ROAD SECTOR DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
PACKAGE 3
PAVEMENT DESIGN SUPPLEMENT: PART II
REHABILITATION AND RECYCLING OF FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENTS
ROAD SECTOR DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
PACKAGE 3
PAVEMENT DESIGN SUPPLEMENT: PART II
REHABILITATION AND RECYCLING OF FLEXIBLE
PAVEMENTS
INDONESIA
INFRASTRUCTURE
INITIATIVE
May 2011
INDONESIA INFRASTRUCTURE INITIATIVE
This document has been published by the Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative (IndII), an
Australian Government funded project designed to promote economic growth in
Indonesia by enhancing the relevance, quality and quantum of infrastructure
investment.
The views expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the views of the Australia
Indonesia Partnership or the Australian Government. Please direct any comments or
questions to the IndII Director, tel. +62 (21) 230-6063, fax +62 (21) 3190-2994.
Website: www.indii.co.id.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report has been prepared by Geoff Jameson and Edward James on behalf of
Cardno Emerging Markets in association with the Australian Road Research Board who
were engaged under the Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative (IndII), funded by AusAID, as
part of the Directorate General of Highways (DGH) Programme Development Activity.
This supplement rests on the work of the Activity 201 group and previous documents
delivered under Activity 201, notably Deliverable 2: “National roads pavement design
guidelines and practice deficiencies”, Draft Deliverable 3 “ Interim pavement design
and cost charts” and Deliverable 4A “Life cycle cost analysis Part A: model, data
preparation, and results of new design options for flexible pavements”.
This supplement draws from many sources; particularly the following published
guidelines and technical papers:
Pavement Design Guide, AASHTO, 1993
Austroads Pavement Design “A Guide to the Structural Design of Road
Pavements” 2008
Overseas Road Note 31, Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), UK, 1993
LR 1132, Transport Research Laboratory, 1986
The debt owed to these documents must be acknowledged.
Ir. Purnomo S, Director Bintek, and Dr. Ir. Hedi Rahadian MSc have provided invaluable
guidance on the many pavement related issues facing the Technical Directorate of DGH
(Bintek). Valuable dialogues have been held with Ir. Nyoman and the pavements staff
of the Indonesian Road Research Institute (Pusjatan). The Department of
Communication (Perhubungan) provided access to their weighbridge facility at Demak,
Central Java, which allowed the collection of necessary confirmation of articulated
vehicle axle weights.
Any errors of fact or interpretation of previous studies under the IndII Road Sector
Development Programme are solely those of the author.
Ed Vowles, Team Leader
Jakarta, May 2011
Document Control: IndII RSDP3 – Activity 201 Deliverable 6B Rehabilitation and Recycling
Version
Date
Author
Initials
Reviewer
Initials
Geoff Jameson
HIS edit
corrections
August
2011
Edward James
Tyrone Toole
PREAMBLE
This document is designed to be used in conjunction with current pavement design instructions:
Directorate General of Highways (DGH) 2002: Flexible Pavement and DGH 2005: “Overlay Design
using Deflections”. The objective of this format is to facilitate immediate introduction of necessary
changes.
The Indonesian Road Research Institute (Pusjatan) has commenced a review of pavement design
instructions in current use. Once that review is complete, incorporation of this and other planned
supplements in a single concise pavement design guideline format will be possible.
Efficient pavement design and maintenance solutions will only become possible when the following
issues have been comprehensively addressed:
a) Enforcement of reasonable axle loading limits
b) Enforcement of reasonable construction quality standards
General specification and design specification changes are required to support field use of the
extended analysis and design treatments set offered by this document. Changes to the Indonesian
Road Management System are needed to support identification of candidate projects for
reconstruction or recycling and to introduce deflection-based overlay design to the planning
process. Consultant and contractor training will be required.
© IndII 2011
All original intellectual property contained within this document is the property of the Indonesia
Infrastructure Initiative (IndII). It can be used freely without attribution by consultants and IndII partners in
preparing IndII documents, reports designs and plans; it can also be used freely by other agencies or
organisations, provided attribution is given.
Every attempt has been made to ensure that referenced documents within this publication have been
correctly attributed. However, IndII would value being advised of any corrections required, or advice
concerning source documents and/ or updated data.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND TRANSLATIONS .................................................. V
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION..................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 2: SELECTION OF REHABILITATION TREATMENTS ....................................... 3
2.1
TREATMENT SELECTION PROCESS OUTLINE ............................................ 5
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN TRAFFIC .................................................................................... 7
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
PAVEMENT DESIGN LIFE .................................................................... 7
ESTIMATING VEHICLE DAMAGE ........................................................... 7
FUTURE AXLE LOAD CONTROL............................................................. 7
TRAFFIC GROWTH RATE .................................................................... 8
LANE DISTRIBUTION FACTOR AND LANE CAPACITY ................................... 8
VEHICLE TYPE ................................................................................. 8
VEHICLE DAMAGE FACTORS (VDF) ...................................................... 9
TRAFFIC MULTIPLIER ........................................................................ 9
CHAPTER 4: SUBGRADE SUPPORT FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND RECYCLING ............. 13
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
EXISTING PAVEMENT ANALYSIS ......................................................... 13
SOFT SOIL TREATMENTS .................................................................. 13
PEAT .......................................................................................... 14
EXPANSIVE SOILS ........................................................................... 15
CHAPTER 5: MATERIALS CHARACTERISATION ......................................................... 16
CHAPTER 6: DRAINAGE .......................................................................................... 18
CHAPTER 7: THICKNESS DESIGN OF OVERLAYS ........................................................ 21
7.1
7.2
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 21
DESIGN TRAFFIC LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 107 ESA ............................... 22
7.2.1 Adjustment of measured curvature to account for testing
temperature ......................................................................... 23
7.2.2 Standardisation of deflections and curvatures .................... 24
7.2.3 Calculation of characteristic curvatures .............................. 25
7.2.4 Fatigue of an asphalt overlay ............................................... 25
CHAPTER 8: THICKNESS DESIGN OF FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISATION TREATMENTS
........................................................................................................... 27
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 27
MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISATION................... 28
MINIMUM SURFACING REQUIREMENTS .............................................. 30
THICKNESS DESIGN CHARTS .............................................................. 31
DESIGN PROCESS ........................................................................... 31
i
CHAPTER 9: DESIGN OF CEMENT STABILISATION TREATMENTS............................. 33
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
CHAPTER 10:
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR CEMENT STABILISATION ................................ 33
MINIMUM SURFACING REQUIREMENTS .............................................. 33
THICKNESS DESIGN CHARTS .............................................................. 33
DESIGN PROCESS ........................................................................... 34
CONSTRUCTION ISSUES AND PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE ........... 36
PREPARATION OF EXISTING PAVEMENTS FOR OVERLAY ........................... 36
PAVEMENT LAYER THICKNESSES ........................................................ 36
PAVEMENT EDGE (INCLUDING MEDIAN) SUPPORT ................................. 37
BOXED CONSTRUCTION ................................................................... 37
WET SEASON EFFECTS..................................................................... 38
CONSTRUCTION UNDER TRAFFIC........................................................ 38
JOINT LOCATIONS .......................................................................... 38
CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE FOR RECYCLING .......................................... 39
ANNEXE 1: COMMERCIAL FLEET VDF CALCULATOR ................................................. 41
ANNEXE 2: DEVELOPMENT OF THE THICKNESS DESIGN METHOD FOR FOAMED
BITUMEN STABILISATION .................................................................... 43
ANNEXE 3: FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISATION DESIGN CHARTS, DESIGN TRAFFIC UP
TO 108 ESA5........................................................................................ 45
ANNEXE 4: FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISATION DESIGN CHARTS, DESIGN TRAFFIC 108
TO 109 ESA5 ......................................................................................... 49
ANNEXE 5: CEMENT STABILISATION DESIGN CHARTS............................................. 52
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................... 56
ii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Design life, rehabilitation triggers and surfacing type relationships for
reconstruction and recycling .......................................................................... 3
Table 2.2: Selection of treatment types ........................................................................... 4
Table 2.3: Roughness triggers for overlay and reconstruction ........................................ 5
Table 2.4: Triggers for overlay, reconstruction or recycling ............................................ 6
Table 3.1: Presumptive traffic growth rates (Bintek concurrence required) ................... 8
Table 3.2: Lane distribution factor ................................................................................... 8
Table 3.3: Classification of vehicles and standard VDF values: Java arterial – 2011..... 11
Table 5.1: Characteristic moduli used for development of design charts and for
mechanistic design ....................................................................................... 16
Table 5.2: Characteristic Poisson’s ratio values ............................................................. 17
Table 5.3: Characteristic unbound materials moduli used for development of design
charts ............................................................................................................ 17
Table 8.1: Guide to the selection of method of stabilisation ........................................ 29
Table 8.2: Minimum surfacing requirements over foamed bitumen stabilised materials
.......................................................................................................... 30
Table 8.3: Procedure for foamed bitumen stabilisation design .................................... 31
Table 9.1: Procedure for CTSB design ........................................................................... 34
Table 10.1: Permitted layer thicknesses ........................................................................ 36
iii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Flexible pavement structure components ..................................................... 2
Figure 6.1: “m” factor adjustments for subgrade drainage condition ............................ 19
Figure 6.2: Examples of subsoil drainage for various site conditions ............................ 20
Figure 7.1: Curvature function ....................................................................................... 22
Figure 7.2: Temperature correction for Benkelman Beam for various asphalt
thicknesses.................................................................................................... 23
Figure 7.3: Temperature correction for FWD for various asphalt thicknesses .............. 24
Figure 7.4: Curvature standardisation factors ............................................................... 25
Figure 7.5: Asphalt overlay fatigue lives MAPTs >35 °C ................................................. 26
Figure 8.1: Foamed bitumen pavement recycling ......................................................... 27
Figure 8.2: Zone A grading envelope ............................................................................. 30
Figure 8.3: Example design chart for thickness design foamed bitumen stabilisation
recycling ........................................................................................................ 31
Figure 9.1: Example design chart for thickness design cement treated sub-bases (CTSB)
.......................................................................................................... 34
Figure 10.1: Pavement edge support and median treatment ....................................... 37
Figure 10.2: (A and B) Construction sequence for recycling with widening ................. 39
iv
ABBREVIATIONS, ACRONYMS AND TRANSLATIONS
AADT
AASHTO
AC
ACf
ACc
AC BC
AC WC
AMP
Angkot
AusAID
Austroads
ARRB
Bintek
BB
Cakar ayam
CBR
CC
CESA
CIRCLY
CF
CTB
CTSB
D0
D200
DCP
DG
DGH
DGH 2002
DGH 2003
DGH 2005
EA
ESA4
ESAasphalt
FB
Ft
FWD
FY
GMP
Gol
HRS
IndII
Average annual daily traffic
Association of American State Highway and Transportation Officials
Asphaltic concrete
Fine graded asphaltic concrete
Course graded asphaltic concrete
Asphaltic concrete binder course
Asphaltic concrete wearing course
Asphalt mixing plant
Mini bus
Australian Agency for International Development
Association of Australian and New Zealand road transport and traffic
authorities
Australian Road Research Board
Technical Directorate of DGH
Benkelman Beam
Friction pile system of Indonesian origin to support rigid pavement on
soft soil
Californian bearing ratio
Characteristic Curvature
Cumulative equivalent standard axles
Australian mechanistic design software program used by Austroads
2004
Curvature function = D0-D200
Cement treated base
Cement treated sub-base
Maximum deflection
Deflection when the load has moved 200 mm from the test point
Dynamic cone penetrometer
Director General
Directorate General of Highways (Bina Marga)
DGH Flexible Pavement Design Guide
DGH Rigid Pavement Design Guide
DGH Asphalt Overlay Design Guide
Executing agency
Equivalent standard axle – 4th power
Equivalent standard axle for asphalt (5th power)
Foamed bitumen
Temperature factor
Falling weight deflectometer
Fiscal year
General mechanistic procedure
Government of Indonesia
Hot rolled sheet
Indonesia Infrastructure Initiative
v
Ir
IRI
IRMS
K
kN
Lij
LMC
LR
m
MAPT
MDD
MPa
OMC
ORN
PI
PPK
Pusjatan
RF
Sirtu
SL
SG2
Tmeas
TMasphalt
TRL
VDF
Vb
WMAPT
μɛ
Engineer
International Roughness Index
Indonesian Road Management System
Constant
Kilo Newtons
Load on any axle
Lean mix concrete
TRL report reference
Correction factor for granular layer thickness relating to drainage
conditions
Mean annual pavement temperature
Maximum dry density
Megapascal
Optimum moisture content
Overseas Road Note
Plasticity Index
Pejabat Pembuat Komitment (Sub Project Manager)
Road Research Institute (Indonesia)
Reliability factor
Coarse river gravel
Standard load
Subgrade with CBR 2 percent
Temperature measured
Traffic multiplier for design of asphalt layers
Transport Road Laboratory (UK)
Vehicle damage factor
Specific volume of bitumen in an asphalt mixture
Weighted mean average pavement temperature
Microstrain
vi
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
This supplement shall be used in conjunction with Directorate General of Highways
(DGH) 2002: Flexible Pavement Design, and DGH 2005: “Pusjatan Overlay Design using
Deflections”, and shall take precedence over those documents. The document scope
includes design of pavements for structural rehabilitation treatments, including
recycling.
Procedures and warrants provided by this document strengthen the existing Guidelines
with respect to:
a) Service life delivery
b) Minimisation of life cycle costs
c) Practical construction
d) Efficient use of material resources
Significant changes compared to DGH 2002 include:
a) Optimum design lives determined from life cycle cost analysis
b) Correction for climate factors that affect pavement service life
c) Comprehensive axle load analysis
d) Service temperature effects
e) Introduction of structural design of in situ cement stabilisation treatments
f) Introduction of structural design of in situ foamed bitumen stabilisation treatments
g) Drainage design
h) Layer analysis requirements for DGH 2002 (Association of American State Highway
and Transportation Officials [AASHTO] based)
i)
Support for mechanistic design
j)
Catalogue design solutions
This document will form part of a planned suite of highway design supplements. Other
planned supplements in the series include:
PART I
New Pavement Design
PART III
Drainage
PART IV
Reconnaissance
PART V
Mechanistic Design
PART VI
Geometric Design
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The pavement structure terminology and the pavement structures described
throughout the text are illustrated by Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1: Flexible pavement structure components
2
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CHAPTER 2: SELECTION OF REHABILITATION
TREATMENTS
CHAPTER 2: SELECTION OF REHABILITATION
TREATMENTS
There are two treatment selection stages:
Planning;
broad selection of candidate routes and global treatments
Project;
sections
close interval testing and detailed treatments for homogeneous
Table 2.1 provides an outline of the triggers applicable to each selection stage.
A trigger is defined within this document as a test value at which a rehabilitation
treatment becomes viable. Trigger 1 is the test value at which an overlay becomes
viable. Trigger 2 is the test value at which reconstruction is likely to be a more practical
and cost effective treatment than a structural overlay.
Table 2.1:
Design life, rehabilitation triggers and surfacing type relationships for
reconstruction and recycling
Design life (years)
Light traffic ESA4/10
<1 million
All other roads
ESA4/10 ≥ million
10 all treatments
20 - structural overlay, and
reconstruction
15 – non-structural overlay
10 - holding treatments
Equivalent traffic repetitions (million ESA)
ESA4/101 (current Indonesian practice)
<1
1–2.5
>2.5
ESA 5/10 (proposed for light traffic)
< 1.7
1.7–4.25
>4.25
ESA 5/15
<2.8
2.8-7.2
>7.2
ESA5/20 (proposed for intermediate and
heavy traffic)
<4
4-10
>10
HRS, surface
dressing, other
AC f
ACc
Asphalt type
1
Fourth power equivalent standard axle (ESA), 10 year design life.
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Treatment triggers
Planning level triggers
IRI, visual
IRI, deflection at 200m c/c
visual
Project level triggers
IRI (primary)
deflection 2 visual
DCP
Curvature and
deflection at 50m
c/c
Test pits3
DCP, IRI,
visual
DCP, IRI, visual
Tables 2.2 (a), (b) and (c), provide detailed treatments and project selection trigger
types for homogeneous sections. A homogeneous section is defined as a road section
requiring a single set of treatments. Selection of treatments at the project level also
requires judgment.
Table 2.2: Selection of treatment types
(a) Selection of treatment type < 1.7 million ESA5/10
Treatment
Triggers for any homogeneous section
1
Routine maintenance
only
IRI below trigger 1, serious distress < 5% of area
2
Heavy patching
Visible failures exceeding 10 m2 and areas with deflection above
trigger 2 provided those areas do not exceed 30% of total
3
Mill and replace selected
areas
Extensive alligator cracking, or ruts >30 mm or IRI > trigger 3
4
Overlay
Deflection or IRI above trigger 1 and below trigger 2
5
Reconstruct
Deflection above trigger 2, existing asphalt < 10 cm or heavy patch
exceeds 30% of area
6
Recycle
Deflection above trigger 2, existing asphalt > 10 cm or heavy patch
exceeds 30% of area
(b) Selection of treatment type 4–10 million ESA5 /20
Treatment
1
2
3
4
Routine maintenance
only
Triggers for any homogeneous section
Deflection, curvature and IRI below trigger 1, serious distress < 5%
of area
200 metre intervals or greater.
AASHTO SN or Mechanistic design.
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CHAPTER 2: SELECTION OF REHABILITATION
TREATMENTS
Treatment
Triggers for any homogeneous section
2
Heavy patching
Visible failures exceeding 10m2 and areas with deflection above
trigger 2 provided those areas do not exceed 30% of total
3
Mill and replace selected
areas
Extensive alligator cracking, or ruts >30 mm or IRI > trigger 3
4
Overlay
Deflection, curvature or IRI above trigger 1 and below trigger 2
5
Reconstruct
Deflection or curvature above trigger 2, existing asphalt < 10 cm
6
Recycle
Deflection or curvature above trigger 2, existing asphalt > 10 cm
Tables 2.3 and 2.4 provide project level triggers for a range of traffic levels. Selection of
detailed planning level triggers and realistic budgets for planning purposes that are
associated with those triggers will be addressed in Phase 2 of this study.
Table 2.3: Roughness triggers for overlay and reconstruction
2.1
AADT
IRI trigger justifying
an overlay
IRI trigger justifying a
holding treatment
overlay
< 200
5.75
6.75
> 200-500
5.5
6.5
>500-7500
5.25
6.25
>7500
5
6
IRI trigger for
investigation of
reconstruction or
recycling
8
TREATMENT SELECTION PROCESS OUTLINE
1. Determine the design life from Table 2.1.
2. Determine traffic loading (equivalent standard axle [ESA]4 value) by the method
given in Section 3.
3. Determine design ESA values (ESA5/10, ESA 5/15 or ESA 5/20) by calculation by the
method described in Section 3.
4. Use Table 2.2 (a), (b) or (c), Table 2.3 and Table 2.4 as applicable to select the
optimum treatment type or types also using judgment when necessary.
5. Calculate alternative actual treatment thicknesses using this Supplement,
Supplement I and the DGH Design Guides 2002 and 2005.
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6. When more than one solution is possible, select the most cost-effective solution
using discounted whole-of-life analysis.
Table 2.4: Triggers for overlay, reconstruction or recycling
Traffic for
10 years
(million
ESA5/lane)
Deflection triggers
justifying an overlay4
Surfacing
type
Characteristic
deflection
Benkelman
Beam (mm)5
Planning level triggers7
Planning and project level triggers
<0.1
HRS
>2.3
D0-D200
Curvature
FWD
(mm)
Deflection triggers
justifying an investigation
for reconstruction or
recycling
Characteristic
deflection
Benkelman
Beam (mm)6
Not
applicable
>3.0
D0-D200
Curvature
FWD
(mm)
Not
applicable
0.1-0.2
HRS
>2.1
0.63
0.2-0.5
HRS
>2.0
0.48
>2.7
0.5-1
HRS
>1.5
0.39
> 2.5
1-2
HRS
>1.3
0.31
0.54
2-3
AC
>1.25
0.28
0.46
2-5
AC
>1.2
0.23
0.39
5-7
AC
>1.15
0.21
0.35
7-10
AC
>1.1
0.19
0.31
10 - 30
AC
30 - 50
AC / rigid
50 - 100
AC / rigid
100 - 200
AC / rigid
0.66
1.35
>0.5 and
surface
defects as
Table 2.2c
under
investigation
1.2
1.0
under
investigation
0.9
4
Below these values an overlay is not required except to restore shape or to address surface
deterioration.
5
An adjustment factor applies to falling weight deflectometer (FWD) readings.
6
An adjustment factor applies to FWD readings.
7
test pit analysis is also necessary for project level design other than for non structural overlays
6
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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN TRAFFIC
CHAPTER 3: DESIGN TRAFFIC
3.1
PAVEMENT DESIGN LIFE
Structural treatments, including asphalt overlays, in situ stabilisation with cement or
foamed bitumen shall be undertaken using design traffic predicted for a 10- to 20-year
design life. The design life shall be in accordance with Table 2.1 unless otherwise
instructed or approved by the Technical Directorate of DGH (Bintek).
3.2
ESTIMATING VEHICLE DAMAGE
Accurate traffic counts are essential. The percentage and type of commercial vehicles
varies between routes but the level of overloading of specific vehicle types and load
categories is believed to be reasonably constant across all provinces.
Therefore a reasonable estimate of ESA value can be obtained from a traffic count for
current Indonesian conditions and from the standard damage factors (vehicle damage
factor [VDF]) given by Table 3.3. A spreadsheet calculator that only requires input of
vehicle type and load category numbers is provided in Annexe 1.
Although 100 kilo Newtons (kN) axle loads are permitted on some routes, the ESA
values shall nevertheless always be determined on the basis of a 80 kN standard axle
load.
3.3
FUTURE AXLE LOAD CONTROL
There is an extremely high road asset maintenance cost associated with overloading in
Indonesia. There is also a serious safety issue. Effective control is essential if pavement
replacement and maintenance costs are to be controlled. The only prudent policy for
current pavement designs is to assume that current overload levels will continue.
ALTERNATIVE DESIGN WARRANT FOR COMMERCIAL VEHICLE LOADING:
Unless otherwise instructed or approved by Bintek, current levels of overloading shall be assumed
until year 2020. An agreed level of loading control shall be assumed after that date.
At the date when legal loading is presumed to become effective (January 2021), the traffic flow rate
used for calculation of cumulative equivalent standard axles shall be increased by an amount
sufficient to maintain an equal volume of goods transported compared to the overload case.
A DECISION ON THIS MATTER IS FUNDAMENTAL TO THE SUCCESS OF FUTURE PAVEMENT
DESIGN AND ROAD ASSET MANAGEMENT. ADDITIONAL LEGISLATION MAY BE REQUIRED
TO SUPPORT RIGOROUS ENFORCEMENT.
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3.4
TRAFFIC GROWTH RATE
Growth rates shall be as provided in Table 3.1 unless evidence is provided to justify
alternative values.
Table 3.1: Presumptive traffic growth rates (Bintek concurrence required)
Arterial and metropolitan (%)
Rural (%)
3.5
2011-2020
> 2021-2030
5
4
3.5
2.5
LANE DISTRIBUTION FACTOR AND LANE CAPACITY
The lane distribution of commercial vehicles shall be as provided by Table 3.2.
The design traffic loading on any lane shall not exceed the lane capacity in any year
within the design life. The maximum lane capacity shall be 18,000 average annual daily
traffic (AADT).
Table 3.2: Lane distribution factor
Number of lanes in
each direction
3.6
Commercial vehicles in design lane
(% of total commercial vehicle population)
1
100
2
80
3
60
4
50
VEHICLE TYPE
The vehicle classification system shall be as defined by Table 3.3. The subdivision of
vehicle types and cargos defined by the table shall be used for all data collection.
Table 3.3 provides a distribution of commercial vehicle types that are typical for
arterial routes in Java.
8
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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN TRAFFIC
3.7
VEHICLE DAMAGE FACTORS (VDF)
Vehicle damage factors (VDF) shall be determined from axle loads measured from a
fixed weigh bridge study or from Table 3.3. If a portable weighbridge system is used it
shall have a wheel pair weight capacity of not less than 18 tonne or an axle weight
capacity of not less than 35 tonne. Lower capacity systems shall not be used. Weigh-inmotion data shall only be permitted if the equipment used has been comprehensively
calibrated against weighbridge data.
Fourth power VDF (VDF4) values shall be determined using the axle group values
provided by DGH 20028. Table 3.3 provides vehicle damage factor (VDF4) values that
are typical for arterial routes in Java. Table 3.3 also provide fifth power VDF (VDF5) as
fatigue of asphalt is related to the 5th power of axle group load (refer to Section 2.8).
Annexe 1 provides a simple procedure for determining characteristic VDF values for
any traffic count. The traffic count should include all vehicle types and the goods
categories listed in Table 3.3.
3.8
TRAFFIC MULTIPLIER
Section 7.6.2 of the Austroads Guide (2008) describes various indices used to assess
the pavement damage due to axle group load. For flexible pavements it is common to
express damage caused by the design traffic in terms of an equivalent number of
passes of an 80 kN Standard Axle. When the pavement damage varies with the fourth
power axle load, the equivalent number of Standard Axle repetitions is calculated as
follows from AASHTO road test:
ESA4 =
Lij
SL
4
Flexible pavement performance is influenced by a number of factors not captured by
the 4th power rule. Asphalt fatigue relationship is related to the 5th power of strain (and
hence axle load) as follows:
Asphalt fatigue life
=
RF 6918(0.856 Vb + 1.08)
5
(Austroads, 2008)
S 0.36 mixμɛ
As a result, expressing the damage due to the design traffic in ESA4 underestimates the
damage in terms of asphalt fatigue. Consequently traffic the multipliers (TM) is used as
a convenient device to adjust the ESA4 design life to the asphalt fatigue design life
(ESA5) in design calculations:
8
The method of assessment of axle group damage should be reviewed when related Australian
Road Research Board and other research is complete.
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ESA5 = TMasphalt. ESA4
where
ESA5 = the number of standard axle repetitions for use in
assessing asphalt fatigue life (5th power rule)
ESA4 = the number of standard axle repetitions calculated
using
the 4th power rule
The asphalt fatigue TM value (TMasphalt) for normal Indonesian loading conditions is
typically 2.06 but may vary depending on the extent of overloading of commercial
vehicles in the truck fleet. Annexe 1 provides a calculator for TMasphalt for any
commercial fleet distribution and standard Indonesian vehicle loadings.
10
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CHAPTER 3: DESIGN TRAFFIC
Table 3.3: Classification of vehicles and standard VDF values: Java arterial – 2011
Typical distribution
(percent)
Vehicle type
COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
Description
DGH
Proposed
1
1
2 , 3, 4
2, 3, 4
5a
Axle
configuration
Axle
groups
All
motorised
vehicles
All
motorised
except
motor
bikes
Vehicle damage factor
(VDF)
(ESA/vehicle)
Combined
values
(distribution
x VDF motor bikes
excluded)
4th power
(VDF 4)
5th power
(VDF5)
VDF4
VDF5
Motor bike
1.1
2
30.4
Sedan/angkot/pickup/station wagon
1.1
2
51.7
74.3
5a
Light bus
1.2
2
3.5
5.00
0.3
0.2
0.015
0.010
5b
5b
Heavy bus
1.2
2
0.1
0.20
1.0
1.0
0.002
0.002
6a.1
6.1
2-axle truck - light general cargo
1.1
2
0.3
0.2
0.010
0.007
4.6
6.60
6a.2
6.2
2-axle truck - light earth, sand
1.2
2
0.8
0.8
0.026
0.028
6b1.1
7.1
2-axle truck - medium general
cargo
1.2
2
0.7
0.7
-
-
6b1.2
7.2
2-axle truck - medium earth, sand,
steel
1.2
2
1.6
1.7
-
-
6b2.1
8.1
2-axle truck - heavy general cargo
1.2
2
0.9
0.8
0.025
0.023
-
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3.8
-
5.50
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Typical distribution
(percent)
Vehicle type
Description
Axle
configuration
Axle
groups
DGH
Proposed
6b2.2
8.2
2-axle truck - heavy earth, sand,
steel
1.2
2
7a1
9.1
3-axle truck - general cargo
1.22
3
All
motorised
vehicles
3.9
12
All
motorised
except
motor
bikes
Vehicle damage factor
(VDF)
(ESA/vehicle)
Combined
values
(distribution
x VDF motor bikes
excluded)
4th power
(VDF 4)
5th power
(VDF5)
VDF4
VDF5
7.3
11.2
0.202
0.308
7.6
11.2
0.212
0.314
28.1
64.4
0.787
1.803
5.60
7a2
9.2
3-axle truck - earth, sand PC, steel
1.22
3
7a3
9.3
3-axle truck - general cargo
1.1.2
3
0.1
0.10
28.9
62.2
0.029
0.062
7b
10
2-axle truck and 2 axle towed trailer
1.2-2.2
4
0.5
0.70
36.9
90.4
0.259
0.633
7c1
11
4-axle truck - trailer
1.2-22
4
0.3
0.50
13.6
24.0
0.068
0.120
7c2.1
12
5-axle truck - trailer
1.22-22
5
19.0
33.2
0.095
0.166
0.7
1.00
30.3
69.7
0.152
0.349
41.6
93.7
0.208
0.469
7c2.2
13
5-axle truck - trailer
1.2-222
5
7c3
14
6-axle truck - trailer
1.22-222
6
0.3
0.50
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CHAPTER 4: SUBGRADE SUPPORT FOR
RECONSTRUCTION AND RECYCLING
CHAPTER 4: SUBGRADE SUPPORT FOR RECONSTRUCTION
AND RECYCLING
4.1
EXISTING PAVEMENT ANALYSIS
The Supplement Part I Section 5 provides procedures for determining subgrade
California bearing ratio (CBR) and for standard subgrade treatments including for
expansive and soft soil that must also be applied to rehabilitation works. The key
difference for rehabilitation works is that the existing pavement layers usually prevent
further treatment of the existing subgrade. Areas where heavy patching is required are
an exception. Subgrade analysis can be by dynamic cone penetrometer (DCP) (best
choice for saturated ground), by Atterburg limits and Part I Design Chart 8.1 or by fourday soaked CBR at the in situ density. The thickness of existing pavement layers
remaining after recycling or other treatment can also be determined from the test pit
survey.
The characteristic existing subgrade CBR value and the remaining characteristic existing
pavement layer thickness are necessary inputs to the design charts provided in this
document. These data are also needed for mechanistic or Structural Number based
design.
The subgrade and the existing pavement thickness are likely to be highly variable.
Homogeneous sections must be determined and characteristic values must then be
used for design following the same principles as for new pavement subgrade analysis.
a) Coefficient of variation for a homogeneous section = standard deviation/mean <
0.3
b) Characteristic CBR
= mean CBR – 1.3 x standard deviation
c) Characteristic remaining thickness of existing pavement after other treatments =
mean remaining thickness – 1.3 x standard deviation
Heavy patching areas shall be designed in the same manner as for new pavement
(Supplement Part I). Heavy patching is required in areas where the existing pavement
has failed or where the existing pavement layers are insufficient to provide an
adequate foundation. Part I Design Chart 8.2 must be satisfied for existing pavement
layer thicknesses other than the recycled layer, necessary to provide adequate
foundation support for recycling.
4.2
SOFT SOIL TREATMENTS
Soft soil areas are defined as areas having an in situ CBR significantly lower than 2
percent. They are unable to support compaction of subsequent layers without special
treatment. In Indonesia, soft soil areas are usually alluvial or marine silty clays that are
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permanently or seasonally saturated. Soft soil areas frequently exhibit instability that
must be treated either by grade raising, reconstruction or other treatment. Grade
raising is often applied in country areas when there is no finished surface level height
constraint.
When full construction is required the requirements of Supplement I shall apply. The
capping layers should preferably be rock or sirtu (coarse river gravel). A geotextile layer
should be used to separate original ground from the capping to limit pumping of the
soft soil zone into the capping material.
The extent of soft soil areas should be determined by DCP testing. A 2 metre deep DCP
test is recommended (standard DCP with extension rod). Tests should be conducted at
20 metre centres. Special treatment such as micro piling or cakar ayam (friction pile
system of Indonesian origin) to support rigid pavement on soft soil) must be considered
for areas where the depth from original ground to CBR 2 equivalent bearing capacity
exceeds 2.0 metres at any point, especially for rigid pavement construction.
Micro piling, cakar ayam, injection piling or similar treatment is likely to be necessary
when restoring block cracked rigid pavement on soft soil.
Grade raising designs should consider:
a) Embankment heights should be between 2 and 2.5 metres.
b) Height of new subgrade should preferably be a) 1 metre above standing water, and
b) not less than 300mm above 10-year flood.
c) The foundation design rules provided in Supplement I should be satisfied.
The settlement rates and embankment stability should be considered when widening
embankments, especially those exceeding 2 metres in height. Preloading should be
used to limit differential movement between the existing embankment and the
widening. Micro piling or other treatment may be required at bridge approaches.
Geotechnical advice should be sought.
Embankment batter slopes should be not steeper than 1V: 3H. Use of edge walls
should be avoided. If used, wall stability shall be checked and piling or other treatment
used as necessary.
4.3
PEAT
Specialist geotechnical advice must be obtained. Preloading is always necessary when
widening existing pavement. Adequate cross drainage must be maintained at all times.
Batter slopes should be not steeper than 1V: 3H. In addition to this, high embankments
should be benched. Bridge approaches should be piled. Georgic treatments should be
considered. Geotextile should be used at the interface between original ground and
widening.
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CHAPTER 4: SUBGRADE SUPPORT FOR
RECONSTRUCTION AND RECYCLING
4.4
EXPANSIVE SOILS
Reference should be made to Supplement I. The most important consideration is to
limit moisture variation in the expansive soil layer by:
a) Sealing the road shoulder
b) Providing good surface and subsurface drainage including sealing of all surface
drains, and ensuring that any subsurface drain provided has a 0.5 percent invert
gradient and a permanent discharge point above flood level and above water levels
in the drainage system
Providing the minimum cover thicknesses required by Supplement I.
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CHAPTER 5: MATERIALS CHARACTERISATION
Characteristic materials moduli and Poisson’s ratio for Indonesian climatic and loading
conditions are provided by Table 5.1 and 5.2 for bound materials and Table 5.3 for
unbound granular materials. Other characteristic asphalt materials parameters
required for mechanistic design are also provided by Table 5.1.
Asphalt moduli have been determined based on an air temperature range of 25-34oC
and a mean annual pavement temperature (MATP) of 41oC. These values are
reasonable for use throughout Indonesia other than for mountainous areas where a
MAPT of 35oC may be appropriate.
Table 5.1: Characteristic moduli used for development of design charts and for mechanistic
design
Material type
Typical
modulus for
Indonesia
(MPa)
Volume of
binder (Vb)
(%)
Asphalt
fatigue
parameter K 1
for
Indonesian
climatic
conditions
AASHTO9
structural
coefficient
HRS WC
800
16.4
0.009427
HRS BC
900
14.8
0.008217
AC WC
1100
12.2
0.006370
0.31
AC BC
1200
11.5
0.005880
0.31
Foamed bitumen stabilised
material (effective long-term
value)
600
Cemented material (effective
long-term value)
500
Subgrade
10 x CBR
1. K = (6981(0.856Vb + 1.08)/E0.36
9
16
To be confirmed by the Indonesian Road Research Institute (Pusjatan)
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CHAPTER 5: MATERIALS CHARACTERISATION
Table 5.2: Characteristic Poisson’s ratio values
Typical
modulus for
Indonesia
Material
Asphalt
0.40
0.40
Foamed bitumen stabilised material
Cemented material
0.35
Granular materials
0.35
Cohesive subgrade
0.45
Non-cohesive subgrades
0.35
As described in Section 6.2.2 of the Association of Australian and New Zealand road
transport and traffic authorities (Austroads) Guide, the moduli of granular materials
varies with thickness and stiffness of overlying bound (e.g. asphalt) pavement layers.
Characteristic granular moduli and Poisson’s ratio for Indonesian climatic and loading
conditions are provided by Table 5.3.
Table 5.3: Characteristic unbound materials moduli used for development of design charts
Thickness of overlying
bound material (mm)
10
Modulus of overlying bound10 material
900 MPa
(HRS WC/ HRS BC)
1100 MPa
(AC WC)
1200 MPa
(AC BC)
40
350
350
350
75
350
350
350
100
350
345
345
125
320
310
310
150
280
280
275
175
250
245
240
200
220
210
205
225
180
175
170
≥ 250
150
150
150
Overlying bound material may be asphalt, cemented materials of foamed bitumen stabilised materials
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CHAPTER 6: DRAINAGE
Subsoil drains shall be provided whenever necessary for national and provincial roads
and in cases where high groundwater pressures are known to exist for local roads
generally. Judgment must be used. When an existing road shows moisture related
distress either surface drainage or subsoil drainage improvement must be provided.
Subsoil drains must have free draining and maintainable discharge points that are not
subject to, or are only occasionally subject to, flooding. If there is moisture related
distress and a subsoil or surface drainage solution cannot be provided, “m” factor
adjustment (correction factor for granular layer thickness relating to drainage
conditions) and associated grade raising may be necessary.
In mountainous areas, discrete pavement failures caused by drainage system
deficiencies can often be identified. In these cases surface or subsoil drainage solutions
should be provided in addition to other treatments. Even if extensive treatment is
required this will always be cost effective. Further information will be provided in the
Drainage Design Guide.
The following rules should be satisfied for all rehabilitation works:
All sub-base layers shall be free draining.
Pavement widening designs shall ensure free drainage of the lowest granular layer of the
existing pavement.
Lateral drains shall be provided through embankment verges when the flow path from the subbase layer to the embankment edge exceeds 300mm.
Subsoil drains shall be provided in all cuts and at grade areas where the sub-base level is lower
than the adjacent ground level (this condition shall be avoided by good geometric design when
possible); if not possible “m” factor adjustment rules shall apply (Table 6.1).
Subsoil drains shall be provided adjacent to all u-ditches and other structures that block the free
flow of water from any sub-base layer.
Subsoil drains must have a gradient of not less than 0.5 percent towards an outlet point and
must have a rod point, a discharge point or a sump at not more than 60m spacing.
Subsoil drains entry and discharge points shall be higher than five-year storm levels.
Super elevated sections of divided roads, when draining towards the median, shall be provided
with a subsoil drainage system at the median.
When subsoil drainage cannot be provided, “m” factor adjustments shall be used for
granular layer thickness design in accordance with AASHTO 93 Rule 2.4.1 and this
Supplement Table 6.1.
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CHAPTER 6: DRAINAGE
Figure 6.1: “m” factor adjustments for subgrade drainage condition
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Figure 6.2: Examples of subsoil drainage for various site conditions
Figure 6.2 provides examples of subsoil drainage system positions that are appropriate
for various site conditions.
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CHAPTER 7: THICKNESS DESIGN OF OVERLAYS
CHAPTER 7: THICKNESS DESIGN OF OVERLAYS
7.1
INTRODUCTION
This section describes procedures for determining the design thickness of overlays
placed to rectify the distress and structural deficiencies of an existing pavement.
Such treatments may often be placed on pavements for other reasons that relate to
the rectification of the functional characteristics of pavements, such as shape, ride
quality and surface competency. The structural adequacy of these treatments also
needs to be considered.
Currently, DGH has two guidelines that may be used for the design of asphalt overlays:
A deflection-based approach contained in the Indonesian Road Research Institute
(Pusjatan) Guide to Overlay Design Using Deflections.
A Structural Number approach contained in the Pusjatan Guide to the Design of
Flexible Pavements (Pt T-01-2002-B).
The Pusjatan deflection-based approach uses maximum deflections (D0) to determine
the required overlay thicknesses. The Austroads overlay method utilises these design
deflections to determine asphalt overlay thickness to inhibit sub-base and subgrade
rutting and shape loss. However, these design deflections (D0) are not suitable for
assessing whether asphalt overlays will fatigue crack. Consequently, for road projects
with design traffic loading less than or equal to 107 ESA, Austroads have an additional
requirement that the deflection bowl curvature (D0 - D200) be checked to ensure the
fatigue resistance of the overlay. It is recommended this requirement be added to the
Pusjatan deflection-based approach as described in Section 7.2.
For rehabilitation projects with design traffic loading greater than 107 ESA, Austroads
recommends the use of general mechanistic procedures (GMP) based on estimating
the moduli of the existing pavement. These moduli are then used in the mechanistic
method for the design of new pavements to assess the resistance to rutting and fatigue
of asphalt overlay thicknesses. The use of the GMP requires the development of an
Indonesian mechanistic method for the design of new pavements. Hence the GMP
approach is currently unsuitable for routine use by Indonesian designers.
It is recommended that for rehabilitation projects with design traffic loading greater
than 107 ESA11, the overlays estimated by the Pusjatan deflection-based approach be
checked for structural adequacy using the Structural Number approach contained in
the Pusjatan Guide to the Design of Flexible Pavements12 .
11
th
20 year design life, 5 power (ESA5/20)
12
If the Austroads mechanistic method (CIRCLY) is used to check or determine the overlay
thickness the moduli and mechanistic design parameters provided in Section4 and 5. should
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When the subgrade or original ground is CBR 2.5 or weaker, especially when traffic the
existing pavement layer thicknesses including any subgrade improvement or capping
layer shall be determined from test pits or cores combined with DCP readings when
necessary. For this case the subgrade and original ground (beneath any capping)
bearing capacities or moduli shall be determined by the methods described in Section
4.1”.
7.2
DESIGN TRAFFIC LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 107 ESA
As discussed in Section 7.1, it is recommended the Austroads curvature requirement be
added to the Pusjatan deflection-based approach for projects with a design traffic
loading less than or equal to 10 7 ESA. Due to the high fatigue resistance of hot rolled
sheet (HRS) wearing course, there is no need for checking the curvature requirements
when the deflections indicate only a thin HRS wearing course is required.
The curvature function (CF) of a deflection bowl is given by
CF = D0 - D200
where
D0
= maximum deflection at a test point (mm)
D200
= the deflection measured at the test point when the load has
moved 200mm from the test point
Figure 7.1 shows in schematic form the dimension represented by the curvature
function.
Figure 7.1:
Curvature function
Source: Austroads 2008.
be used. Appropriate mechanistic design parameters for deformation of Indonesian soft soils
are currently under investigation.
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CHAPTER 7: THICKNESS DESIGN OF OVERLAYS
7.2.1
Adjustment of measured curvature to account for testing temperature
For asphalt overlays on asphalt surfaced granular pavements, the measured curvatures
need to be corrected because pavement temperature influences pavement stiffness
and response to load. Any significant difference between the pavement temperature
at the time of testing and in-service conditions means the curvature measurements
would be unrepresentative of the normal pavement response to traffic loadings.
The in-service pavement temperature at a site is characterised by the mean annual
pavement temperature (MAPT), which is 41ºC for Indonesia. The temperature
correction factor is calculated using the following procedure:
Step 1
Determine the temperature factor fT where (Equation 7.1):
fT
= 7.1
MAPT for the site
Measuredpavement temperature at time of testing
Step 2
Determine the temperature correction factors using Figure 7.2 for
Benkelman Beam and Figure 7.3 for falling weight deflectometer (FWD). No
temperature correction is required if the bituminous surfacing is less than 25mm thick.
Step 3
Multiply the deflection and curvature by the corresponding deflection and
curvature temperature correction factors.
Figure 7.2:
Temperature correction for Benkelman Beam for various asphalt thicknesses
Source: Austroads 2008.
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Figure 7.3:
Temperature correction for FWD for various asphalt thicknesses
Source: Austroads 2008.
7.2.2
Standardisation of deflections and curvatures
As the curvatures of a pavement test site measured by Benkelman Beam and FWD
differ, it is necessary to standardise the measured values.
The overlay design charts for asphalt fatigue (Figure 7.5) are based on FWD curvatures
(Austroads 2008). Hence, the values measured with Benkelman Beam need to be
converted to equivalent FWD values. The standardisation factors required for this
conversion vary with pavement composition and subgrade strength, and the most
accurate factors are those obtained by paired field measurements. However, as it is
often impractical to undertake such correlation studies, presumptive standardisation
factors are provided in Figure 7.4.
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CHAPTER 7: THICKNESS DESIGN OF OVERLAYS
Figure 7.4:
Curvature standardisation factors
Source: Austroads 2008.
7.2.3
Calculation of characteristic curvatures
For the design of flexible overlays on flexible pavements, a Characteristic Curvature
(CC) is assigned to each subsection for evaluation purposes. These values are
determined after the seasonal, temperature and standardisation adjustments have
been made to the individual test measurements.
The CC for a homogeneous subsection of pavement is equal to the mean of the
curvature values calculated from the deflection survey.
7.2.4
Fatigue of an asphalt overlay
Where an asphalt overlay is required to inhibit permanent deformation, or to restore
pavement shape or skid resistance, for pavements with a design traffic loading of 10 5
ESA or more, it is necessary to check that fatigue performance of the overlay will be
adequate. Asphalt fatigue is not a common distress mode for lightly trafficked (<105
ESA) pavements.
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The procedure assumes that any existing asphalt layers have little or no remaining
fatigue life, and that it will be uneconomical to design the overlay to inhibit fatigue
cracking of these layers. Hence, the overlay is not designed to inhibit fatigue of any
existing asphalt layers.
Accordingly, the design charts are inappropriate to design asphalt surfaced pavements
which are progressively strengthened in stages that have significant remaining asphalt
fatigue life. Similarly, they do not apply to overlay requirements of newly constructed
asphalt pavements. As asphalt fatigue is not a common distress mode for lightly
trafficked roads, it is not necessary to check the fatigue performance of overlays for
projects with design traffic loadings less than 105 ESA.
The predicted fatigue performance of asphalt overlays is assessed using the CC (D0 D200) of the deflected pavement surface. Design charts of overlay thicknesses for a
range of traffic loadings and curvature values are shown in Figure 7.5 for MAPTs of
>35 °C, applicable to Indonesia. This chart may be used to determine the overlay
thicknesses that have an allowable traffic loading in terms of fatigue cracking less than
the design traffic loading, as discussed in Austroads Guide.
Figure 7.5:
Asphalt overlay fatigue lives MAPTs >35 °C
Source: Austroads 2008.
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CHAPTER 8: THICKNESS DESIGN OF FOAMED
BITUMEN STABILISATION
TREATMENTS
CHAPTER 8: THICKNESS DESIGN OF FOAMED BITUMEN
STABILISATION TREATMENTS
8.1
INTRODUCTION
Strengthening pavement using in situ foamed bitumen stabilisation is increasingly
being used to recycle pavements worldwide, including Indonesia.
Figure 8.1:
Foamed bitumen pavement recycling
Foamed bitumen is a hot bituminous binder that has been temporarily converted from
a liquid state to a foamed state by addition of a small amount of water (2-3 percent of
the bitumen mass). In the foamed state, bitumen can be mixed with aggregates at
ambient temperatures and in situ moisture contents. The bitumen foam coats the fine
fraction of the treated aggregate, creating mastic that binds the larger particles of the
aggregate skeleton. Foaming agent may be needed to ensure the bitumen foaming
properties are acceptable.
In Indonesia, the foamed bitumen content added to the aggregates normally ranges
from 2.0-3.0 percent, and 1 percent cement is used as the secondary binder, although
lime may be used for higher plasticity materials.
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The strength/stiffness of foamed bitumen mixes is derived from:
Friction between the aggregate particles
Viscosity of the bituminous binder under operating conditions
Cohesion within the mass resulting from the binder itself, and the adhesion
between the bituminous and hydraulic binders and the aggregate
Similar to other stabilising binders, foamed bitumen stabilisation can be undertaken in
situ or in a mixing plant. The foamed bitumen is incorporated into the recycling drum
or into the plant where it wets and coats the surface of the fine fraction particles to
form a flexible bound pavement material. The mixing of the foamed bitumen and soil
is critical to the success of the process because the bitumen is in its foamed state for
only a very short period and coating of the particles must be achieved within this
period.
Given that the use of foamed bitumen treatments is more recent than many other
rehabilitation treatments, mix and thickness design procedures are progressively being
refined in various countries. The development interim thickness design method is
described in Annexe 2.
It is emphasised that the method is interim and it is recommended that the
performance of foamed bitumen stabilised pavements recently constructed in
Indonesia be monitored to further develop this interim method.
8.2
MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISATION
In Indonesia, foamed bitumen stabilisation is commonly applied to recycle existing
asphalt and granular base materials.
In assessing the suitability of materials for foamed bitumen stabilisation, the plasticity
index (PI) should generally not exceed 10 unless treated with lime, subject to an upper
PI limit of 20 (refer to Table 8.1).
The material should also comply with the Zone A particle size distribution shown in
Figure 8.2.
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CHAPTER 8: THICKNESS DESIGN OF FOAMED
BITUMEN STABILISATION
TREATMENTS
Table 8.1:
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Guide to the selection of method of stabilisation
29
Figure 8.2:
8.3
Zone A grading envelope
MINIMUM SURFACING REQUIREMENTS
As discussed in Annexe 2, Table 8.2 describes the proposed minimum surfacing
requirements over foamed bitumen stabilised materials.
Table 8.2:
30
Minimum surfacing requirements over foamed bitumen stabilised materials
Design traffic
(ESA5)
Minimum surfacing
>30
100mm comprising
40mm AC WC
60mm AC Binder
10 < Traffic < 30
80mm comprising
2x40mm AC WC
1 < Traffic < 10
40mm AC WC
<1
30 HRS WC
or surface dressing
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CHAPTER 8: THICKNESS DESIGN OF FOAMED
BITUMEN STABILISATION
TREATMENTS
8.4
THICKNESS DESIGN CHARTS
As described in Annexe 2, the Austroads mechanistic method for design of new flexible
pavements together with the proposed minimum surfacing requirements (Table 8.1)
were used to derive thickness design charts. These design charts are given in Annexes 3
and 4, Figure 8.3 illustrates one of the charts.
In developing the design charts, the foamed bitumen stabilised depth was limited to a
maximum of 300 mm due to concerns about in situ mixing and compaction at greater
depths.
Figure 8.3:
Example design chart for thickness design foamed bitumen stabilisation
recycling
320
200
Foamed bitumen
Asphalt
Foamed bitumen
stabilised material
Remaining granular subbase
150 mm
Subgrade design
CBR =4
300
280
Asphalt
180
160
260
140
Foamed 240
bitumen
thickness 220
(mm)
120
Total
asphalt
thickness
100
(mm)
200
80
180
60
160
40
30 mm HRS Wearing Course
140
1.0E+05
1.0E+06
1.0E+07
20
1.0E+08
Design traffic (ESA5)
8.5
DESIGN PROCESS
Table 8.3 lists the steps in the structural design of foamed bitumen stabilisation
treatments.
Table 8.3:
Step
Procedure for foamed bitumen stabilisation design
Activity
1
Calculate the design traffic in ESA5 as described in Section 3.
2
Using the data from construction and maintenance records, test pits and cores
determine the in situ material layer types, qualities and thicknesses.
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31
32
Step
Activity
3
Determine a subgrade design CBR for the project, based on in situ dynamic cone
penetrometer (DCP), or laboratory soaked CBR testing of material recovered
from the test pits.
4
Using step 3 data, assess whether the in situ materials are suitable for FB
stabilisation.
5
Using the layer thicknesses, select a trial stabilisation depth and calculate the
remaining depth of pavement material beneath the stabilised layer. For
pavements with a subgrade design CBR less than 5%, a minimum 100mm of
pavement material is required below the FB layer.
6
Using the design charts in Annexes 3 and 4, determine the asphalt thickness
required over the FB stabilised material.
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CHAPTER 9: DESIGN OF CEMENT STABILISATION
TREATMENTS
CHAPTER 9: DESIGN OF CEMENT STABILISATION
TREATMENTS
9.1
MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR CEMENT STABILISATION
In Indonesia, cement stabilisation of pavement materials is commonly applied to
recycle existing asphalt and granular base materials.
In assessing the suitability of materials for stabilisation, the PI should generally not
exceed 10 unless treated with lime, subject to an upper PI limit of 20 (refer to Table
8.1).
The material should also comply with the Zone A particle size distribution shown in
Figure 8.2.
The thickness design charts are suitable for use with stabilised materials with a
minimum unconfined compressive strength of 2 Megapascal (MPa) at 28 days.
Generally 3 percent by mass of Portland cement is suitable.
9.2
MINIMUM SURFACING REQUIREMENTS
Surface cracking is common when cement treated bases are used with thin bituminous
surfacing, unless slow setting cementitious blends (lime, slag, fly-ash) are used.
As quick-setting Portland cement is commonly used in roadworks in Indonesia, the use
of cement treated bases is not recommended as early fatigue cracking occurs under
the very high axle loads leading to high pavement maintenance costs.
It is recommended that cement stabilisation be limited to the provision of cement
treated sub-base (CTSB) with a minimum asphalt surfacing thickness of 175mm
(adapted from Austroads Guide, 2008).
9.3
THICKNESS DESIGN CHARTS
The Austroads mechanistic method for design of new flexible pavements, together
with the proposed minimum surfacing of 175mm asphalt, were used to derive
thickness design charts. These design charts are given in Annexe 5; Figure 9.1 illustrates
one of the charts.
In developing the design charts, the cement stabilised depth was limited to a maximum
of 300mm due to concerns about in situ mixing and compaction at greater depths.
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33
The minimum design traffic provided in the charts is 107 ESA5 as this treatment is
unlikely to be cost-effective at lower traffic levels.
Figure 9.1:
Example design chart for thickness design cement treated sub-bases (CTSB)
300
290
280
270
260
Asphalt
Cement stabilised material
Remaining granular
subbase
150 mm
Subgrade design
CBR=4
150 mm CTSB
200 mm CTSB
250 mm CTSB
300 mm CTSB
250
Asphalt 240
thickness
(mm) 230
220
210
200
190
180
170
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
9.4
DESIGN PROCESS
Table 9.1 lists the steps in the structural design of cement stabilised sub-bases.
Table 9.1:
Step
34
Procedure for CTSB design
Activity
1
Calculate the design traffic in ESA5 as described in Section 3.
2
Using the data from construction and maintenance records, test pits and cores
determine the in-situ material layer types, qualities and thicknesses.
3
Determine a subgrade design CBR for the project, based on in-situ dynamic cone
penetrometer (DCP), or laboratory soaked CBR testing of material recovered from
the test pits.
4
Using step 3 data, assess whether the in situ materials are suitable for cement
stabilisation.
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CHAPTER 9: DESIGN OF CEMENT STABILISATION
TREATMENTS
Step
Activity
5
Using the layer thicknesses, select a trial stabilisation depth and calculate the
remaining depth of pavement material beneath the stabilised layer. For pavements
with a subgrade design CBR less than 5%, a minimum 100mm of pavement
material is required below the stabilised layer.
6
Using the design charts in Annexe 5, determine the asphalt thickness required over
the FB stabilised material.
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35
CHAPTER 10: CONSTRUCTION ISSUES AND PAVEMENT
PERFORMANCE
A major improvement in construction quality standards is needed for all roadworks
including rehabilitation works. It is not possible to adequately compensate for poor
construction quality by pavement design adjustments.
10.1 PREPARATION OF EXISTING PAVEMENTS FOR OVERLAY
Thorough preparation is essential. Pothole repairs, heavy patching, sealing of wide
cracks, milling of ruts and severely cracked areas and repair of edge breaks must all be
completed and accepted by the Engineer or Project Manager before the overlay is
commenced.
10.2 PAVEMENT LAYER THICKNESSES
Compaction and segregation limitations determine practical pavement structure
thicknesses. Designs must recognise these limitations, including layer thicknesses in
Table 11.1.
Table 10.1:
Permitted layer thicknesses
Thickness
(mm)
Multiple layers
permitted
HRS WC
30
No
HRS BC
35
Yes
AC WC
40
No
60-80
Yes
Aggregate Base A 40 (40mm grading)
150-200
Yes
Aggregate Base A 30 (30mm grading) (recommended)
120-150
Yes
Aggregate Base B (50mm grading)
200
Yes
Aggregate Base B (40mm grading)
150-200
Yes
CTSB (30mm grading)or LMC (lean mix concrete)
150-200
No
Material
AC Binder
36
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CHAPTER 10: CONSTRUCTION ISSUES AND
PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE
10.3 PAVEMENT EDGE (INCLUDING MEDIAN) SUPPORT
Pavement structures require adequate edge support, particularly when placed on soft
soil or peat. Edge support requirements must be detailed in contract drawings.
Minimum requirements are:
Each pavement layer shall be placed to a width equal to or exceeding the minimum
indicated by Figure 10.1. This rule also applies to medians on multi-lane facilities.
Embankments on soft soil (< CBR 2) and peat shall be placed at a batter slope of not
steeper than 1v:3h.
Each pavement layer must be widened as shown in Figure 10.1 to provide support to
the next layer. Capping and subgrade improvement should be continued across narrow
medians. Median zones should be drained or should be filled with lean mix concrete
(LMC) or an impermeable fill to prevent water accumulating and damaging the
pavement edge.
10.4 BOXED CONSTRUCTION
Boxed construction refers to a pavement structure with granular pavement layers that
are not free draining other than through a subsoil drainage system. Boxed construction
should only be used when no other option is possible. Pavements in cuttings are always
boxed and must obey the rules given in this section. A subsoil drainage system
(including lateral subsoil drains for wide verges) must be provided whenever boxed
construction is used (refer to Section 6).
Figure 10.1: Pavement edge support and median treatment
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10.5 WET SEASON EFFECTS
Designers shall consider wet season implications for construction, especially in alluvial
areas likely to become saturated during the wet season. If dry season construction
cannot be assured (in most cases it cannot), the design should be based on the
expected subgrade condition in the wet season (Section 4).
10.6 CONSTRUCTION UNDER TRAFFIC
Designs requiring construction under traffic (for example, widening works) shall give
due consideration to practical excavation depths and safety. Practical considerations
may limit pavement types able to be used. The contract drawings may include notes
describing the designers preferred work. The contractor may be permitted to propose
and the Engineer to instruct or accept other solutions.
10.7 JOINT LOCATIONS
Longitudinal joints shall not be located in wheel paths. Excavation widths for widening
works shall be adjusted when necessary to comply with this rule.
38
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CHAPTER 10: CONSTRUCTION ISSUES AND
PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE
10.8 CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE FOR RECYCLING
The construction sequence must be clearly described by the drawings for recycled
works involving widening of the existing pavement or reshaping. Figure 10.2(A and B)
illustrates the correct widening sequence for recycling work. Traffic provisions must be
decided prior to commencement of work. Lane closure will be necessary for multi-lane
roads but may not be possible for two-lane treatments.
Figure 10.2: (A and B) Construction sequence for recycling with widening
(A)
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39
(B)
40
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ANNEXE 1: COMMERCIAL FLEET VDF CALCULATOR
ANNEXE 1: COMMERCIAL FLEET VDF CALCULATOR
TRAFFIC DAMAGE PARAMETER CALCULATOR – (disk attached)
Characteristic vehicle
damage factor
(VDF = ESA / vehicle)
Vehicle type
COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
Vehicle description
Project data
Transported goods
Calculated
VDF4 * AADT
Calculated
VDF5 *
AADT
0.2
0
0
1
1
0
0
general
0.3
0.2
0
0
2-axle truck - light
earth , sand, steel
0.8
0.8
0
0
7.1
2-axle truck - medium
general
0.7
0.7
0
0
6b1.2
7.2
2-axle truck - medium
earth , sand, steel
1.6
1.7
0
0
6b2.1
8.1
2-axle truck - heavy
general
0.9
0.8
0
0
6b2.2
8.2
2-axle truck - heavy
earth , sand, steel
7.3
11.2
0
0
7a1
9.1
3-axle truck
general
7.6
11.2
0
0
DGH
Proposed?
4th power
5th power
5a
5a
Light bus
0.3
5b
5b
Heavy bus
6a.1
6.1
2-axle truck - light
6a.2
6.2
6b1.1
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AADT by
vehicle
type
41
Characteristic vehicle
damage factor
(VDF = ESA / vehicle)
Vehicle type
Vehicle description
Transported goods
Calculated
VDF4 * AADT
Calculated
VDF5 *
AADT
64.4
0
0
28.9
62.2
0
0
general
36.9
90.4
0
0
4-axle truck - trailer
general
13.6
24
0
0
12
5-axle truck - trailer
general
19
33.2
0
0
7c2.2
13
5-axle truck - trailer
general
30.3
69.7
0
0
7c3
14
6-axle truck - trailer
general
41.6
93.7
0
0
DGH
Proposed?
4th power
5th power
7a2
9.2
3-axle truck
earth , sand, steel
28.1
7a3
9.3
3-axle truck twin steer axle,
general
7b
10
2-axle truck and 2 axle towed
trailer
7c1
11
7c2.1
TRAFFIC DAMAGE PARAMETERS FOR 2 LANE ROADS FOR USE
IN PAVEMENT DESIGN
42
Project data
AADT by
vehicle
type
ESA/day at date of traffic count
TMasphalt
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ANNEXE 2: DEVELOPMENT OF THE THICKNESS
DESIGN METHOD FOR FOAMED
BITUMEN STABILISATION
ANNEXE 2: DEVELOPMENT OF THE THICKNESS DESIGN
METHOD FOR FOAMED BITUMEN
STABILISATION
Two load associated distress modes that have been identified for foamed bitumen
stabilised treatment are (Jones and Ramanujam 2008):
Pavement rutting and shape loss of pavement layers and subgrade
Fatigue cracking of the foamed bitumen stabilised layer
Fatigue cracking of overlaying asphalt surfacings layers
Given the relatively low binder contents (2-3 percent) used in Indonesia and the very
high axle loadings, based on South African research (summarised by Jooste and Long,
2007), it is anticipated that the high initial moduli of foamed bitumen stabilised
materials will fall rapidly. (Figure A 1).
Figure A 1: Effective long-term stiffness concept
The proposed design procedures are based on the assumption that Indonesian foamed
bitumen will not fatigue crack, rather the high loading and limited binder in the mixes
will lead to microcracking developing early in life as assessed from its modulus.
Consequently, it is not considered appropriate to design for fatigue of the foamed
bitumen material. The mechanistic method is based on thickness of foamed bitumen
stabilised layers and overlaying asphalt layers to inhibit rutting and shape loss and with
due consideration to inhibiting fatigue cracking of the overlaying asphalt layers.
Based on South African data (Jooste and Long 2007), foamed bitumen stabilised layers
were characterised as follows in adapting the Austroads mechanistic design method:
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43
The effective long-term modulus of the foamed stabilised material was 600 MPa,
higher than moduli for granular materials and less than asphalt moduli.
The bottom 100mm of the foamed bitumen stabilised material was limited to not
more than about twice the modulus of the underlying material (adapted from the
modulus ratio concept discussed by Jooste and Long, 2007).
Unlike most other countries foamed bitumen stabilisation has been used in the United
Kingdom at traffic levels approaching the high levels in Indonesia. The minimum
surfacing requirements in the United Kingdom are summarised in Table A 1.
Table A 1: Requirements for surfacing thickness for TRL method
Road type category
Traffic design standard
(ESA x 106)
Minimum thickness of
surfacing (mm)
0
30 < Traffic < 80
100
1
10 < Traffic < 30
70
2
2.5 < Traffic < 10
50
3
0.5 < Traffic < 2.5
40
4
< 0.5
40
Source: Merrill et al. (2004).
Based on the United Kingdom surfacing requirements and after consideration of the
surfacings used in Indonesia, South Africa and Australia, Table A 2 describes the
proposed minimum surfacing requirements.
Table A 2: Minimum surfacing requirements over foamed bitumen stabilised materials
Design traffic
(ESA5 x 106)
Minimum surfacing
100mm comprising
>30
40mm AC WC
60mm AC Binder
10 < Traffic < 30
1 < Traffic < 10
<1
44
80mm comprising
2x40mm AC WC
40mm AC WC
30 HRS WC
or surface dressing
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ANNEXE 3: FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISATION
DESIGN CHARTS, DESIGN TRAFFIC UP
TO 108 ESA5
ANNEXE 3: FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISATION DESIGN
CHARTS, DESIGN TRAFFIC UP TO 108 ESA5
320
Foamed bitumen
200
Asphalt
300
180
280
160
Asphalt
Foamed bitumen
stabilised material
Remaining granular subbase
200 mm
Subgrade design
CBR =2.5
260
Foamed 240
bitumen
thickness 220
(mm)
140
120 Asphalt
thickness
100 (mm)
200
80
180
60
160
40
30 mm HRS Wearing Course
140
1.0E+05
1.0E+06
20
1.0E+08
1.0E+07
Design traffic (ESA5)
320
Foamed bitumen
200
Asphalt
300
180
280
160
260
Foamed 240
bitumen
thickness 220
(mm)
140
Asphalt
Foamed bitumen
stabilised material
Remaining granular subbase
150 mm
Subgrade design
CBR =3
120 Asphalt
thickness
100 (mm)
200
80
180
60
160
40
30 mm HRS Wearing Course
140
1.0E+05
1.0E+06
20
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
Design traffic (ESA5)
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45
320
300
280
260
Foamed Bitumen
Asphalt
Foamed bitumen
stabilised material
Remaining granular subbase
300 mm
Subgrade design
CBR =3
200
Asphalt
180
160
140
Asphalt
120 thickness
(mm)
Foamed 240
bitumen
thickness 220
(mm)
100
200
80
180
60
160
40
30 mm HRS Wearing Course
140
1.0E+05
1.0E+06
20
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
Design traffic (ESA5)
320
300
280
200
Foamed bitumen
Asphalt
Foamed bitumen
stabilised material
Remaining granular subbase
150 mm
Subgrade design
CBR =4
Asphalt
180
160
260
140
Foamed 240
bitumen
thickness 220
(mm)
120
Total
asphalt
thickness
100
(mm)
200
80
180
60
160
40
30 mm HRS Wearing Course
140
1.0E+05
1.0E+06
1.0E+07
20
1.0E+08
Design traffic (ESA5)
46
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ANNEXE 3: FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISATION
DESIGN CHARTS, DESIGN TRAFFIC UP
TO 108 ESA5
320
Foamed bitumen
Asphalt
Foamed bitumen
stabilised material
Remaining granular subbase
250 mm
Subgrade design
CBR =4
300
280
260
200
Asphalt
180
160
140
Total
asphalt
thickness
100 (mm)
120
Foamed 240
bitumen
thickness 220
(mm)
200
80
180
60
160
40
30 mm HRS Wearing Course
140
1.0E+05
1.0E+06
20
1.0E+08
1.0E+07
Design traffic (ESA5)
320
Foamed bitumen
Asphalt
Foamed bitumen
stabilised material
Remaining granular subbase
100 mm
Subgrade design
CBR =5
300
280
260
200
Asphalt
180
160
140
Foamed 240
bitumen
thickness 220
(mm)
120 Asphalt
thickness
100 (mm)
200
80
180
60
160
40
30 mm HRS Wearing Course
140
1.0E+05
1.0E+06
1.0E+07
20
1.0E+08
Design traffic (ESA5)
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47
320
Foamed bitumen
Asphalt
Foamed bitumen
stabilised material
Remaining granular subbase
100 mm
Subgrade design
CBR =6
300
280
200
Asphalt
180
160
260
140
Foamed 240
bitumen
thickness 220
(mm)
120 Asphalt
thickness
100 (mm)
200
80
180
60
160
40
30 mm HRS Wearing Course
140
1.0E+05
1.0E+06
1.0E+07
20
1.0E+08
Design traffic (ESA5)
48
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ANNEXE 4: FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISATION
8
DESIGN CHARTS, DESIGN TRAFFIC 10
9
TO 10 ESA5
ANNEXE 4: FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISATION DESIGN
CHARTS, DESIGN TRAFFIC 108 TO 109 ESA5
Subgrade CBR=3, Foamed stabilisation thickness 250 mm
300
290
280
270
100 mm granular subbase
260
150 mm granular subbase
200 mm granular subbase
250
Total
asphalt
240
thickness
(mm)
230
250 mm granular subbase
300 mm granular subbase
220
210
200
190
180
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
Subgrade CBR=3, Foamed stabilisation thickness 300 mm
300
290
100 mm granular subbase
280
200 mm granular subbase
270
300 mm granular subbase
260
250
Total
asphalt
240
thickness
(mm)
230
220
210
200
190
180
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
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Subgrade CBR=4, Foamed stabilisation thickness 250 mm
300
290
280
270
260
100 mm granular subbase
250
Total
asphalt
240
thickness
(mm)
230
150 mm granular subbase
200 mm granular subbase
300 mm granular subbase
220
210
200
190
180
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
Subgrade CBR=4, Foamed stabilisation thickness 300 mm
300
290
100 mm granular subbase
280
200 mm granular subbase
270
300 mm granular subbase
260
250
Total
asphalt
240
thickness
(mm)
230
220
210
200
190
180
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
50
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ANNEXE 4: FOAMED BITUMEN STABILISATION
8
DESIGN CHARTS, DESIGN TRAFFIC 10
9
TO 10 ESA5
Subgrade CBR=5, Foamed stabilisation thickness 250 mm
300
290
280
270
260
100 mm granular subbase
250
Total
asphalt
240
thickness
(mm)
230
150 mm granular subbase
200 mm granular subbase
300 mm granular subbase
220
210
200
190
180
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
Subgrade CBR=5, Foamed stabilisation thickness 300 mm
300
290
280
270
100 mm granular subbase
300 mm granular subbase
260
250
Total
asphalt
240
thickness
(mm)
230
220
210
200
190
180
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
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ANNEXE 5: CEMENT STABILISATION DESIGN CHARTS
300
290
280
270
Asphalt
Cement stabilised material
Remaining granular
subbase
150 mm
Subgrade design
CBR=2.5
150 mm CTSB
200 mm CTSB
250 mm CTSB
300 mm CTSB
260
250
Asphalt
240
thickness
(mm)
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
300
290
280
270
260
Asphalt
Cement stabilised material
Remaining granular
subbase
300 mm
Subgrade design
CBR=2.5
150 mm CTSB
200 mm CTSB
250 mm CTSB
300 mm CTSB
250
Asphalt
240
thickness
(mm)
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
52
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ANNEXE 5: CEMENT STABILISATION DESIGN
CHARTS
300
290
280
270
260
Asphalt
Cement stabilised material
Remaining granular
subbase
150 mm
Subgrade design
CBR=3
150 mm CTSB
200 mm CTSB
250 mm CTSB
300 mm CTSB
250
Asphalt
thickness 240
(mm) 230
220
210
200
190
180
170
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
300
290
280
270
Asphalt
Cement stabilised material
Remaining granular
subbase
300 mm
Subgrade design
CBR=3
150 mm CTSB
200 mm CTSB
250 mm CTSB
300 mm CTSB
260
250
Asphalt 240
thickness
(mm) 230
220
210
200
190
180
170
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
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300
290
280
270
260
Asphalt
Cement stabilised material
Remaining granular
subbase
150 mm
Subgrade design
CBR=4
150 mm CTSB
200 mm CTSB
250 mm CTSB
300 mm CTSB
250
Asphalt 240
thickness
(mm) 230
220
210
200
190
180
170
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
300
290
280
270
260
Asphalt
Cement stabilised material
Remaining granular
subbase
250 mm
Subgrade design
CBR=4
150 mm CTSB
200 mm CTSB
250 mm CTSB
300 mm CTSB
250
Asphalt 240
thickness
(mm) 230
220
210
200
190
180
170
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
54
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ANNEXE 5: CEMENT STABILISATION DESIGN
CHARTS
300
290
280
270
260
Asphalt
Cement stabilised material
Remaining granular
subbase
100 mm
Subgrade design
CBR=5
150 mm CTSB
200 mm CTSB
250 mm CTSB
300 mm CTSB
250
Asphalt 240
thickness
(mm) 230
220
210
200
190
180
170
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
300
290
280
270
260
150 mm CTSB
Asphalt
Cement stabilised material
Remaining granular
subbase
100 mm
Subgrade design
CBR=6
200 mm CTSB
250 mm CTSB
300 mm CTSB
250
Asphalt 240
thickness
(mm) 230
220
210
200
190
180
170
1.0E+07
1.0E+08
1.0E+09
Design traffic (ESA5)
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