resiliency.
As you read the book together as a class and encounter a scene that requires some particular
knowledge to understand it, stop for a moment and tell the students what they need to know. To
maintain the flow of the lesson, keep your explanations brief and concise.
Vocabulary Barriers – There are two ways to minimize vocabulary barriers. The first is to provide
the students with a list of the key vocabulary terms in the text, have them study these words
before they begin reading then refer to them when they encounter the words in the text.
The second way is to simply tell the students what certain words mean as you encounter them in
the text. For instance, you might handle an unfamiliar word in the novel, Night, this way: “As if
all the trouble in the world had not descended, or fallen, already upon our heads!” (p. 35).
This second method does not directly teach vocabulary but it preserves comprehension and
doesn’t interrupt the flow of the lesson.
“Input” Barriers – When students have attentional, emotional or learning barriers, they are often
too preoccupied with their concerns to focus on the lesson. They cannot “input,” or absorb,
your information. Your task is to increase their learning by enhancing their ability to attend and
providing enough structure and prompts to ensure that the students can succeed with reasonable
effort. The best way to accomplish this is to interact with these students heavily and positively
when you train them to use comprehension strategies.
For students who have severe difficulties absorbing your instruction, you will need to change the
learning environment and the manner in which you deliver instruction. If students cannot focus
in a particular environment, you best efforts will have little effect. You may need to teach these
students individually or in small groups and in a quiet environment. You will also need to be
more mindful than usual about fostering resiliency (helping students overcome their learning
barriers) and promoting a “can do” atmosphere.
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PROVIDE A LANGUAGE-RICH ENVIRONMENT THROUGHOUT
THE SCHOOL DAY
Reading and listening comprehension are entirely dependent on students’ language skills;
therefore, an effective reading comprehension program also includes daily practice in
vocabulary, grammar and phrasing and written expression. Training in these language skills helps
students understand what words mean, how words function and how we arrange them in
various ways to represent our thoughts and develop topics.
Vocabulary – A strong vocabulary not only helps us understand what we hear and read, but it
expands our ability to think abstractly and understand ideas that are not directly related to our
everyday experience.
When teaching a list of vocabulary words, first have your students study the given word list,
commit the words and definitions to memory and practice using the words in sentences, with
your heavy prompting if needed. Next, have them complete exercises that require them to use
the words in different contexts.
These exercises might include: a) supplying the missing vocabulary word in sentences; b) using
the words with prefixes and suffixes; c) answering “yes/no” questions; d) writing sentences and
paragraphs with the words; and e) practicing using the words in daily conversations. This last
step will show you if the students truly know the words or not and will help them build their
expressive language skills.
Before beginning a science or social studies lesson, introduce the key vocabulary terms at the
beginning of the lesson as you preview the main topics, subtopics and lesson objectives. As you
and the students read the text and encounter the key terms and other words they may not know,
prompt them to supply synonyms or definitions as they read them.
(For more details on effective teaching methods for vocabulary, both direct and incidental, see
the section in this book, “The Manus Approach to Teaching Vocabulary” and the teacher’straining manual: How to Teach Vocabulary by Manus Curriculums.)
Grammar and Phrasing – Increase students’ grammatical awareness and ability to understand
sentences by teaching grammar in a way that promotes understanding of how words function
and how we string them together to phrase thoughts. (For detailed strategies, refer to the section
in this book, “The Manus Approach to Teaching Grammar, Usage and Writing Mechanics” and
the teacher’s-training manual: How to Teach Grammar, Usage and Writing Mechanics).
TEACH COMPREHENSION STRATEGIES INTENSIVELY AND
DIRECTLY
Intensive practice – To comprehend well, students need much coaching, prompting and practice in
thinking strategically throughout the school day and over an extended period. Until they begin to
internalize the habit of interacting with texts in ways that lead to comprehension, coach students
continuously, using the sequence of guided instruction, which is explained a little later.
98
Also, have students practice applying their newly learned skills to various texts so they can learn
to generalize their use of these strategies. Have them practice the appropriate strategies with
narrative texts (e.g., short stories, novels, drama and folktales) and expository, or informational,
texts (e.g., social studies and science texts, research books, historical documents, essays, letters
and biographies).
The guided instruction approach – Research indicates that guided instruction is an effective way to
teach students to use comprehension strategies. This approach has many names but, in essence,
it is rather direct and involves heavy teacher-student interaction. Its names include: guided
instruction, scaffolding, modeling and think alouds. For the purpose of consistency, we’ll call it
guided instruction here.
During guided instruction, teachers read passages with the students then think aloud as they
comprehend the text. The teachers’ modeling shows students how to think in ways that lead to
comprehension. Teachers then have students practice applying the strategies they modeled. As
the students apply these strategies, teachers prompt heavily in the beginning to ensure the
students practice them well and experience the benefits. As the students progress, teachers
gradually diminish their prompts.
Skill sequence –As previously mentioned, reading comprehension strategies and skills can be
divided into four stages: 1) preparing to read; 2) organizing the information as you read; 3)
processing the information in different ways to increase understanding; and 4) monitoring the
level and quality of your understanding of the text.
Generally speaking, you want to teach comprehension strategies and skills in a sequence that
follows these stages. Here is one possible sequence for teaching them:
“Preparing to Read” Stage
Previewing text
Making predictions
Asking questions
Making connections
“Organizing the Information as You Read” Stage
Identifying text structure
Identifying topic
Identifying main idea and essential details
Summarizing
“Processing the Information in Different Ways to Increase Understanding” Stage
Visualizing
Drawing conclusions
Making inferences
Making more predictions and connections
Asking more questions
Identifying author’s purpose
Distinguishing between fact and opinion
Identifying author’s persuasion and bias
99
“Monitoring the Level and Quality of Your Understanding of the Text” Stage
Clarifying
Asking more questions
Reviewing
Because readers use many of these strategies and skills simultaneously and in a nonlinear
sequence, teachers will find themselves teaching out of sequence at times, but this is okay as long
as the training leads students to interact energetically with the text and increase their
understanding of it.
In summary, the Manus approach to teaching reading comprehension consists of these three
main strategies:
1) Minimize the impairing effects of the barriers that diminish students’ comprehension, such
as poor reading fluency, language problems or weak background knowledge.
2) Provide a language-rich environment throughout the school day that supports reading
comprehension growth and includes instruction in grammar, usage, phrasing, vocabulary,
written expression and study skills in the content areas.
3) Directly coach students in the prescribed comprehension strategies, intensively, over an
extended period and in different contexts so they transfer this knowledge.
Beginning on the next page are sample lessons showing how direct instruction is used to teach
various reading comprehension strategies and skills.
100
In this example, a teacher introduces the strategy of previewing a narrative text by looking at the
illustration on the book cover, the information on the back of the cover and the table of
contents. As the teacher previews, he or she also makes predictions about characters and events
in the story. The teacher models how these strategies help readers stay focused on the text when
they begin reading.
Teacher Modeling the Strategies of Previewing
a Narrative Text and Predicting Outcomes
This book is titled, Charlotte’s Web. The author is E.B. White and the illustrator is
Garth Williams. On the front cover is a picture of a girl holding a pig and
standing between two animals, a sheep and a goose. They are all looking at a tiny
spider hanging from a web. Based on these clues, I predict the story will take
place in a barnyard and the main characters will be barnyard animals, a little girl
and a spider. Because the title is Charlotte’s Web, I predict the spider’s name is
Charlotte.
Now I will look at the back cover. It shows me a picture of a spider web with the
words “SOME PIG” and explains that these are the words in Charlotte’s web.
Now I am pretty sure that Charlotte is the name of the spider. The story is
probably make-believe because I have never heard of a spider that can write
words in its web. I predict the story will be mostly about the spider, Charlotte,
the pig, Wilbur, and the girl, Fern. The story summary on the back cover states
that Charlotte and Fern both love Wilbur. I predict this story will be about their
friendship.
Before I begin reading, I look at the table of contents to get an idea of what
might take place in the story. There are twenty-two chapters in this book.
Chapter titles like, “Loneliness” and “Bad News” tell me that some unpleasant
things will happen in the story. I wonder if the girl gets lonely because she only
has animals for company.
But chapter titles like “The Miracle” and “Good Progress” tell me that good
things happen, too. I wonder if the miracle has something to do with the pig or
the spider. I predict that part of the story will take place at a fair, because one of
the chapters is titled “Off to the Fair.” I think Wilbur and Charlotte must be
main characters, because they each have a chapter named after them.
Before I read the first chapter, I look at the illustrations in it. I see the little girl,
Fern, fighting over an ax with a man. I wonder who that man is? . . .
101
In this example, the teacher again models the previewing strategy; however, he or she uses a
science text. Because informational texts often contain many ideas in a single paragraph or
section, they require that readers determine what information is important to note and
remember out of all the information that is presented. Previewing prepares readers for this step.
Teacher Modeling the Strategies of Previewing
An Expository Text and Predicting Outcomes
This chapter is titled, “Plants.” First, I activate my prior knowledge by thinking
about what I know about plants. I know that plants grow in the ground and usually
have green leaves. I know that trees and flowers are examples of plants. I think this
chapter will teach me more about plants and how they live and grow.
I look at the learning objectives for this chapter. This tells me what I should know
after reading the chapter. The learning objectives are to: 1) identify the main parts
of a plant; 2) explain how plants make food; and 3) describe how plants reproduce.
After I read the chapter, I can go back to these learning objectives to make sure
I’ve learned and can remember the important information from the chapter.
I will preview each section of the chapter and read the subtopics. This will tell me
how the author develops the main topic of plants. The first section is titled, “The
Parts of a Plant.” There are several bold headings in this section. From these
headings, I see that the section will teach me about roots, stems and leaves and
what each of these parts of a plant does. This goes along with my first learning
objective for the chapter of identifying the main parts of a plant.
There are two photographs in this section. The first photograph is of a large tree
with many roots. The caption underneath the photo reads, “A tree’s roots help
anchor it to the ground, absorb nutrients and store food.” I wonder if roots do
anything else for a plant. I will probably find out when I read the paragraph under
the bold heading, “What Roots Do.”
The next bold heading tells me that I will learn about stems and what they do.
There is no photograph to help me on these pages, so I may have to read this part
a little more carefully. After I read about stems, I will learn about the leaves of a
plant. This part of the text contains a second photograph of a leaf with labeled
parts. I can tell from the photograph that parts of a leaf are the blade, the veins, the
petiole and the midrib.
In addition to looking at the bold headings and photographs, I should preview the
vocabulary words in this section. The author put these words in bold to show me
that they are important concepts I need to remember. Vocabulary words for this
section are: root, xylem, phloem, stem, leaf, vein, petiole and midrib. (Teacher continues
previewing each section.)
102
Before students can summarize, they must first learn to identify the topic of each paragraph in
the passage, the essential details and the main ideas. Next, they blend these main ideas to state a
summary. Training students to summarize helps them effectively process the details and
combine them to form one mental representation, a representation that is easier to remember
and understand than numerous details. Here is an example of a student learning to summarize.
Teacher Prompting a Student to
Summarize a Narrative Passage
Reviewing the Steps
Teacher:
Here are the four steps for summarizing. “First, identify the topic. Second,
identify the essential details that develop the topic. Third, identify the main
idea. Fourth, combine the main ideas of the paragraphs you have read so
far.” What are the four steps for summarizing? Answer in full sentences.
Student:
The four steps for summarizing are to identify the topic, identify the
important details, identify the main idea and . . . I forgot the last step.
Teacher:
The last step is to combine the main ideas of the paragraphs. Say that.
Student:
The last step is to combine the main ideas of all the paragraphs I’ve read.
Teacher:
Good. One more time – say the four steps to summarizing.
Student:
The four steps to summarizing are, first, to identify the topic, second, . . .”
Teacher:
When you read this next paragraph, what will you be looking for and why?
Student:
I’ll look for the topic, or what it’s about.
Teacher:
Yes, looking for the topic will help you identify the details that develop it.
Reading the Paragraph
Teacher:
Good. Read this next paragraph so we get a general sense for it. Then we
will note the important supporting details.
“Either the well was very deep, or she fell very slowly, for she had plenty of
time as she went down to look about her, and to wonder what was going to
happen next. First she tried to look down and make out what she was
coming to, but it was too dark to see anything. Then she looked at the sides
of the well, and noticed that they were filled with cupboards and
bookshelves: here and there she saw maps and pictures hung upon pegs.
She took down a jar from one of the shelves as she passed; it was labeled
“Orange Marmalade,” but to her great disappointment it was empty: she
did not like to drop the jar for fear of killing somebody underneath, so
managed to put it in one of the cupboards as she fell past it.”
Identifying the Topic
Teacher:
What is the topic of this paragraph?
Student:
It’s about Alice – no, the well.
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Teacher:
The topic is actually about both Alice and the well. Fill in this sentence:
“Who falls where?”
Student:
Alice falls down the well.
Teacher:
Good. That’s the topic of the paragraph. Say that, “The topic of . . .”
Student:
The topic of this paragraph is Alice’s falling down the well.
Identifying the Supporting Details
Teacher:
Very good. Read the first few sentences again and tell me what details
develop this topic of Alice’s falling down the well.
Student:
(Reads the first two sentences.) She had a lot of time.
Teacher:
(Teacher prompts to shape student’s response.) Why did Alice have a lot of time?
Student:
Because she fell slowly.
Teacher:
Yes. That’s an important detail that tells about Alice falling down the well.
Finish this sentence for the supporting detail: “[Who?] fell [how?] [where?]”
Student:
Alice fell slowly down the well.
Teacher:
Very good. That’s one essential detail. Read the next two sentences and tell
me another essential detail.
Student:
(Reads the next two sentences.) At first it was dark but then she saw cupboards,
bookshelves and other stuff on the sides.
Teacher:
(Teacher again prompts to shape student’s response.) Yes, it was dark at first and,
yes, Alice could then see things on the sides of the well. Fill in this first half
of a sentence: “At first, [who?] could not do [what?] because it was [what?]”
Student:
At first, Alice could not see because it was dark.
Teacher:
Good. Fill in this entire sentence: “At first, [who?] could not do [what?]
because it was [what?] but, eventually, [who?] saw things [where?]”
Student:
At first, Alice could not see because it was dark but, eventually, she found
things –
Teacher:
Such as . . .
Student:
. . . such as cupboards, bookshelves and maps on the sides of the well.
Teacher:
Good. Say the entire supporting detail again.
Student:
At first, Alice could not see because it was dark but, eventually, she found
things, such as cupboards, bookshelves and maps, on the sides of the well.
Teacher:
That’s a well-phrased supporting detail. Read the rest of the paragraph and
tell about any other essential supporting details.
Student:
(Reads the rest of the paragraph.) Well, she sees this jar of marmalade but it’s
empty so she puts it in one of the cupboards as she’s falling down.
Teacher:
Fill in this sentence: “[Who?] sees an empty [what?]”
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Student:
Alice sees an empty jar of marmalade.
Teacher:
Good. (Shows student his or her notes.) So, our supporting details are: 1) Alice
fell slowly down the well; 2) At first, she could not see because it was dark
but, eventually, she found things, such as cupboards, bookshelves and
maps, on the sides of the well. 3) She also saw an empty jar of marmalade.
Teacher:
Tell me the supporting details that develop the topic of Alice falling down
the well. Begin with, “The supporting details that develop the topic of
Alice falling down the well are . . .”
Student:
The supporting details that develop the topic of Alice falling down the well
are that she falls slowly down the well. At first, she can’t see anything
because it’s dark, but she notices –.
Teacher:
She eventually notices . . .
Student:
She eventually notices things, such as cupboards, bookshelves, maps and
an empty jar of marmalade along the sides of the well.
Identifying the Main Idea
Teacher:
Excellent. I like how you combined the last two details. What are all of
these details about? What is the paragraph’s main idea?
Student:
Umm . . . It’s about Alice falling –
Teacher:
Start with this phrase: “As Alice falls down the . . .”
Student:
As Alice falls down the well, she notices cupboards, maps, . . .
Teacher:
As Alice falls down the well, she notices items along the sides . . .
Student:
As Alice falls down the well, she notices items along the sides of the well.
Summarizing the Paragraphs
Teacher:
That is the main idea. I’ll write it under the other two. Summarize the
passage we have read so far by combining these three main ideas. Refer to
these notes if you would like.
Student:
Alice follows the white rabbit down the rabbit hole and finds herself falling
into a deep tunnel-like passage. As Alice falls –
Teacher:
As she falls, she . . .
Student:
As she falls, she notices items along the sides of the well.
Teacher:
Good. Say that summary again.
Student:
Alice follows the white rabbit down the rabbit hole and finds herself falling
into a deep tunnel-like passage. As she falls, she notices items along the
sides of the well.
Teacher:
Excellent summary! Do you notice how that simple summary helps you
have a clear understanding of the three paragraphs we’ve read?
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Just as summarizing helps a reader form a single mental representation, or understanding, of a
cluster of related details, so, too, does the strategy of visualizing this understanding. Students
who learn to visualize well will agree that “a picture is worth a thousand words.” In this example,
a teacher has already modeled the strategy of visualizing and is now prompting a student to
practice the skill. (Students with certain visual processing problems need intensive and
considerable training in this skill.)
Teacher Prompting a Student to Visualize
This is an excerpt from Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland.
Either the well was very deep, or she fell very slowly, for she had plenty of time
as she went down to look about her, and to wonder what was going to happen
next. Teacher: Alice is falling down a well, so I am visualizing that it is very dark and wet. I
can look up and see a small amount of light coming from the top of the well. What details can
you add to my picture? (Student responds to prompt.) First, she tried to look down and
make out what she was coming to, but it was too dark to see anything; then she
looked at the sides of the well, and noticed that they were filled with cupboards
and bookshelves: here and there she saw maps and pictures hung upon pegs.
Teacher: Visualize the kinds of maps and pictures that are hanging on the sides of the well.
What do you see? (Student responds to prompt.) She took down a jar from one of the
shelves as she passed it; it was labeled “ORANGE MARMALADE,” but to her
great disappointment it was empty: she did not like to drop the jar for fear of
killing somebody, so managed to put it into one of the cupboards as she fell past
it. Teacher: What are you visualizing right now? Describe what you see in your mind’s eye.
(Student responds to prompt.)
. . . How did visualizing this scene help you understand what is happening in
the story?
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Students who comprehend well monitor their comprehension and are usually aware of when
they do not understand what they just read. This awareness leads them to fix the problem by
using a variety of strategies, such as rereading parts of the text, thinking about a passage or
looking for clues the author might give. In this example, the teacher models clarifying strategies
by thinking aloud as she reads.
Teacher Modeling How to Clarify Understanding
This is an example of a teacher thinking aloud while reading an excerpt from J.M.
Barrie’s (1860-1937) Peter Pan.
Mrs. Darling first heard of Peter when she was tidying up her children’s minds.
I’m confused by this idea. How can someone “tidy up” a person’s mind? I’ll read on to see if the
author explains this idea more. It is the nightly custom of every good mother after her
children are asleep to rummage in their minds and put things straight for next
morning, repacking into their proper places the many articles that have wandered
during the day. If you could keep awake (but of course you can’t) you would see
your own mother doing this, and you would find it very interesting to watch her.
It is quite like tidying up drawers. I am still a little confused by the idea of “tidying up” a
person’s mind, but the author explained that it is like tidying up drawers. I can make the
connection that my own mother used to clean my room when I went to bed at night. I think the
author is suggesting that mothers can also clean their children’s minds at the end of the day. This
is an interesting idea. You would see her on her knees, I expect, lingering
humorously over some of your contents, wondering where on earth you had
picked this thing up, making discoveries sweet and not so sweet, pressing this to
her cheek as if it were as nice as a kitten, and hurriedly stowing that out of sight. I
don’t know this word, “stowing.” I am looking at the context clues and I think it has something
to do with putting something out of sight in a hurry. I think “stow” must mean something like
“put away.” So the mother is putting something away as she cleans. When you wake in the
morning, the naughtiness and evil passions with which you went to bed have
been folded up small and placed at the bottom of your mind and on the top,
beautifully aired, are spread out your prettier thoughts, ready for you to put on.
I’m going to stop and think about what I just read. I was confused by the idea of Mrs. Darling
“tidying up” her children’s minds. But then the author explained that it is like cleaning drawers
at night. I guess if a mother really could tidy up her children’s minds, she would find many
interesting things, because little kids have vivid imaginations. A mother would want her child to
think good thoughts instead of naughty ones, so this must be why the author says that when you
wake up, there are pretty thoughts spread out at the top of your mind.
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This sample is part of a guided analysis of Holes by Louis Sachar (1954–), covered in the Manus
Curriculums literature series. This series trains students to read novels, analyze their key
elements, answer commonly asked standardized test questions and summarize the chapter and
story up to that point. In the section covering written expression, you will see another guided
outline on this same story that students follow to write a book report. These outlines show you
the depth at which students analyze then write about a literary text. (Students follow yet another
outline on this same novel to write a literary analysis on the story’s setting.) With repeated
practice in this skill, they begin to internalize the strategies required to truly understand and write
about different forms of literature.
Literary Analysis of Holes
Louis Sachar (1954–)
Chapters 9 through 12
(Note: This example contains student questions and the teacher’s answer key. The boldface codes beside each
number indicate the comprehension strategy or skill that the question targets. For instance, S stands for setting
analysis, CA stands for character analysis, INF stands for making an inference and SUM stands for summarizing.)
Verbal Questions
30. (S)
Questions: In Chapter 9, where does Stanley go after showering? Describe the appearance of
the room. In what way does the appearance of the room mirror how Stanley feels?
Answer: After showering, Stanley goes to the “wreck room.” The TV, games and furniture
are all broken and worn out. Broken and worn out is exactly how Stanley feels after his first
day of digging.
31. (CA-Stanley)
Questions: Who does Stanley discover the Caveman is? How does this make him feel?
Stanley discovers that he is the Caveman. Having a nickname makes him feel like he is finally accepted by
someone.
32. (Reader’s response: MC)
Do you have a nickname? How did you get it?
Students’ answers will vary.
33. (CA-Stanley, Zero, INF)
Questions: What explanation does Stanley give Zero about the letter he writes to his mother?
How does Zero respond? What does Zero ask Stanley? Why do you think he asks Stanley
this question?
Stanley explains that he is lying in his letter because he doesn’t want his mother to worry about him. Zero
stares at the letter with a serious, angry look but says nothing. Zero then asks Stanley if the sneakers had red
X’s on the back. Since Zero knows details about the shoes and is upset by the letter, he seems to have been
involved in stealing the shoes himself.
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Written Questions
34. (PL, CA-Stanley)
In Chapter 10, what does Stanley find when he is digging? Why is he disappointed after
showing it to Mr. Pendanski?
Stanley finds a fish fossil when digging. He is disappointed after showing it to Mr. Pendanski because he
thought he had found what the adults were searching for and would get the rest of the day off.
35. (CA, INF)
Why does Stanley most likely agree to let X-Ray have anything he might find while digging?
A.
B.
C.
D.
He doesn’t care about getting a day off.
He is afraid of X-Ray.
He wants X-Ray to like him.
He feels sorry for X-Ray.
36. (CA-Stanley)
At the end of Chapter 11, what does Stanley imagine to help ease his pain while digging?
Stanley imagines that his new friends return to school with him and beat up Derrick Dunne, the bully who
tormented him.
37. (CA-Mr. Pendanski, DC)
In Chapter 12, what does circle time reveal about Mr. Pendanski’s character? Do you think
he is just there to get paid for doing a job, or do you think he really cares about the boys and
their futures?
During circle time, Mr. Pendanski seems to care about the boys and their futures. He wants to help them
plan how to improve their lives once they leave Camp Green Lake.
38. (SUM)
Which of the following best summarizes Chapters 9-12?
A. Stanley takes his four-minute shower but doesn’t use soap because he is too tired.
After his shower, Stanley joins the other campers in the “Wreck Room.” There, he
almost gets into a fight but X-Ray and Armpit come to his rescue. Stanley learns
that the other campers have given him the name “the Caveman.”
B. Stanley is extremely sore from digging his first hole. In the “Wreck Room,” he learns that the other
campers have given him the nickname “the Caveman.” The next day, he finds a fossil but is
disappointed that Mr. Pendanski doesn’t give him the day off. Stanley agrees to give X-Ray anything he
finds in his holes. During circle time, Mr. Pendanski encourages the campers to set goals for themselves
for when they leave Camp Green Lake.
C. Stanley and the other campers join Mr. Pendanksi for circle time. Mr. Pendanski tells
Stanley that he has no one to blame for his problems but himself, although Stanley still
thinks everything is the fault of his no-good-dirty-rotten-pig-stealing-great-greatgrandfather. Mr. Pendanski encourages all the boys to set goals for themselves. Zero
says that he likes to dig holes.
D. Stanley finds a fossil in his hole but Mr. Pendanski says the Warden isn’t interested in
fossils. The next day, Stanley agrees to let X-Ray have whatever he finds in his hole.
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39. (Chapter summary: SUM, SEQ, S, CA, PL)
Summarize these chapters. (Students follow an outline with these sentences in list form and
in which the underlined words have been omitted.)
Stanley takes a cold, refreshing shower then joins the other boys in the “wreck room.”
Armpit and X-Ray come to his rescue when one of the other boys challenges him to a fight.
They assign Stanley the nickname “Caveman,” which pleases him. Stanley writes his mother
a letter telling her how much fun he’s having at camp. When Zero questions him about the
contents of the letter, Stanley says that he doesn’t want to worry her. Zero mysteriously asks
Stanley about the sneakers, asking if they have red X’s on the backs of them. The boys then
go to dinner.
The next day, Stanley is very sore and has trouble digging his hole during the first hour. He
eventually finds a fossil and shows it to Mr. Pendanski. Mr. Pendanski tells Stanley that the
Warden isn’t interested in fossils. Stanley is disappointed that he doesn’t get the rest of the
day off for finding something special.
Stanley returns to his hole and resumes digging. He promises to give X-Ray whatever he
finds in his holes. Stanley is more interested in making friends and belonging to the group of
boys than he is in keeping things. He fantasizes about his new friends putting Derrick
Dunne, the boy who bullied Stanley at school, in his place.
After Stanley digs his hole, he joins the other boys and Mr. Pendanski. Mr. Pendanski tells
the boys they must think about what they will do once they leave Camp Green Lake. He tells
them having goals is important. Magnet thinks he might like to train animals and Zero says
he would like to dig holes.
40. (Story summary: SUM, SEQ, S, CA, PL)
Summarize the story up to this point.
Stanley Yelnats is sent to a camp for bad boys for a crime he did not commit: stealing Clyde
Livington’s sneakers. Camp Green Lake is dry, hot and contains poisonous insects and
reptiles. The living conditions are harsh. Most of Stanley’s supervisors and fellow campers
are unfriendly, his tent is smelly and uncomfortable and he must dig a large hole each day
under the hot sun and with little water.
The story flashes back to the time of Elya Yelnats, Stanley’s great-great grandfather. When
he lived in Latvia, Elya sought the aid of Madame Zeroni in winning the heart of a girl.
Madame Zeroni helped Elya, but he broke his promise to help her and, instead, immigrated
to America. He married a woman and they worked hard to build a life together; however,
Elya experienced much bad luck and felt guilty about not fulfilling Madame Zeroni’s request.
Meanwhile, Stanley finally digs his first large hole. In spite of his exhaustion and thirst, he is
proud of what he does. He becomes better acquainted with the boys in his tent who give
him the nickname of “Caveman.” While he’s digging his second hole, he discovers a fossil
and takes it to Mr. Pendanski. Mr. Pendanski, however, is not interested in it. Eager to make
friends, Stanley promises to give X-Ray whatever he finds in his holes.
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16. A Summary of the Educational
Research on Writing Instruction
RESEARCH
Here are some observations and conclusions drawn by various researchers concerning the
subject of written expression.
• Writing requires four distinct processes: a) generating a topic; b) developing the topic with
subtopics and supporting details; c) phrasing then writing these subtopics and details; and d)
revising the final text for coherence, topic development and accuracy.
• Skilled writers regulate their behavior and use strategies as they write. They understand that
writing is a complex and multi-step process.
• According to the most recent findings by the National Assessment of Educational Progress,
the writing skills of approximately two-thirds of students in the elementary, middle and high
school grades were below grade level.
• Researchers have observed these characteristics of poor writers:
– They frequently view writing as a one-step process: write the text. They often don’t plan
what they will say about the topic. They tend to generate ideas as they think of them and
use the preceding sentence to generate the next idea. As a consequence, their written
content tends to ramble.
– They tend to write very little. They might simply recall what they remember about a topic
rather than plan how they will examine it fully. They also tend not to use much of their
existing knowledge about the topic unless they are prompted to.
– They often have great difficulty sustaining the effort necessary to write about a topic.
– They are often so pre-occupied with writing mechanics that they cannot focus on
composition. For instance, they may spend an inordinate amount of mental energy just
trying to handwrite, spell words, capitalize or punctuate.
– When prompted to proofread their written work, they do not change the text much as
compared to skilled writers, who may revise their writing considerably. Any changes that
poor writers make tend to involve writing mechanics, word choice or legibility. They
usually do not make changes that would improve clarity or coherence of the text.
– When they focus on one writing process at a time, rather than all of them simultaneously,
their writing improves.
• Self-regulated strategy development (SRSD), designed by Karen R. Harris and Steve Graham
and used by many other educators, is a teaching approach that trains students to use certain
strategies to write well. The main characteristics of this approach are: a) it is taught to
students directly, or explicitly; b) it involves heavy interaction between the teacher and
students, with students fully participating in the lessons; c) writing instruction is customized
111
to meet each student’s needs; d) students proceed to the next skill only when they have met
the passing criteria for the preceding skill; and e) SRSD is a continuous process that teachers
and students use for all levels of writing skill.
• The SRSD approach has been shown to be very effective for students in general and most
particularly for students with learning disabilities.
• To write well, students in the elementary grades need daily practice. Students in middle and
high school need instruction in how to write effectively in response to what they read in
literature, science, social studies and other content area subjects.
• Here are some best practices in writing instruction:
– Teach students strategies for following the writing process.
– Provide an enriching writing environment. Sell the value of writing well.
– Have students complete some writing assignments in teams.
– Provide specific writing goals and objectives.
– Teach students to construct a variety of sentences (e.g., simple, compound, complex) and
give them ample practice in combining sentences to write increasingly more sophisticated
ones.
– Provide daily handwriting and spelling practice to students in the elementary grades.
– Teach writing strategies following the sequence of guided instruction.
– Provide students with rubrics, or guidelines, to help them monitor their strategy use and
writing quality during the planning, writing and editing process.
– Grade students according to the degree to which they have improved rather than by set
criteria.
– Have students identify their purpose for writing a particular text and their audience.
SOURCES
1. Berninger, V., Mizokawa, D. & Bragg, R. (1991). Theory-based diagnosis and remediation of
writing disabilities. Journal of School Psychology, 29, 57-97.
2. Englert, C., Raphael, 1, Anderson, L., Anthony, H., Stevens, D. & Fear, K. (1991). Making
writing and self-talk visible: Cognitive strategy instruction writing in regular and special
education classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 28, 337-373.
3. Englert, C., Raphael, 1, Fear, K. & Anderson, L. (1988). Students’ metacognitive knowledge
about how to write informational texts. Learning Disability Quarterly, 11, 18-46.
4. Graham, S. (1997). Executive control in the revising of students with learning and writing
difficulties. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 223-234.
5. Graham, S. (1990). The role of production factors in learning disabled students’
compositions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 781-791.
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6. Graham, S., Berninger, V., Abbott, R., Abbott, S. & Whitaker, D. (1997). The role of
mechanics in composing of elementary school students: A new methodological approach.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 89, 170-182.
7. Graham, S. & Harris, K. R. (2000). The road less traveled: Prevention and intervention in
written language. In K. Butler & E. Silliman (Eds.), The language learning disabilities continuum:
Integration of research, technology, and education. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaurn.
8. Graham, S. & Harris, K. R. (1997b). It can be taught, but it does not develop naturally:
Myths and realities in writing instruction. School Psychology Review, 26, 414-424.
9. Graham, S. & Harris, K. R. (1996). Self-regulation and strategy instruction for students who
find writing and learning challenging. In M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The Science of Writing:
Theories, Methods, Individual Differences, and Applications (pp. 347-360). Mahwah, NJ: Erbaurn.
10. Graham, S. & Harris, K. R. (1994). Implications of constructivism for teaching writing to
students with special needs. Journal of Special Education, 28, 275-289.
11. Graham, S., Harris, K. R., MacArthur, C. & Schwartz, S. (1991 a). Writing instruction. In B.
Wong, (Ed.), Learning about Learning Disabilities (2nd ed., pp. 391-423). New York: Academic
Press.
12. Graham, S., Harris, K. R., MacArthur, C. & Schwartz, S. (1991b). Writing and writing
instruction with students with learning disabilities: A review of a program of research.
Learning Disability Quarterly, 14, 89-114.
13. Graham, S. & MacArthur, C. (1988). Improving learning disabled students’ skills at revising
essays produced on a word processor: Self- Instructional strategy training. Journal of Special
Education, 22, 133-152.
14. Greenwald, E., Persky, H. Ambell, J. & Mazzeo, J. (1999). National assessment of educational
progress: 1998 report card for the nation and the states. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Education.
15. Harris, K. R. & Graham, S. (1999). Programmatic intervention research: Illustrations from
the evolution of Self-Regulated Strategy Development. Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 251262.
16. Harris, K. R. & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process work: Strategies for composition and
self-regulation. Cambridge, MA: Brookline.
17. Hillocks, G. (1986). Research on Written Composition: New Directions for Teaching. Urbana, IL:
National Conference on Research in English.
18. Jones, D. & Christensen, C. (1999). The relationship between automaticity in handwriting
and students’ ability to generate written text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 44-49.
19. MacArthur, C. (1996). Using technology to enhance the writing performance of students
with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 29, 344-354.
20. MacArthur, C. & Graham, S. (1987). Learning disabled students’ composing with three
methods: Handwriting, dictation, and word processing. Journal of Special Education, 21, 22-42.
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21. Persky, H. R., Daane, M. C. & Jin, Y. (2003). The nation’s report card: Writing 2002. (NCES
2003-529). U.S. Department of Education. Institute of Education Sciences. National Center
for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.
22. Pressley, M., Yokoi, L., Rankin, J., Wharton-McDonald, R. & Mistretta, J. (1997). A survey
of the instructional practices of grade 5 teachers nominated as effective in promoting
literacy. Scientific Studies of Reading, 1, 1-16.
23. Sexton, M., Harris, K. R. & Graham, S. (1998). Self-regulated strategy development and the
writing process: Effects on essay writing and attributions. Exceptional Children, 64, 295-311.
24. Thomas, C., Englert, C. & Gregg, S. (1987). An analysis of errors and strategies in the
expository writing of learning disabled students. Remedial and Special Education, 8, 21-30.
25. Wong, B., Wong, R. & Blenkinsop, J. (1989). Cognitive and metacognitive aspects of
learning disabled adolescents’ composing problems. Learning Disability Quarterly, 12, 310-323.
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17. The Manus Approach to
Writing Instruction
THE THREE MAIN STEPS
Like the teaching of reading comprehension strategies, the teaching of writing skills tends to be
complex because of the numerous processes involved in writing, yet you still have the same
three basic tasks in training students to write well as you do to train them to read well. These
steps are:
1. Counteract learning barriers that impair writing. – Minimize the impairing effects of the barriers
that diminish students’ written expression development, such as poor handwriting, spelling,
capitalization and punctuation skills. Control these barriers enough so students can focus on
the writing process and not be too pre-occupied with the mechanics of writing.
2. Provide a language-rich environment throughout the school day. – The quality of students’ written
language is dependent on the quality of their spoken language and vocabulary level. Provide
a language-rich environment throughout the school day that supports writing growth. This
includes teaching grammar, usage, phrasing, vocabulary, reading comprehension and study
skills in the content areas and promoting recreational reading, including reading nonfiction,
or informational, texts to build background knowledge and vocabulary.
3. Teach writing skills intensively and directly. – Directly coach students, intensively and over an
extended period, so they refine and internalize the writing strategies well enough to apply
them to other academic tasks and situations.
COUNTERACT LEARNING BARRIERS THAT IMPAIR WRITTEN
EXPRESSION DEVELOPMENT
Here are some common barriers to writing and ways to counteract them. Use these
accommodations and any others you believe will help.
Handwriting barriers – To minimize the impairing effects of handwriting barriers, such as
dysgraphia, have students compose the work verbally while you or someone else writes it. Do
not have students handwrite as they compose. If you do, they will have no choice but to focus
on handwriting and spelling and will have little mental focus left for composition.
When the students’ composition skills increase, you may transfer some of the handwriting back
to them. Or, you may have them say their compositions several times then say it again into a
recorder. This step ensures that they compose the text without interference from handwriting
problems. Later, they can focus on transcribing it as they listen to themselves on the recorder.
Students with severe handwriting problems will benefit greatly from learning to type then using a
word processor to complete their writing assignments. If possible, arrange for them to receive
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typing instruction (over the course of a full year rather than one semester only) then use a word
processor routinely for writing assignments. Some of the underlying barriers that cause these
students’ handwriting delays will affect their learning to type; however, typing is still easier for
most students then handwriting and the end product is neat and legible, which is inherently
reinforcing to the students.
Spelling barriers – Provide different ways for students to access correct word spellings when they
need them. For instance, you can encourage them to call out words to you and you spell them
verbally as they write them. As a reference, you might also have a word wall or individual student
spelling logs that list alphabetized, high-use words students are likely to use when writing.
In case students cannot get access to correct spelling, tell them to spell the words the best they
can and focus on the composition, as this is the most important step. They can write a check
beside these words they likely misspelled and get someone to help them correct the words later.
Note: When students follow the writing process and work in tandem with the teacher, they
usually refer to outlines as they write. These outlines will contain many of the spelling words
they need as they compose. The outlines are an effective accommodation in and of themselves.
Capitalization and punctuation barriers – Ideally, students should be able to correctly capitalize and
punctuate their sentences as they write, assuming they know the rules. Some students, however,
cannot perform multiple processes at once, particularly those with weak attentional control or
poor working memory. They work best one step at a time. If students have trouble applying the
rules of writing mechanics as they write, tell them to simply focus on writing. Once they finish
their composition, however, tell them to focus heavily on proofreading for capital and
punctuation errors and to follow the prescribed proofreading process so they can turn in
correctly edited papers despite their proofreading liabilities.
Note: The process of proofreading written work in a systematic fashion raises students’
awareness of the visual details within the work. Over time, students will gradually capitalize and
punctuate correctly as they write, particularly if they are also becoming more fluent writers. The
more automatic each of their writing skills becomes, the more able they are to integrate all the
processes simultaneously.
Phrasing – Some students, particularly those with language problems, may have a general idea of
what they want to write but not know how to phrase it. They cannot seem to “spit it out.”
Model the correct phrasing then have the students repeat what you say verbally then write it. Or,
model part of the idea then have them repeat and finish the thought. Use this technique liberally
even if you sometimes feel you are practically writing their compositions yourself. Over time, the
students will learn from your continuous modeling and will phrase more of their thoughts by
themselves.
If possible, arrange for students with delays in basic writing skills to receive heavy remedial work
in those areas in which they are weak. For instance, if a student has significant spelling delays,
schedule fifteen minutes or so a day for remedial spelling work with the goal being to learn to
spell, quickly and easily, another set of 75 to 100 high-use words. Once the student can spell
these targeted words with little mental effort when writing sentences, he or she will eventually
apply these spelling skills when completing other writing assignments.
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PROVIDE A LANGUAGE-RICH ENVIRONMENT THROUGHOUT
THE DAY
See this same section under “The Manus Approach to Teaching Reading Comprehension.”
TEACH WRITING SKILLS INTENSIVELY AND DIRECTLY
Use the same strategies of guided practice and strategy training that you use when teaching
reading comprehension skills. To learn to write well, students need to interact heavily with you
as you model certain skills then prompt them to use them. As students make progress, you
gradually diminish your prompts.
In following this process of direct instruction, almost all of your students’ work will be well
written. After all, you are showing them, in a step-by-step fashion, how to write a given
assignment well. The students’ progress is determined not necessarily by the quality of their
writing (it is almost always good) but by the degree to which you had to assist them as they
completed the work.
Again, this “almost errorless” way of learning is most effective in the beginning stages of
instruction because you continuously prompt students to make all the right moves, thereby
reducing the time they spend working incorrectly or being confused or frustrated.
As students improve, they will make the gradual transition to working independently. When they
reach this stage, the more traditional approach of writing instruction tends to work well. This
approach typically involves the students’ writing the text, handing it to you for editing then the
students’ making the noted corrections in their final drafts.
Using the Manus Curriculums approach to teaching writing, teachers use direct instruction to
train students to follow these steps of the writing process when writing paragraphs and fiveparagraph essays (the steps for writing book reports, research reports and literary essays are
similar but more involved):
1. Brainstorm the topic on a graphic organizer, such as a web or guided outline.
2. Number the ideas in a logical order.
3. Talk through the paragraph or essay twice, practicing smooth transitions between the
sentences and paragraphs. (Teachers first model the procedure and appropriate phrases.)
4. Write the paragraph or essay, using the outline as a guide.
5. Edit and proofread your work several times, looking for one or two kinds of errors each
time. Here is one possible three-step sequence for editing and proofreading:
● Read your work slowly and check for completeness of expression (e.g., Did I say what I
wanted to say? Did I fully develop each idea?)
● Read each sentence again, in a monotone and one word at a time. (This helps students
read what they wrote and not what they thought they wrote. Their natural phrasing will
not overpower their attention to details.) Check for the type of errors you typically make.
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(Most students make the same type of error, such as spelling, punctuation or verb tenses.
If students focus on their particular error type, they will find most of the errors.)
● Read each sentence again, looking for other errors that are hard to spot.
Here is a sample lesson of a teacher with a beginning writer. It illustrates one way we follow the
writing process, accommodate learning barriers and directly instruct students.
Teacher Prompting a Young Student through
the Process of Writing a Short Paragraph
1.
Brainstorm the topic on a graphic organizer, such as a web or guided outline.
Teacher: Let’s write a paragraph. Think about a time when you were scared. (Teacher
draws a large circle in the center of the page and writes inside it: “A Time When I Was
Scared.”) . . . Have you thought of something?
Student: Yeah.
Teacher: When did this event happen that scared you?
Student: Umm . . .
Teacher: (Prompts student by asking a leading question.) Was it a week ago . . . a year ago
. . . when you were very young?
Student: It happened when I was very young.
Teacher: About how old were you?
Student: I can’t remember.
Teacher: (Prompts student with another leading question.) Were you a toddler around the
age of two or three or were you about four or five years old?
Student: I think I was about four years old.
Teacher: That’s close enough. (Teacher draws a spoke radiating off the circle and writes,
“about four years old.”) Where were you when this event happened?
Student: In a store.
Teacher: (Prompts student for more detail.) What kind of store was it? Was it a grocery
store, a drug store or a clothing store?
Student: It was in a grocery store.
Teacher: That’s a good detail. I will write in on our outline. (Teacher draws another spoke
off the circle and writes, “in a grocery store.”) What happened in this grocery store
that made you scared?
Student: I couldn’t find my mom.
Teacher: I can understand why that would be scary for a four year old. (Teacher writes
another note on the outline, “couldn’t find mom.”) What did you do when you
realized she was gone?
Student: I looked everywhere for her.
Teacher: Did you find her?
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Student: No.
Teacher: My goodness! How did you feel when you kept looking for your mother
and you couldn’t find her?
Student: I got really scared.
Teacher: (Writes “got really scared” on the outline.) I can understand that. I would be
scared, too. What eventually happened? How did you eventually find her?
Student: A woman helped me find her.
Teacher: Thank goodness! (Writes “woman helped me find her”.) How did you feel when
you found your mother?
Student: Umm . . .
Teacher: (Prompts student by asking a leading question.) Did you feel happy or relieved
because you were no longer scared?
Student: I was relieved.
Teacher: (Writes “felt relieved” on the outline.”) I would have felt relieved, too, if I were in
your shoes. Look at these notes that I wrote about what you told me. You
gave me a lot of great details about this time when you were scared.
2.
Number the ideas in a logical order.
Teacher: I will read these notes: “A Time When I Was Scared” is the title of your
paragraph. The first note says, “about four years old.” Write a number one
beside that note. (Student writes a number one beside the note and circles it.)
The second note says, “in a grocery store.” Write a number two beside that
note . . . The third note says, “shopping with my mom.” The fourth note
says, “couldn’t find my mom.” Write a number four beside that note . . .
The fifth note says, “got really scared.” Write a number five beside that
note . . . The sixth note says, “woman helped me find her.” Write a number
six beside that note . . . The seventh, and last, note says, “felt very
relieved.” Write a number seven beside that note.
3.
Talk through the paragraph or essay at least twice, practicing smooth
transitions between the sentences and paragraphs.
Teacher: I will use these notes to say your paragraph. Listen carefully as I connect all
the sentences together.
“ ‘I got scared when I was young’ . . . No, I need to say it better than that
. . . ‘When I was four years old, I had a terrible fright. I was in a grocery
store with my mom’ . . . I think I’ll say, ‘I was in a grocery store shopping
with my mom.’ Yes, that’s better. ‘All of a sudden, I couldn’t find her and
got really scared! A woman helped me find her. I was relieved’ . . . no, I
think I’ll say, ‘I was very relieved to see her.’ ”
Teacher: Now, it is your turn to say your paragraph aloud. Go ahead.
Student: Umm . . . “This story is about a time when I was really scared.”
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Teacher: (Models a way to phrase the topic sentence and prompts the student to repeat it.) Say, “I
remember a time when . . .”
Student: I remember a time when I was really scared.
Teacher: Good topic sentence. Keep going.
Student: I was four years old.
Teacher: Good. Refer to detail number three and keep going.
Student: In a grocery store.
Teacher: Say, “I was in a grocery store shopping with . . .”
Student: I was in a grocery store shopping with my mom.
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
4.
Great . . . Next detail.
I couldn’t find her.
Say, “All of a sudden, I couldn’t . . .”
All of a sudden, I couldn’t find her.
Good sentence . . . Next detail.
A woman helped me find her.
Good . . . Talk about the next detail.
I was very relieved.
Very good. Now, use your outline to say the paragraph again so it seems
easier. (Teacher prompts the student to say the paragraph once or twice more or until the
student can say the paragraph relatively smoothly and fluently.)
Write the paragraph, using the outline as a guide.
Teacher: You talked through your paragraph that time very smoothly and are ready
to write it. Begin writing your paragraph. Look at the topic inside the circle
then say a topic sentence for your paragraph.
Student: I remember a time when I was very scared.
Teacher: Good. Write that sentence. If you need help with spelling, I will be happy
to assist you.
Student: (Begins writing the sentence.) How do you spell remember?
Teacher: Remember is r-e-m-e-m-b-e-r.
Student: (Finishes writing the sentence.)
Teacher: Look at your outline and say the next sentence.
Student: I was four years old and in a grocery store with my mom.
Teacher: That’s an excellent sentence. Write it. (Student continues to write the remainder of
the paragraph with the teacher assisting. The teacher does not point out any errors during
this step.)
Teacher: . . . You wrote your story in less than ten minutes working at a steady
speed. How did the job seem to you? Was it easy, medium or hard?
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Student: It was sort of easy, I guess.
Teacher: I’m glad you found it easy. You were very well prepared when you wrote it.
(Teacher reviews strategies with student.) First, you thought about what you
wanted to write about and I wrote your ideas in this web. Second, you
numbered your ideas in a logical order. Third, you talked through your
paragraph several times until you could say it smoothly and, fourth, you
wrote it.
5.
Proofread the paragraph three times while focusing on one type of error each
time.
Teacher: Our last step is to proofread this paragraph. Did you know that most
people make mistakes when they write, even professional writers? That’s
because they can only do so many things at one time. When people write,
they have to think about handwriting, spelling, writing capital letters,
punctuating their sentences and they have to think about what they want to
say. Most people can’t do all of that perfectly at the same time. That’s why
professional writers don’t worry too much about making mistakes when
they write. They just want to focus on getting the words out. Later, when
they are done with that step, they focus just on the mistakes. Guess how
many times an author of a book might have to proofread his or her book
before sending it to the publisher?
Student: A few times, I guess.
Teacher: More than a few times. They often have to proofread their work ten to
fifteen times. That’s how many times it takes to get rid of most of their
mistakes. You and I will proofread your paragraph three times. Each time
we proofread it, we’ll look for one kind of mistake. The first time we
proofread it, we will check that you wrote everything exactly the way you
wanted to say it. Watch me as I proofread your first sentence.
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
Student:
Teacher:
“I remember a time when I was really scared.” Is that what you wanted to
say?”
Yes.
You read the second sentence. Read it like I read mine, slowly and one
word at a time.
(Reads sentence quickly.) I was four years old.
Read it one word at a time like this: “I – was – four – . . .”
(Reads sentence one word at a time.) “I was four years old.”
Is that what you wanted to say?
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Student: Yes.
Teacher: Good. Read the next sentence.
Student: I was in a grocery store.
Teacher: Read exactly what you wrote and one word at a time so you can tell what
word is missing: “I – was – in . . .”
Student: I was in grocery . . . I forgot the word “a.”
Teacher: That’s great that you noticed it was missing. Watch me draw a sign that
professional proofreaders use to note that a word is missing. (Teacher writes
the sign, ˄, to note the missing “a.”)
Write the word “a” above this sign.
Student: (Student writes “a” above the sign.)
Teacher: Read the next sentence to check if you said exactly what you wanted to say.
(Student and teacher continue until they complete this first proofreading step.)
Teacher: You just completed the first step in proofreading. The second step is a very
important one. Read each sentence again and look for the kind of errors
you usually make. Did you know that most writers make the same kind of
mistake over and over?
Student: No, I didn’t know that.
Teacher: When I write, I tend to forget to add endings to some of my words. For
instance, I might write talk when I really wanted to write talking. What kind
of mistake do you usually make?
Student: I don’t know.
Teacher: Well, do you tend to misspell words, forget to put periods at the ends of
your sentences or forget to use capital letters?
Student: I sometimes misspell words.
Teacher: Okay. Let’s read each sentence, one at a time, and look very carefully for
spelling errors. Watch as I read the first sentence. To help me catch the
spelling errors, I read one word at a time. This strategy gives my brain time
to look . . . “I – remember – a – time – wen . . .” When is spelled w-h-e-n. I
write the correct spelling above it . . . “I – was – realy . . .” Really is spelled
r-e-a-l-l-y. I write the correct spelling above the misspelled word . . . “scard
. . .” Scared is spelled s-c-a-r-e-d. I write the correct spelling above the
misspelled word.
Teacher: Now, it’s your turn. Read each word in the second sentence, one word at a
time and like a robot.
Student: I – was – for – years – old. I spelled it correctly.
Teacher: Look at the word for. Does it look funny to you?
Student: No, it looks good.
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Teacher: You spelled for, f-o-r, to mean something like, “I’m looking for my book.”
You want to spell the number four, though. (Provides student with a hint.) If you
had to add a letter between the letter o and the letter r, what letter would
you add?
Student: U?
Teacher: Yes. Cross out the misspelled word and write the correct spelling above it.
(Student and teacher continue this step until they complete it. Next, they proofread the
paragraph a final time to look for other errors.)
Outline
7
was very
relieved
four years old
woman helped
me find her
6
5
A Time When I
Was Scared
in a grocery
store
got really
scared
shopping with
my mom
Couldn’t find
my mom
1
2
3
4
Written Paragraph
when
really scared
four
a
I remember a time wen I was realy scard. I was for years old. I was in ˄
grocery
A
grocry store shopping with my mom. all of a sudden, I couldn’t find her. A
woman
me
womin helped ˄find her. I was very relieved.
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This is a guided outline pulled from Writing Paragraphs, Grades 4-6. Teachers direct students to
complete this outline and assist them with phrasing as needed. Once students complete the
outline, the teacher models how to “say the paragraph aloud.” Students then verbalize the
paragraph once or twice with the teacher assisting with phrasing, as necessary. Teachers next
have the students write then edit their paragraphs or dictate their paragraphs to a scribe.
Guided Outline for Describing an Object: Athletic Shoes
1. Category: You will describe athletic shoes. Look at your own athletic shoes (sneakers), if
you’re wearing them, or those of another student’s. Begin with a topic sentence telling in what
category athletic shoes belong. For instance, are they pieces of furniture? Food? Footwear?
Example: “Athletic shoes are popular . . . that many students . . .”
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. Physical Characteristics: Develop the topic sentence by describing the size, shape, coloring
and design of athletic shoes.
Example: “Athletic shoes come in . . . sizes. They range from approximately . . . inches to . . .
inches. They are shaped like hollow . . . with rounded . . . The bottoms of athletic shoes are
often . . . while the tops are . . . These shoes have various designs and colors. For instance,
some . . . might be . . .”
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. Attachments: Continue to describe athletic shoes by explaining what is attached to them.
Example: “Woven through the . . . at the . . . of the shoe are . . .”
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Composition: Of what materials are athletic shoes made?
Example: “Athletic shoes are typically made of . . . and . . . The soles of . . . are made of . . . to
help protect the . . . The top and sides of . . . are made of . . . and the shoe laces are . . .”
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
5. Function: For what reason do people wear athletic shoes?
Example: “People wear . . . for many . . . Some . . . wear them when . . . while others . . .”
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
6. Origin: End with a conclusion. Explain where people can buy athletic shoes.
Example: “People can buy . . . in several . . ., such as shoe . . ., department . . . and . . .”
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
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This is an abbreviated version of a guided outline pulled from Writing Multi-Page Research Reports.
It shows students what information to research as they write about the given topic. Next, it
shows them what to say, how to say it and in what order. Once students have followed these
structured outlines several times, they are usually ready to begin researching and writing reports
with the more standard outlines their teachers give them.
Researching a Planet
Directions: Preview this outline to get a general idea of how to research and write about a planet.
Next, select a planet you would like to research. Then gather three or four books about this planet.
Complete this outline as you research it. You may use an encyclopedia as one of your sources.
Introductory Paragraph
1. Speak generally about your planet.
Write two or three sentences or phrases speaking generally about your planet. For instance,
what features or characteristics make it special? How does it stand out? How did the planet get
its name?
Example: “Many people think of Martians when they think of Mars. Some Hollywood movies
. . .”
2. Write your topic statement.
Write a statement telling specifically what your paper is about. Include these smaller topics that
will develop your paper.
What your planet looks like and its location in space
Its composition (what it’s made of) and atmosphere
People’s attempts to explore it
Example: “By sending spacecraft to observe and record data from Mars and with the help of
high-powered telescopes, scientists have learned much about what Mars looks like, its location,
composition and atmosphere.”
Body Paragraphs
Develop your topic statement with 3 or more paragraphs and with at least one paragraph on each
of these topics.
Topic #1 – Physical Description and Location
3. Write a phrase or sentence introducing this first topic: physical description and location.
Example: “Mars is the fourth planet from the sun and a relatively close neighbor of Earth.”
4. Write numbered notes on the lines that develop the topic sentence. Include this information:
What is the size of your planet? What is its diameter? How does it compare to the size of
Earth?
What is its distance from the sun and from Earth?
How long does it take to orbit the sun?
What planets is it closest to?
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What is its appearance from Earth (e.g., does it have a particular color, does it appear to
have rings, is it bright)?
Do any moons orbit this planet? If so, describe them.
Topic #2 – Composition and Atmosphere
5. Write a phrase or sentence introducing this second topic: composition and atmosphere.
Example: “Many elements on Earth are also found on Mars.”
6. Write numbered notes telling the planet’s composition and atmosphere. Consider these ideas:
Is your planet composed mainly of rock or gas?
What rocks and minerals make up the planet’s surface?
What landforms have been observed on this planet (e.g., craters, volcanoes, valleys)?
What is the temperature range? What factors create these temperatures?
Does this planet get any precipitation like rain or snow?
Is there any water on this planet?
What gases make up the atmosphere? How dense is the atmosphere?
Is the planet windy? If so, how strong and frequent are these winds?
Topic #3 – Exploration
7. Write a phrase or sentence introducing this third topic, exploration.
Examples: “The United States has launched several successful missions to explore Mars.”
8. Write numbered notes describing attempts to explore this planet and the results. Consider
these ideas:
What did early observers learn about this planet (e.g., Galileo)?
How many attempts have been made to send spacecraft and satellites to this planet?
When were these attempts made?
Were they considered successful? Did scientists get reliable information about the planet?
What did scientists learn from each of these attempts?
Has the Hubble telescope revealed new information about this planet? Is so, what?
Conclusion
9. In two or three sentences, summarize your main topic and supporting topics.
Example: “Many people have been particularly interested in Mars, perhaps because it is
relatively close to Earth. Thanks to satellites, telescopes and space probes, we know much
about Mars’ location, composition and atmosphere.”
10. Raise a new, yet related idea about your planet, leaving your reader with something to consider.
Example: “Because the Hubble telescope is outside the earth’s atmosphere and can capture
clearer and sharper images of Mars than before, we are sure to learn more about our
neighboring planet in the future.”
Works Cited
Write information on the sources you used. Refer to the chart “How to Cite Your Sources” at the
end of this lesson.
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Like the preceding guided outlines, this outline walks students through another writing process:
writing a report, or summary, about a book they just read and analyzed. Once students have
followed this kind of literary outline several times, they are usually ready to write book reports
with less direction and teacher prompting.
Holes
by Louis Sachar
Guided Outline for a Book Report
Directions: Complete this guided outline before you write your book report.
Introduction Paragraph
1. Write a main idea sentence telling the title, author and, briefly, what the story is about.
Example: “[Title of novel] by [author] is about [whom?] who has been convicted [of what?]
and is sentenced to serve time [in what?].”
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Describe the setting. Where does the story take place?
Example: “Camp Green Lake is located [where?]. The campers’ living and working conditions
are [describe them]. Most of the adult supervisors, including the Warden, are [describe them
and their manner toward the campers].”
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Body Paragraphs (three)
2. Summarize the plot. What is the conflict or problem?
Example: “Stanley, who is forced to [do what all day?], eventually realizes [what?]. He
discovers this when he finds a [what?] in one of the holes he digs. He gives the [what?] to
[whom?] who reports the find. The Warden and other adults [respond how to this
discovery?].”
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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3. How does the conflict grow and how does the main character respond to these
complications?
Example: “Stanley’s problems grow when he lets Zero [do what for him and in return for
what?]. The other boys mock Zero and him. The mocking gets out of hand when [who does
what?]. Zero [responds how?]. This leads Stanley to [respond how?].”
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
4. How does the conflict grow even more? How does the character change during this conflict?
What other subplot occurs in this story?
Example: “Stanley and Zero find themselves [where and without what?]. They decide to [do
what in response to their predicament?] Despite his [describe some of Stanley’s hardships],
Stanley changes for the better. He becomes [describe the improvements in his character].
Several times, the story flashes back to an earlier time when [who experienced what?].
Strangely, these earlier events [affect who and what?].”
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
Conclusion Paragraph
5. Describe your personal reaction to the story.
Did you enjoy this book? Was it informative? Why or why not? What did you learn or
realize?
Describe an event, a character’s comment or a setting that made a strong impression on you.
Quote a favorite line from the book, if you’d like.
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________
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18. Customizing Instruction to
Meet Each Student’s
Specific Learning Needs
Selecting research-based curricula is an essential step toward improving students’ ability to learn;
however, for the curricula to have maximum effect, teachers must deliver it in the right
environment and at the right intensity. They must also monitor the students’ responses to the
instruction to determine if all of these factors yield the desired results.
Teaching students with learning barriers requires far more precision than teaching students who
learn fairly easily and who can adapt to their environments, even if these environments are not
perfectly suited to them. Teachers of students with learning barriers, therefore, must teach
deliberately and with a close eye on all the variables that can impact students’ progress.
Here is a brief explanation of the three variables essential to any effective program:
THE RIGHT CURRICULA
There are numerous curricula available to teach any skill and a host of instructional approaches
that teachers can and do use. Almost all of these programs and strategies are effective when used
in the right context and with certain students. For curricula to be effective, they must directly
target those skills you want to teach. Just as a standardized test is only valid if it measures the
skills it purports to measure, a curriculum is only effective if it leads to student mastery in the
desired skill.
The last several decades of educational research strongly indicate that the most effective way to
teach basic reading, spelling, comprehension and certain other skills is by using an explicit, or
direct, approach with materials that cover these skills in small, hierarchical steps and allow for
enough practice to achieve fluency then skill generalization. The Manus Literacy Program helps
you teach these basic skills directly and intensively.
THE RIGHT ENVIRONMENT
According to other educational research, in an average elementary classroom, the majority of
students are likely to respond well to effective literacy instruction that is delivered to groups of
twenty or more students. A smaller number of students, maybe four or five, might need smallgroup reading and spelling instruction delivered a little more frequently than the first group. An
even smaller number of students, maybe between one and three, might need highly intensive
instruction in a one-on-one or two-on-one setting and for up to several hours every day.
Providing the right environment for this third group of students is often more important than
using the right curriculum. Students with severe attentional deficits, impulse control disorders,
anxiety, depression, learning disabilities and other problems cannot absorb your instruction, no
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matter how skillful you are, if they feel too unsettled in a large or even mid-sized group. Placing
these students in the right environment is essential for your teaching efforts to work.
THE RIGHT INTENSITY
For teachers’ and students’ efforts to pay off, the instruction must also be sufficiently intense,
particularly for students with learning problems who usually need far more practice than other
students to master skills.
For most students to progress at a good rate in reading and spelling skills, they should read an
average of 8,000 to 12,000 words a month during their reading lessons and many more during
recreational reading at home. During the spelling lessons, they should spell an average of 1,200
words per month, written both in isolation and in sentences.
The in-school reading practice can be accomplished by reading 400 to 600 words a day, four or
five days a week, using the Manus Curriculums practice packs for reading. The word total
includes the number of words students read in columns, sentences, stories and poems. The inschool spelling practice can be accomplished by spelling approximately sixty words per day five
days a week.
Using the Manus reading and spelling materials, students with mild to moderate learning barriers
can usually read 400 to 600 words in twenty to thirty minutes and write sixty words in isolation
and within sentences in about fifteen to twenty minutes. Students with severe reading and
spelling disabilities and other academic barriers may take longer. These students should average
at least 12,000 practice trials in reading a month. More than this number is even better.
Again, to create this intensity, you must be mindful of the environment in which you deliver
instruction.
Keeping Records
Teachers using any of the Manus reading and spelling materials maintain comprehensive records
on each student. This helps them determine if their instruction is working or not and, if not,
identify the specific factors that are hindering progress and adjust the program to accommodate
for these factors. In this record, they note:
● the results of either a diagnostic or placement test
● the student’s current skill level within the Manus practice packs for reading and spelling
● specific barriers that the teacher suspects may be interfering with the student’s ability to learn
reading and spelling
● the estimated severity of the student’s reading and spelling difficulties on other areas of
learning
● other barriers that may interfere with the student’s ability to respond to instruction
● the instructional plan that notes the curriculum, the environment in which this instruction is
delivered and the recommended intensity of instruction
● class accommodations to limit the impairing effects the reading and spelling delays may have
on other areas of learning
130
Two weeks after they begin their instructional intervention, teachers complete a two then fourweek progress report and examine the effects the intervention appears to have on skill
improvement. They adjust any of the essential variables, if needed, to allow for maximum
progress.
On the following pages are a sample instructional plan, two-week progress report and a chart
and graph on which to record each student’s completed practice trials.
131
Sample Instructional Plan
for Word Recognition, Fluency and Spelling
Student Glen Roberts
Grade
rd
3
Starting Date 10/14/10
Instructor(s)
Claire Cheswick
1. Goals and Objectives: see list in the Appendix
2. Curricula and Lesson Plan
Curricula/Other Materials
(include starting levels, if appropriate )
Minutes
per Lesson
Manus Curriculums, Phonics, Level 2
Manus Curriculums, Sight Words, Level 1, Lesson 3
Spelling from both of the above practice packs
Spelling Log in regular classroom (2x weekly)
Reading with Rhythm, Level 1 (in class 3x weekly)
Recreational reading (daily at home)
20 min.
10 min.
15 min.
15 min.
15 min.
30 min.
No. of Practice
Trials per Lesson
450 words
250 words
60 words
60 words
350 words
N/A
3. Intensity of Instruction
Recommended number of reading practice trials per month
10,000+ (intensive practice)
__ 6,000+ (moderate practice)
__ 3,000+ (light practice)
__ other ____________________________
Recommended number of spelling practice trials per month
1,200+ (intensive practice)
__ 800+ (moderate practice)
__ 400+ (light practice)
__ other ____________________________
Duration and frequency of instruction
45 minutes
3 days a week
__ other ____________________________
4. Teaching and Learning Environment
__ regular classroom
separate room
__ other ________________________
Notes:
Student-teacher ratio
small group
__ one-to-one
__ whole class
5. Accommodations: see attached list
6. Signatures and Date
Claire Cheswick 10/7/10
Thomas Roberts 10/7/10
Gloria Roberts 10/7/10
________________________________
132
Sample Two-Week Review
of the Instructional Plan for Word Recognition, Fluency and Spelling
Student Jessica Wyman
For period from
9-1-10 to 9-14-10
Grade
Instructor(s)
Marian Glaswell
5
1. Practice Exercises
Number of practice exercises student completed during this period: 3,225
Number of practice exercises you expected student to complete:
5,000 or more
% of difference between actual and expected number of exercises: 64.5%
2. Objectives Student Learned as a Result of the Practice
(See the “Goals and Objectives for Word Recognition and Decoding” in this booklet.)
3. Degree of Satisfaction with the Instructional Plan
__ Very satisfied
__ Moderately satisfied
Dissatisfied
4. Factors That Facilitate and/or Inhibit Learning
Note if each of these instructional factors appear to help or inhibit your student’s
ability to learn by checking the appropriate statements.
Goals and objectives
They are realistic. The student can learn them with reasonable effort within the
appropriate learning environment.
__ They are not realistic. The student cannot learn them despite reasonable effort
and an appropriate learning environment
Written Expression – Reading and comprehending involve decoding and making sense of another
Curricula and other training activities
person’s writing. When students write, however, they are the authors and must learn to follow
They are valid. The practice exercises and other activities directly lead to
the same rules as other authors for phrasing, subject-verb agreement, punctuation and
mastery of the plan’s goals and objectives.
capitalization and how to present topics and supporting details coherently. As student practice
__
They are
not valid.they become familiar with the various ways other writers
the writing process
repeatedly,
Intensity of instruction
structure their texts. This increases their ability to follow other writers’ thoughts, which enhances
The(For
instruction
intense
for satisfactory
progress
occur
should
all
comprehension.
further is
details
on enough
how to teach
writing, see
How to to
Teach
Written
Expression.)
other conditions be ideal.
__ The instruction is not intense enough for satisfactory progress.
Learning Environment
The learning environment and/or student-teacher ratio facilitates the student’s
ability to focus on instruction.
__ The learning environment and/or student-teacher ratio inhibits focus.
Accommodations
The class and instructional accommodations facilitate the student’s ability to
learn other
skillsfreezing
and subjects
and complete
Example: “The
sleet and
temperatures
createdassignments.
hazardous driving conditions;
__
The
accommodations
have
limited
effectiveness.
therefore, the National Weather Service issued travelers a warning to not drive unless they
The student responded well to the instructional plan; however, she was out of
hadOther
an emergency.”
school for 3 of the 8 days of scheduled instruction.
5. Next Step Taken
__ Continue the current instructional plan.
Make these changes to the plan: if student’s absences continue
133
Daily Reading and Spelling Practice
Directions: Note the number of words the student read and spelled during the day’s
lesson. Record these totals in the appropriate column here with the day’s date.
Date
No. of
Words
Read
No. of
Words
Spelled
Date
No. of
Words
Read
No. of
Words
Spelled
Written Expression – Reading and comprehending involve decoding and making sense of another
person’s writing. When students write, however, they are the authors and must learn to follow
the same rules as other authors for phrasing, subject-verb agreement, punctuation and
capitalization and how to present topics and supporting details coherently. As student practice
the writing process repeatedly, they become familiar with the various ways other writers
structure their texts. This increases their ability to follow other writers’ thoughts, which enhances
comprehension. (For further details on how to teach writing, see How to Teach Written Expression.)
Example: “The sleet and freezing temperatures created hazardous driving conditions;
therefore, the National Weather Service issued travelers a warning to not drive unless they
had an emergency.”
134
Monthly Reading and Spelling Practice
Directions: Graph the number of words the student reads and spells each month.
Word Recognition and Fluency
Monthly Goal ________ Yearly Goal ________ Yearly Total ________
12,000
12,000
11,000
11,000
10,000
10,000
9,000
9,000
8,000
8,000
7,000
7,000
6,000
6,000
5,000
5,000
4,000
4,000
3,000
3,000
Aug/Sep– Reading
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr and
Maymaking
Jun sense of another
Written Expression
and comprehending
involve
decoding
person’s writing. When students write, however, they are the authors and must learn to follow
Spelling
the same
rules as other authors for phrasing, subject-verb agreement, punctuation and
capitalization and how to present topics and supporting details coherently. As student practice
Monthly Goal ________ Yearly Goal ________ Yearly Total ________
the writing process repeatedly, they become familiar with the various ways other writers
structure
1,200their texts. This increases their ability to follow other writers’ thoughts, which
1,200 enhances
comprehension. (For further details on how to teach writing, see How to Teach Written Expression.)
1,100
1,100
1,000
1,000
900
900
800
800
700
700
Example:
“The sleet and freezing temperatures created hazardous driving conditions;
600
600
therefore, the National Weather Service issued travelers a warning to not drive unless they
500
had500
an emergency.”
400
400
300
300
Aug/Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Jan
Feb
135
Mar
Apr
May
Jun