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Behaviour of Car Drivers in Accidents used to Estimate the
Benefit of Car Antilock Brake System on Indian Highways
2015-26-0172
Published 01/14/2015
Girikumar Kumaresh
Robert Bosch Eng. & Business Solutions
Thomas Lich and Moennich Joerg
Robert Bosch GmbH
CITATION: Kumaresh, G., Lich, T., and Joerg, M., "Behaviour of Car Drivers in Accidents used to Estimate the Benefit of Car
Antilock Brake System on Indian Highways," SAE Technical Paper 2015-26-0172, 2015, doi:10.4271/2015-26-0172.
Copyright © 2015 SAE International and Copyright © SAEINDIA
Abstract
In the year of 2012 in India the total number of accidents with
injuries is registered by Ministry of Road Transport and Highway
with 490,383 out of which injured people are 509,667 and fatalities
are 138,258 [1]. Nearly 17% of the fatalities are occupants of
passenger cars which constitute the second highest contributor for
fatal accidents in India [1]. In order to understand the root causes for
car accidents in India, Bosch accident research carried out a study
based on in-depth accidents collected in India. Apart from other
accident contributing factors e.g. infrastructure the driver behaviour
and his actions few milliseconds just prior to the crash is an
extremely important and a key valuable data for the understanding of
accident causation. Further on it supports also the development of
modern automotive safety functions. Hence this research was
undertaken to evaluate the benefit of the state-of-the art vehicle safety
systems known as Antilock Braking System (ABS). Their capabilities
are mainly driven by the driver behaviour and support to avoid or
mitigate critical driving situations possibly leading to severe or fatal
accidents.
Keywords
telling another story. Out of the 138,258 fatalities more than 24,000
people (17%) were killed in a car. This results in a share of 1.1 fatal
per thousand vehicles. This is the second highest risk compared to
other vulnerable road users such as a rider of a motorized two
wheeler, pedestrians, bicyclists, etc.
Figure 1. Total number of registered motor vehicles in India (Trend 19812012) [2]
Passenger car driver behaviour, type of accidents, kind of accidents,
RASSI accident database, accident avoidance, Antilock Braking
System, Car Antilock Braking System
Introduction and Motivation
Traffic safety becomes more important in India due to increasing
fatality risk caused by the huge growth of registered vehicles recently.
As shown in Figure 1 besides powered two wheelers (72%) the
second largest share of registered vehicles in India with nearly
21,568,000 (15%) are cars.
Therefore it is expected that the number of killed people are even less
for this type of road user but the official statistics (see Figure 2)
Figure 2. Fatalities by type of road user categories
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When compared to buses and trucks with fatal per thousand vehicles
is 6.62 and 2.41 respectively. Thus the Government of India has
already mandated ABS for M3, N3 category of vehicles (Heavy
commercial vehicles) in the year 2014 (see Table 1).
with ABS than with disabled-ABS best effort attempts for
manoeuvres that involved braking and steering (or steering and
braking). Under these conditions, ABS prevented wheel lockup and
minimized yaw for all the experimental vehicles.
Table 1. Classification of fatal per thousand vehicles by vehicle type [2]
Analysis of the Victorian and Queensland data also identified an
estimated 18% decrease in the absolute risk of vehicle to vehicle
crash involvement for ABS equipped[6].
The effectiveness and efficiency of ABS is already proven in various
studies. Nevertheless for India conditions no research study or
publication was found. Hence this study aimed to estimate the
accident avoidance potential on Indian rural area by a car ABS
assuming a 100% installation rate for such safety system.
Accident Data Sources in India
To identify the root causes of these accidents further investigations
have to be taken into account - such as environmental effects, safety
awareness, vehicle issues and driver behaviour. Today's vehicles are
equipped with powerful and reliable braking systems that provide
excellent braking power even at high speeds. But even the best
braking system cannot prevent a driver from reacting incorrectly and
applying too little or too great a force to the brake pedal when driving
on Indian road conditions or when taken by surprise.
Major scope of this study is to understand the car driver behaviour
during pre-crash phase in real accident scenarios. Therefore a general
classification of the behaviour is used based on braking and steering
reaction during pre-crash event including all kinds of accidents.
Their avoidance characteristic supports the need of a state-of-the-art
vehicle safety system known as car ABS. By the detailed analysis of
on-spot investigated car accidents the collision avoidance manoeuvre
of the driver was linked to the vehicle safety system. Using either
reconstruction or retrospective evaluated parameters the accident
avoidance potential was then determined.
State of the Art
From the literature, ABS equipped vehicles were found to be
involved in fewer crashes with vehicles from adjacent, opposing or
the same direction proportionately compared to non-ABS equipped
vehicles. The statistical analysis of Australian data also identified an
estimated 18 percent decrease in the absolute risk of vehicle-tovehicle crash involvement for ABS equipped [3]. This result is
consistent with other research activities as identified by Hertz et. al.
in 1996 in a study of the effectiveness of ABS braking systems [4].
In Forkenbrock et. al. a comprehensive ABS test track performance
evaluation is described [5]. The vehicular stability was observed during
the stops made for this study was almost always found to be superior
with ABS. The study also establishes that antilock brake systems
include stopping distance versus vehicular stability compromises.
Most antilock brake systems maintain vehicular stability while
braking by minimizing excessive yaw. In a curve, this stability may
be created by sacrificing the shortest attainable stopping distance.
With this said, most test vehicles were stopped in shorter distances
Two important data sources are available, which are officially released
by the government of India. The first one is ‘Road Accidents in India’
by Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, Transport Research
Wing; this report contains key information on various aspects of road
accidents in the country during the calendar year [1]. The second one is
‘Accidental deaths and suicides in India’ brought out by National
Crime Records Bureau Ministry of Home Affairs. This report contains
comprehensive data on a range of aspects of deaths due to accidents
and suicides one such aspect is traffic accidents [7].
Official data sets preliminary the base for accident research purposes.
The official database mainly covers macro level view of the accident
situation in India hence the above two reports are not sufficient for
detailed analysis of the road traffic accident and driver behaviour in
India [8].
In order to understand the Indian car driver behaviour and moreover
the root causes of accidents, micro-accident data out of in-depth
accident investigation is needed. Such data is provided by the RASSI
project (Road Accident Sampling System for India) [9] [10]. Since
2009, accidents with injuries were surveyed within India around the
region of Coimbatore, Mumbai-Pune Express highway and Gujarat
recently. Therefore RASSI is also the name of the relational accident
database developed to record the scientific data from on-spot accident
investigations. The database currently contains more than 1,000
accidents with about 750 parameters (including reconstruction data)
per accident from three locations throughout India (Status 2014).
Methodology
The analysis is based on 458 completed cases out from the 2013
release of the RASSI database. Out of 458 accidents 216 accidents
are included where a passenger car was involved in the crash. As first
the accident situation is analyzed using the type of accident to
determine the most conflict situations in which cars involved in
accidents. The type of accident describes the conflict situation leading
to the collision, thus this parameter is used to identify potentials of
active safety systems, such as ABS.
By a single cases analysis each of the car accident was assessed and
results are referenced to this selection (216 car accidents are set to
100%). Less than 8% of the cars were installed with ABS in involved
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car accident. These collision scenarios were found not to be ABS
relevant accidents, thus their evaluation was not taken into account in
this study.
Along with the vehicle damage and personal injuries, information
from prior to the accident also is obtained based on the fact that the
accidents documented in detail and high share is reconstructed.
Therefore, physical information regarding the post crash phase is
available and essential for the assessment of the effectiveness of
active and/or passive vehicle safety systems.
any lateral traction forces and a possible steering manoeuvre has no
effect. The vehicle gets unstable and uncontrollable, the locking of
rear tyres or μ-split or is not steerable in case of locking front tyres
and the vehicle no longer reacts to the steering input of the driver.
In a vehicle equipped with an ABS (Figure 4), the ABS control unit
constantly evaluates the speed of all wheels by using wheel-speed
sensors.
To determine the driver behaviour following classification of the
avoidance manoeuvres is done: The driver would have tried to avoid
the collision only by braking, by steering or both by brake and
steering. Braking includes: Full braking with lock up, partial braking
with or without lock up. Steering includes: Steering left or right. The
above manoeuvres can be identified by close examination of accident
scaled sketches and pictures taken during the on-spot investigation.
In parallel for each accident its relevance for a passenger car ABS
was proofed. This was done by excluding accident scenarios whereas
a benefit from this safety system is not given or where other root
causes where identified - these are as followed:
•
sudden physical disability of the driver
•
sleepiness (falling asleep) or distraction
•
by parking vehicle
•
accelerating due to panic at the time of accidents
Thus the so called Field of effect for the passenger car ABS is defined as
“All relevant car accidents whereas antilock brake intervention possible”.
Linking driver behaviour and avoidance potential of ABS was then
assessed afterwards which results then in an estimated accident
avoidance potential of car ABS on Indian highways.
ABS - Working Principle
The critical situation prior to accidents involving cars can be broadly
classified into the following categories: In emergency situation e.g. an
obstacle appearing suddenly or another vehicle in front braking
abruptly, driver brakes and there is acute need of longer braking
distances. Secondly in critical avoidance manoeuvre the driver needs
stability while evasive steering and braking at the same time. Thirdly
on different surface conditions e.g. partly wet or dirty are extremely
dangerous. When braking on such varying road surfaces the braking
powers vary considerably particularly on front wheels, hence the
driver needs stability while emergency braking - see also in Figure 3.
Figure 4. Components of a car Antilock-Braking System
If ABS detects the tendency of one or more wheels to lock during
braking, it adjusts the brake pressure at each individual wheel. In this
way ABS prevents the wheels from locking. This enables the driver
to avoid obstacles even during full braking, and to slow down or stop
the vehicle quickly and safely.
Accident Situation Involving Cars
The type of accident describes the conflict situation which resulted in
the accident. Hence it is the first step to identify root causes of
accidents during pre-crash phase. Every accident within the RASSI
database is classified by different types of accident which is defined
in an accident classification system1.
As shown in Figure 5, highest shares (45%) of accidents on Indian
highways with passenger car involvement are accidents in lateral
traffic; head on conflicts against a leading vehicle, followed by 13%
of accidents are other type. Nearly 8% of the accidents are driving
accidents and the major cause is loss of control. Other 6% of
accidents are conflicts with crossing pedestrians.
Figure 3. Car behaviour in critical driving situations
All of the above emergency braking situations, the braking force
applied by the driver may be greater than that which the tyre can
handle resulting in wheel lock. The tyres can now no longer transfer
Figure 5. Accidents with casualties by type of accident [13]
1. Based on GDV (German Insurance Association) [11]
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Having a closer look on the most critical situations with car
involvement accidents in lateral traffic, more than 61% of all
passenger car involved accidents is listed in the below Table 2. Most
critical situation encountered prior to crash are during improper
overtaking on undivided roads, accidents due to turning into or
crossing the road, accident are caused due to turning off the road,
accidents are due to head on encounters due to improper usage of
lanes on an undivided roads and accidents encounter front rear
impacts on the same lane of the road.
operating characteristics. Secondly, generally drivers in India do not
follow lanes i.e., the traffic streams do not have lane discipline.
Therefore the driving pattern also changes in India”.
Table 2. Most critical situations with passenger car involvement on Indian
highways
As a first outcome of the analysis it was determined that about 51%
of the driver attempted to brake, steer or both prior to crash. (51% is
minimum because possible other case data are unknown) This result
so far encourages that a support of the driver from a vehicle safety
system can be given in nearly every second accident where a car is
involved on Indian highways because a driver reaction is determined.
In Table 3 the results of the retrospective determined driver behaviour
is shown in more detail.
The driver reactions were analyzed in 216 accident situations in
RASSI database in which at least one passenger car is involved in
accident. For each accident within the field of effect, possible
deceleration and brake distances were evaluated using the evidence
from on-spot investigation.
Table 3. Avoidance manoeuvre of car drivers during pre-crash phase in
emergency situation of car accidents on Indian highways
Car Driver Behaviour during the Pre-Crash
Phase
Indian driver behaviour is quite different from other countries driving
behaviour; unfortunately the large body of literature that exists in the
area of driver behaviour models cannot be used as is in countries like
India due to the following reasons. As per citation [12] “Firstly,
traffic includes innumerable classes of vehicles having different
During the pre-crash phase nearly 7% of Indian car drivers apply full
braking, 44% of the drivers attempted steering or steering and braking
due to the fact the driver need to avoid the accident by some kind of
critical pre-crash manoeuvres irrespective of lanes, this behaviour is
unique for India in comparison with other countries. It is observed that
in emergency braking situations the brake pedal is not used to have a
complete stop of the vehicle. It seems to be used to try to control the
situation by a decrease of the speed and an action on the steering
wheel. This can be clearly seen in 44% of accidents. Within 44% of the
above behaviour, 18% of driver attempted full braking along with
steering, which resulted in complete wheel lockup, 12% driver
attempted partial braking along with steering, 14% of drivers attempted
only steering. Nearly 33% of the drivers do not attempt any pre-crash
manoeuvre; approximately 16% of the accident cases were unknown
since the data was not available for the analysis.
To conclude the results Figure 6 shows the summarized driver
behaviour during the pre-crash phase. Need for support by a vehicle
safety system e.g. ABS can be found in a share of 53% of all real
accidents. In these cases the driver could interact with a safety system
significantly.
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Figure 6. Car driver avoidance manoeuvres during emergency situations
In about 1/3rd of all collision no avoidance manoeuvre was attempted
thus this results in further potential for other vehicle safety systems
such as a Driver assistant system e.g. collisions warning system or
automatic braking system.
As shown in Figure 8, the accident reconstruction determined, the
accident is related to ABS, in the above case in emergency braking,
the braking force applied by the driver may be greater than that which
the tyre can handle resulting in wheel lock. The tyres can now no
longer transfer any lateral traction forces. The car became unstable,
uncontrollable, steering impossible and the car no longer reacts to the
steering input of the driver. The crashed car was not equipped with
the ABS safety feature.
A simulation of this accident shows the accident could have been
avoided if the vehicle would have been equipped with ABS (Figure 9)
Single Case Example
The emergency braking situation with complete wheel lock up for a
passenger car process shall be exemplified by implementing antilock
braking system to mitigate or avoid the accident. Figure 7 shows a
documented accident in the RASSI database. This was an accident
with complete wheel lock during an avoidance manoeuvre.
Figure 7. Car ABS relevant single case example, RASSI Case No. 91-2011007-706 [13]
Case Description: Car involving four occupants had offset frontal
impact to an unattended trailer detached from tractor, which was
stopped in left side of the travel lane. More than 15 meters dark
patches tyre marks of the avoidance manoeuvre and the collision with
unattended trailer clearly visible on the scene. The car was travelling
at 86 Km/h (reconstructed value), there was an attempt to steer while
full braking. Hence the collision velocity was close to 60 Km/h
(reconstructed value). Change of direction of the tyre mark
indentations is clear indicator for steering manoeuvre which was not
effective in avoidance, this can be seen from the tyre marks patterns
on the road and this evidence proves the car driver attempted full
braking and steering to avoid the collision, but unfortunately could
not stop the car on time.
Figure 8. Simulation of RASSI Case No. 91-2011-007-706
Figure 9. Simulation of case example RASSI case No. 91-2011-007-706assuming ABS equipment [13]
The car which was travelling in its lane and braked hard on seeing the
trailer, in a vehicle equipped with car ABS, wheel-speed sensors
measure the speed of rotation of the wheels and pass this information
to the ABS control unit. If the ABS control unit detects that one or
more wheels are tending to lock, it intervenes within milliseconds by
modulating the braking pressure on each individual wheel. ABS
consequently prevents the wheels from locking and ensures safe
braking. The vehicle remains steerable and stable in case of full
braking. The stopping distance is also usually reduced. In the above
case car would have avoided the offset frontal impact to an
unattended trailer detached from tractor completely.
Besides the importance of this example case to “Vehicle safety” this
case shows also a relevance to “Safety awareness and education”.
Such as a parking the trailer detached from tractor and trucks, parking
on the side of the travel lane in roads etc. Lack in infrastructure (e.g.
pole accidents, lack of parking bays), needed education (seat belt
usage, helmet usage, unintentional parking) and vehicle safety
systems (active and passive safety systems) could be derived as
important factors in order to improve traffic safety in India.
Benefit Estimation
In order to estimate the benefit of ABS at first the real time driver
behaviour pattern helps to understand the typical Indian passenger car
driver braking patterns during pre-crash phase. It is apparent that the
variety of different accident scenarios tends to be complex if they were
to be analyzed in detail. Nevertheless to gain the benefit for ABS as a
safety function, few assumptions were made. These are as followed:
Car driver applies brake to avoid the collision and also car driver at
least attempts to steer while braking to avoid the collision. The
collision speeds are recalculated by taking driver reaction using
RASSI database [13] and hypothetical driver reaction is considered
into account. Detailed single cases were investigated for ABS
relevance and accident avoidance potential with in the field of effect
of accidents in RASSI database. The judgment based on the
evidences from the crash site like identification of avoidance
manoeuvres prior to crash, brake marks with lockup and without
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lockup and steering, collision points and final positions etc.
Furthermore, type of braking as well as deceleration level by driver
initiated braking is established. In the end, the collision speed, the
distance to stop, availability of free space on either of the lanes and
other relevant parameters are considers drawing the result for the
benefit of ABS.
It is seen from the above benefit estimation methodology, 14% all car
accidents with casualties on Indian highways could be avoided by a
car ABS which enables steer-ability while applying the brakes. 6% of
all car accidents with casualties on Indian highways could be avoided
by a car ABS which reduces the braking distance. In a share of 20%
of all car accidents with casualties on Indian Highways could be
avoided by a car ABS. In other words every 5th accident in Indian
Highway can be altogether avoided by intervention of ABS and more
than 10% of accidents have probable avoidance potential by braking
and steering. The below Figure 10 clearly shows the ABS benefit
estimation.
Conclusion
As a first step in-depth RASSI (Road Accident Sampling System
India) accident data is used to derive the crash avoidance behaviour
of car drivers on Indian highways and also the benefit of passenger
car ABS. The study done is only the first estimate by judgement
based on the scene evidences.
The benefit of passenger car ABS on Indian highway roads is
estimated to be 20% of all accidents with casualties involving a
passenger car. 14% all car accidents with casualties on Indian
highways could be avoided by a car ABS when driver attempt to steer
while applying the brakes to avoid the collision. Nearly 6% all car
accidents with casualties on Indian highways could be avoided by a
car ABS when driver attempt to for full braking in turn reducing the
braking distance. Active safety systems like ABS always maintain
steerability & vehicle stability while an emergency braking.
For methods used for evaluate the effect of traffic safety is of high
importance that the methods encourage future development and
improvements. Furthermore, it is of high important to have access to
the accident data for analyses of traffic safety related issues like
infrastructure and vehicle safety systems.
As mandated by Government of India for Installation of ABS in
commercial vehicles coming year the next logical step would be to
consider also an ABS for passenger cars to reduce the high number of
fatalities on Indian roads.
Figure 10. Car ABS benefit estimated on Indian highways assuming a 100%
penetration
Summary and Outlook
This study has attempted to identify the crash avoidance behaviour of
car drivers on Indian highways and also to estimate the benefit of
ABS in terms of vehicle safety. The requirement to examine only
passenger cars where ABS is an option and not fitted as standard, this
led to limited availability of data to see the direct benefit of cars fitted
with ABS as standard fitment.
Nearly 24,000 occupants inside car died in car accidents in India
alone, this constitutes 17% of all fatalities are from passenger cars
involved accidents in India for the year 2012[1].
Since the available accident reports [1] [7] are not sufficient to
understand the road traffic accident and driver behaviour in India,
RASSI accident database is used [13]. 458 RASSI cases where in 216
accidents with casualties involved passenger cars were analyzed in
detail to understand the driving behaviour of Indian passenger car
drivers on Indian highways.
The passenger car driver behaviour analysis shows 44% of the drivers
attempted an avoidance manoeuvre by steering along with braking,
while 7% of driver applied full braking, this is unique driving
behaviour of Indian car drivers compared to other countries.
39% of all accidents involving passenger cars accidents have high
probability of accident avoidance by intervention of ABS in Field of
effect.
In order to validate the results of these analysis further studies on a larger
scale should be made to validate and confirm the results of this study.
Further on data on urban area should be considered in such studies.
References
1.
Road Accidents In India 2012, Government of India, Ministry of
Road Transport and Highways, Transport Research Wing, New
Delhi. http://morth.nic.in/.
2.
Open Government data (OGD) platform, http://data.gov.in/
catalog/.
3.
Delaney Amanda; Stuart Newstead in Vehicle Safety Devices
“The Effectiveness of Anti-Lock Brake Systems: a statistical
analysis of Australian data” Monash University Accident
Research Centre.
4.
Hertz, Ellen; et.al.;“Analysis of the crash experience of vehicles
equipped with antilock braking systems”, ESV conference 1996,
p.1392-1395 96-S9-O-03.
5.
Forkenbrock, G., Flick, M., and Garrott, W., “A Comprehensive
Light Vehicle Antilock Brake System Test Track Performance
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Burton David etal. “Effectiveness of ABS and Vehicle Stability
Control Systems” Royal Automobile Club of Victoria. April
2004, ISBN 1 875963 39 1.
7.
Accidental Deaths and Suicides in India' 2012, National
crime records bureau, Government of India. http://ncrb.nic.in/
ADSI2010/ADSI2010-full-report.pdf.
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Kumaresh, G., Lich, T., Moennich, J., and Georgi, A.,
“Representativeness and Weighting Methods of Real Time
Accident Data in India,” SAE Technical Paper 2013-26-0022,
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Mönnich J.; Lich T.; Georgi A.; Kumaresh G., “How to evaluate
the accident situation in India?” 5th international Expert
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M.; Rajaraman R.; Padmanaban J., The New In-Depth, At-theScene, Accident Investigation Database in India” International
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Insurance Association, “Leitfaden zur Bestimmung des
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0724-3693, 1998.
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Contact Information
Mr. Girikumar K
Specialist - Accident Research
Robert Bosch Engineering and Business Solutions Limited
Engineering Occupant Safety (RBEI/ESA)
Gold Hill Square, No. 690, Bommanahalli.
Bangalore - 560 068, INDIA
[email protected]
Mr. Thomas Lich
Project Manager and Senior Specialist for Accident Research
Corporate Research and Advance Engineering
Vehicle Safety and Assistance Systems (CR/AEV)
Robert Bosch Corporation
P.O. Box 30 02 40
70442 Stuttgart
GERMANY
[email protected]
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the RASSI consortium members
2014 for their support in this project.
(RASSI consortium members 2014: JPRI, Daimler, Nissan, Renault,
Hyundai, Honda, Bosch)
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